As President George W. Bush explained in a speech at the U.S. Military Academy in June 2002, U.S. security requires a military "ready to strike at a moment's notice in any dark corner of the world." During the past year, the Marine Corps' distinguished heritage of innovation was extended further. It explored creative operational concepts, promoted new technologies, and altered organizations to provide the timely crisis-response tools the nation needs. Heeding the Commander-in-Chief's call for substantive adaptation, the Corps sharpened its fighting edge as the nation's force-in-readiness for a wider range of future contingencies—while simultaneously finding itself engaged "in every clime and place."
Reflecting their expeditionary character and high degree of readiness. Marines were on hand wherever danger lurked last year. The Marine Corps continued to play a key role in preserving order worldwide and in operations supporting the global war on terrorism. Marine units operated in diverse locations: the mountains of Afghanistan, desert locations around the Persian Gulf and Horn of Africa, and islands in the Philippines. They also maintained regular forward-presence and exercise commitments around the world, thereby underpinning U.S. national security interests.
Combat Operations
The year began with Marines still deeply engaged in Afghanistan. The Camp Pendleton, California-based 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable) [MEU (SOC)], commanded by Colonel Tom Waldhauser, finally back-loaded from Camp Rhino to the Peleliu (LHA-5) Amphibious Ready Group (ARG) in mid-January after extensive operations as part of Task Force (TF) 58. On the way home, the MEU enjoyed a well-earned trip to Perth and Sydney, Australia, in early March.
The men and women of the 13th MEU (SOC), another West Coast unit, also look part in Operation Enduring Freedom during their deployment to the U.S. Central Command's area of responsibility. The work-up cycle and deployment for MEU Marines were accelerated after 11 September 2001; they deployed on 1 December 2001, a few weeks earlier than planned. Their most significant contribution came during Operation Anaconda, 4-26 March, when they launched a series of air assaults on fortified enemy positions in Khowst and the Shah-e-Kot Valley. During this period, the MEU provided a detachment of AH-1W Super Cobras, CH-53K Super Stallions, and KC-130 Hercules to support ongoing ground operations. The Bonhomme Richard (LHD-6) ARG sprinted forward to the northern Arabian Sea and launched a detachment from the 13th MEU's aviation combat element.
The Super Cobras flew 217 sorties against enemy positions in the difficult, high-altitude Afghanistani terrain. Flying 380 flight hours, the attack helicopters launched 100 tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided (TOW) and Hellfire missiles, and fired 9,300 rounds of 20-mm shells at enemy positions. The Super Stallions provided logistics and refueling support during their 191 combat sorties, including insertion of and support to special operations forces. In addition to Anaconda operations, the 13th MEU's AV-8B Harriers flew 148 combat sorties. The aviation detachment that supported Army units was recognized at a ceremony by Major General F. L. Hagenbeck, U.S. Army, the commander of Joint Task Force-Mountain. Both during and after combat assignments, the 13th MEU conducted training with Qatar's mechanized forces during Exercise Easter Maverick and with Kenyan ground troops during Exercise Edged Mallet.
The 13th MEU was relieved by the Camp Pendleton-based 11th MEU (SOC) in early summer. Embarked in the Belleau Wood (LHA-3) ARG, the 11th MEU, commanded by Colonel Anthony M. Haslam, had an extremely busy deployment. The ARG and MEU spent nearly the entire time conducting split operations in different areas of the theater: the Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, and Red Sea.
East Coast Marines made their presence felt around the globe as well. In early February, the tired Marines of 26th MEU (SOC), commanded by Colonel Andrew P. Frick, backloaded to the Bataan (LHD-5) ARG. As part of TF 58, the 26th MEU greatly extended the capability that Marines call "operational reach" when it conducted combat operations deep into northern Afghanistan. Belying the mistaken perception that the Corps could conduct only limited operations along littoral regions of the world, the Camp Lejeune, North Carolina-based MEU reached out and touched Taliban and al Qaeda positions, convoys, and suspected hiding sites more than 600 miles away. These operations were consistent with the Corps' capstone operating concept of expeditionary maneuver warfare, a unique approach that blends its warfighting philosophy and expeditionary skills into an adaptive, integrated combat force.
Success in Afghanistan was a team effort. This conclusion was echoed by Lieutenant Colonel Jerome M. Lynes, who commanded Battalion landing Team 3/6, the ground combat clement of the 26th MEU. He summarized his tour in a post-operations interview:
Operations Enduring Freedom and Swift Freedom validated the synergy of the Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF). The movement of the battalion landing team from ship to objective at an operation distance of hundreds of miles was due largely to our amazing air combat element, Medium Helicopter Squadron 365. The "Blue Knights" put my Marines on the ground everywhere the mission called for, in all kinds of terrain and conditions. They never saw a mission they couldn't handle.
The 26th MEU passed its responsibilities in the region to 22d MEU (SOC) on board the Wasp (LHD-1) ARG in early March. After a brief stop in Crete, the 22d MEU, commanded by Colonel Paul E. Lefebvre, headed into the Red Sea on its way to Central Command's area. While some of his Marines were enjoying that respite, a detachment of Colonel Lefebvre's aviators participated in Exercise Infinite Anvil, a bilateral event between the ARG-MEU and the Royal Jordanian Air Force. Next, the MEU began several months of operations at undisclosed locations in support of the global war on terrorism. In addition to those missions, it conducted a lengthy training exercise in the East African country of Djibouti (called "The Devil's Cauldron" because of the arid environment). The Djibouti evolution included live-fire and maneuver training, and numerous humanitarian assistance and medical and dental projects.
Other Operations and Exercises
In late September, one part of the 11th MEU executed a training evolution in Jordan, while another participated in a major exercise, Eager Mace, in Kuwait. Because the potential for conflict with Iraq loomed over the Marines' heads, Eager Mace provided an opportunity to conduct day-and-night firing under desert conditions. In the course of training on Faylaka Island, a group of MEU Marines was ambushed by terrorists. Corporal Antonia J. Sledd died of his wounds and two attackers were killed by counterfire. At the time, the remainder of the force was positioned off Yemen in support of missions near the Horn of Africa.
In addition to exercises with various allies in the region, the 11th MEU carried out a series of humanitarian tasks in Djibouti. During the return transit to the United States, Marines and sailors of the MEU and ARG stopped in Aidabaleten, East Timor, for further humanitarian assistance projects in that newly independent state.
Leathernecks of the Camp Lejeune-based 24th MEU (SOC) left home in September and took up the normal Landing Force Sixth Fleet commitment. In late September, the MEU participated in riot control training with the German Army in Prizren, Kosovo, and impressed the Germans with its noncommissioned officer leadership and highly realistic training. The MEU also participated in Operation Dynamic Response 2002 in Kosovo as part of the ongoing peacekeeping mission there.
In late November, a detachment of 300 24th MEU Marines and sailors deployed to Kenya as part of the Edged Mallet series of training and humanitarian assistance projects. The MEU's projects were curtailed for a period because of two terrorist attacks on Israeli tourists in Mombassa, which occurred the day after the detachment's arrival.
The Okinawa-based 31st MEU (SOC), commanded by Colonel Mike Lowe, maintained a frantic pace during the year. The highlight of its cruise was participation in Exercise Cobra Gold 2002 in Thailand, 14-18 May. Designed to promote regional peace and strengthen the Thai armed forces, Cobra Gold is one of the largest exercises in the Pacific region. In addition to familiarization and cross training with Thai troops, the 31st MEU worked with its counterparts on military operations in urban terrain. Marines of the ground combat element, Battalion Landing Team 3/5, were most impressed with the Thai's skills. Earlier, the MEU conducted Balikatan 02-2 in the Republic of the Philippines, from 22 April to 6 May. This was the 18th event in the annual exercise series, and more than 2,700 U.S. service members and the same number of Philippine troops were involved. During the various events, Marines were able to demonstrate their expertise in fire and maneuver, close-quarters combat, and martial arts.
Later in November, the 31st MEU lent a hand in East Timor. Teamed with the sailors of the USS Harpers Ferry (LSD-49), it undertook numerous humanitarian and civic assistance projects. Following those events, the permanently forward-deployed MEU conducted extensive training with Korean allies during Exercise Foal Eagle 2002.
In December, more than 300 Marines from the 1st Battalion, 23rd Marines, returned from the annual UNITAS (Latin for unity) training deployment to South America. This year's evolution took a composite Marine unit of reservists from Texas, Virginia, and Florida to the humid jungles of the Amazon River and then to the snowcapped Andes. These Marines composed the first reserve unit to conduct an annual exercise that fosters bilateral training and cooperation between U.S. forces and many South American maritime services. Departing from Camp Lejeune on board the Portland (LSD-37), the detachment traveled south to Panama, transited the canal, and then circumnavigated the South American continent. The four-month-long cruise included training events in Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and Ecuador.
The Marine Corps continued to add its strength to national counterdrug efforts in 2002 by supporting Joint Task Force (JTF) 6, Joint Interagency Task Force-East, and Joint Interagency Task Force-West. In addition to active-duty participation, the Marine Corps Reserve assigned many units to this part of the nation's security effort. Further, the Corps provided quick reaction forces and logistics support to JTF 160 at Guantamano Bay, Cuba. This joint force, commanded by Marine Brigadier General Michael Lehnert, was responsible for guarding captured Taliban and al Qaeda prisoners. Finally, as the Gulf build-up started in November, Major General John F. Sattler, Commanding General, 2d Marine Division, was assigned command of JTF-Horn of Africa. General Sattler and his task force were positioned to take part in U.S. efforts to support friendly governments striving to eradicate al Qaeda cells.
By way of joint and combined exercises—such as Millennium Challenge in the United States, Ulchi Focus Lens in Korea, and Infinite Moonlight in Jordan—Marines advanced critical U.S. interests, enhanced their own capabilities, and increased their interoperability with allied forces. Their well-honed expeditionary skills came to the fore as the year ended, when roughly two-thirds of the Corps' combat power was positioned in the Middle East.
4th MEB (AT)
The 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade (Anti-Terrorism), headquartered at Camp Lejeune, continued its security missions at the U.S. embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan. In July, the MEB was recognized formally by the State Department for its dedicated efforts during Operation Enduring Freedom. Ambassador Ryan Crocker, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs, traveled to Camp Lejeune and presented a State Department award to one of the MEB's companies. Ambassador Crocker, the acting ambassador in Kabul, thanked the unit for its extraordinary service.
During the year, the brigade's component elements—including the Chemical-Biological Incident Response Force—continued to hone their skills and provided units for various homeland defense missions. As the situation in Iraq heated up, the 4th MEB (AT) applied its unique skills to numerous force protection and antiterrorism missions in Europe and the Middle East.
Experimentation
Today's Department of Defense (DoD) has two primary goals: dealing with global terrorism and transforming the military services for tomorrow's security challenges. The latter challenge is the focus of the Marine Corps Combat Development Command (MCCDC) at Quantico, Virginia, commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Hanlon Jr., which hosts most of the Corp's innovative efforts and major educational institutions.
The keepers of the vision for tomorrow and the drivers behind the most creative operating concepts are the Marines and civilians of the MCCDC's newly organized Expeditionary Force Development Center (EFDC) under Brigadier General Kenneth Glueck. Aside from integrating the myriad components that make up Quantico's combat development responsibilities, Genral Glueck's team completed two major projects during 2002. First, in coordination with the Chief of Naval Operation's staff, the EFDC developed the Navy Department's Naval Transformation Roadmap. This effort will substantially shape naval warfare development efforts for the next decade. Second, in tandem with the Naval Warfare Development Command, the EFDC developed a revolutionary concept called enhanced networked sea basing, an initiative that captured the attention of senior leaders throughout DoD. Within the concepts set forth in "Expeditionary Maneuver Warfare" and "Sea Power 21," the Navy-Marine Corps team will attain a greater level of integration and thereby increase both services' abilities to project power ashore.
The Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL), under the command of Brigadier General Frank Panter, continued to burnish its reputation as an engine for change. During 2002, it could have been described as MCCDC's deep reconnaissance element. But the year also showed that the "lab" does more than identify surfaces and gaps—it helps puts intellectual steel on target and assists in the complex process of quickly getting useful hardware in the hands of Marines. Last year, its service experimentation cycle was shifted to better support the joint warfare community.
- Millennium Dragon 2002. The lab designed and executed Millennium Dragon 2002 as the Marine Corps' portion of Joint Forces Command's Millennium Challenge 2002 experiment. Conducted at Marine Corps Base, Camp Pendleton, and at the former George Air Force Base in Victorville, California, Millennium Dragon included a ship-to-objective maneuver, a series of limited objective experiments aimed at specific technologies, and concluded with a 96-hour urban combined arms experiment with units of Camp Pendleton's I Marine Expeditionary Force.
- Smaller Experiments. Here planners focused on urban reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition; emerging command, control, and communication capabilities; a lighter and more efficient surgical care facility; and a combat identification system for infantrymen.
- Field Use. Many MCWL concepts and technologies were used in Operation Enduring Freedom. The lab's urban warfare work is recognized internationally, and Marines used the resulting training and tactics packages in preparing for combat in Iraq. Several pieces of equipment used in Southwest Asia—such as the Dragon Eye unmanned aerial vehicle and personal role radios—stem directly from its experiments. Before the war with Iraq, the chief of staff, Colonel Barry Ford, predicted the backpack-portable, Kevlar-skinned Dragon Eye would prove itself in the next Gulf conflict and fill a critical capability gap. He quipped, "a company commander in the last Gulf War had no more idea of what was over the next hill than Robert E. Lee approaching Gettysburg."
- Sea Viking. A series of experiments scheduled over the next six years, Sea Viking is designed to convert the ship-to-objective maneuver concept into operational reality. Sea Viking 2004 will begin the series by enhancing the capabilities of an ARG-MEU team deploying in 2005. It will emphasize the "on-the-move and over-the-horizon" command and control needed to effectively employ future capabilities such as the MV-22 Osprey and the advanced amphibious assault vehicle (AAAV).
The MCWL's Wargaming Division arms the Corps' senior leadership with insights from a range of wargaming activities and seminars. For example, it conducted a series of focused "fast train" events that brought in selected outside experts for brief but intense workshops on pending political-military problems. Lessons learned from these events were transmitted rapidly to commanders in the field and received warmly. The division recently revived its service-level program with a game called Expeditionary Warrior that explores the operational and tactical dimensions of pre-emptive operations in concert with special operations representatives.
The Center for Emerging Threats and Opportunities is a think tank devoted to developing long-range ideas for the Marine Corps. Established in November 2000, this lab division develops ideas and investigates promising technologies. The center tackled a broad range of issues in 2002, from assisting in development of an enhanced blast weapons capability, to updating the Corps' seminal Small Wars Manual. At the same time, the center assessed broader issues such as transformation and organizational designs.
Programs and Resources
Thanks to congressional support, the Corps' critical resource requirements were covered in the 2002 budget. Even so, the higher operating costs of the global war on terrorism and deployments in the Gulf negated much of the short-term relief. On the plus side, major Marine Corps programs fared well, both in the halls of Congress and in operating tests.
Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle. This top priority ground acquisition program progressed in 2002. Currently in the engineering and manufacturing development phase, the AAAV offers a profound operational capability increase over its dated predecessor—powerful water-jet engines give it a top speed of 25 miles per hour, quadrupling Marines' speed in ship-to-shore maneuver. Once ashore, the AAAV's overland speed of 45 miles per hour, armor protection, and nuclear, biological, and chemical systems give it a decided edge, and the 30-mm Bushmaster main gun increases its lethality substantially. Although the AAAV completed ocean surf tests in California last year, the program has slipped another year to 2008 to permit further testing and potential design changes. Despite its advantages, further delays and cost growth could imperil this program.
MV-22. The Corps' number one aviation priority remains the revolutionary tilt-rotor MV-22 Osprey, which will replace aging fleets of CH-46E Sea Knight and CH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters. While fulfilling the Marine's critical medium-lift needs, the MV-22's markedly increased capabilities also will provide radically new tactical and operational opportunities. With the Osprey, Marine forces operating from an independent sea base will be able to combine long-range maneuver and strategic surprise with a potent forcible-entry capability. On 29 May 2002, the Marines resumed flying the Ospreys for the first time since the major accident of December 2000. This flight initiated an 1,800-hour development flight program to test avionics and hydraulic changes and examine the vortex ring state problem that led to tragic mishaps earlier in the program. During 2002, Osprey pilots resumed proficiency training and flew more than 250 flight hours. At-sea tests on board the Iwo Jima (LHD-7) were conducted in January 2003; they indicated the program was on track for crucial program reviews and scrutiny later this year.
Joint Strike Fighter. The JSF remains high on the priority list as the replacement for the AV-8B and F/A-18. The Corps prefers the short take-off and vertical landing version capable of operating from large-deck amphibious ships, austere sites, and forward-operating bases.
Recruiting Achievements
In recognition that the human dimension of warfare is paramount, recruiting is the Marine Corps' most important acquisition effort. And, once again, Marine recruiters filled the ranks with high-quality men and women. The Marine Corps Recruiting Command (MCRC) has met or exceeded its enlisted recruiting goals for the past 7 years and its officer goals for the past 12 years. The MCRC's inventive approaches and dedicated performance made all the difference—the results speak for themselves.
In fiscal year 2002, the Corps achieved 102.6% of enlisted contracting and 100.3% of enlisted shipping objectives. More than 97% of the Marine enlistees shipped to recruit training were Tier-1 high school graduates, well above the DoD and Marine Corps standards of 90% and 95%, respectively. In addition, 69% were in the I-IIIA upper mental group—again well above the established DoD and Marine Corps standards of 60% and 63%, respectively.
Tenure of the 32nd Commandant
One of the most surprising events of the year was the President's nomination of General James L. Jones Jr. as the new Commander, U.S. European Command, and as Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEur). General Jones was the first Marine to be nominated for a unified combatant command after his tour as Commandant, and he is the first Marine to serve as SACEur. He was confirmed by the Senate in November, as was his replacement, General Michael W. Hagee, who had been preparing I Marine Expeditionary Force for operations against Iraq.
General Jones's appointment was applauded widely because his strategic, military, and diplomatic skills matched the complexities of NATO so well. His departure led naturally to assessments of his tenure, with some observers focusing narrowly on popular initiatives, including new camouflage utilities and the martial arts program. But these post-tour analyses overlook important and longer lasting institutional changes that will affect the Marine Corps and U.S. national security interests for years to come.
General Jones steadily built professional and personal relationships with key personnel in the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of the Navy, and the Joint Staff. During his first year, in the midst of the Quadrennial Defense Review, these links paid off. In addition, they laid the groundwork for Navy-Marine Corps tactical air integration and funding increases for the Corps.
General Jones reinforced his efforts by initiating a series of warfighting talks with the Army and Air Force that he continued throughout his tenure. These bilateral discussions helped clarify misunderstandings and led to numerous beneficial exchanges at the lower levels of each service. He also worked to create a better relationship with the Coast Guard by hosting a new facility for that multimission armed service at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.
The central tenet behind General Jones's expeditionary maneuver warfare vision was enhancing the Corps' contribution to regional commanders and ensuring its combat development efforts were linked to joint requirements. New cells were created in the Pentagon, and at Quantico and Suffolk, Virginia, to link the Corps' combat development and experimentation projects with the Joint Staff and the Joint Forces Command. Further, General Jones moved to expand the Marine Corps' relationship with the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCom) after Operation Enduring Freedom. The Corps will further this relationship in 2003, when it establishes a special operations detachment in California that reports directly to USSO-Com. Finally, the timely creation of the 4th MEB (AT) stands out as a final example of the adaptability and institutional agility that will be the hallmark of General Jones's tour as the nation's senior Marine.
The President said he wanted a military "ready to strike at a moment's notice in any dark corner of the world." The record demonstrates that U.S. armed forces can do so—and the Marine Corps' involvement in Operation Enduring Freedom and ongoing operations in Georgia, the Philippines, Kosovo, the Horn of Africa, and the Persian Gulf underscore its key role in those forces.
Events of the past year showcased today's sea-based expeditionary skills. With "Expeditionary Maneuver Warfare" as its capstone guidance, the Corps stands poised to further expand the capabilities and options of tomorrow's joint force commanders.
Colonel Hoffman works for EDO Professional Services in the Center for Emerging Threats and Opportunity at Quantico, Virginia.