France
The French Battleships.—At the beginning of the war there were five battleships on the stocks in France, all of the same type with a displacement of 25,200 tons and capable of steaming at a maximum speed of 21 knots. Four of them—the Flandre, Gascogne, Normandie, and Languedoc—were launched during the first few months of the hostilities, but their armament was suspended on account of the arsenals being engaged upon the production of guns and munitions. The turrets built for the Gascogne fell into the hands of the Germans. The fifth battleship. Beam, has remained on the stocks ever since, and is still uncompleted. The question now arises whether these vessels should be equipped or abandoned and their cost put to the profit and loss account. The ships were to have been fitted with three quadruple turrets to receive twelve 340 mm. guns, and the thickness of the armor at the water line is 320 mm. Even at the time the four were launched they were inferior to the then latest foreign battleships, and now they are of course hopelessly outclassed. Owing to the heavily increased price of materials, the cost of completing the ships would far exceed the original estimates, and as their value as fighting units has enormously depreciated, there is a general opinion that the battleships should be scrapped. There is also a great deal of difficulty in preparing a new program of naval constructions, for, apart from the heavy building cost at the present time, it is feared that with the existing price of coal it would not be possible to keep the ships at sea. There is no desire to build up a powerful navy if the ships are to remain permanently in harbor. It is admitted that the French navy is "passing through a serious crisis," and it will be interesting to see what solution is offered when the Government presents its program of naval construction.—The Engineer, Sept. 15, 1919.
Recent Construction at the Rochefort Arsenal.—The large 830-ton submarine, the Laplace, the last of a series of six similar boats, was successfully launched August 12. The other five boats of this class are: the Joessel, just commissioned at Cherbourg, and the Fulton recently launched here; the Lagrange, Regnault, and Q-114, built at Toulon. These are slightly modified reproductions of the Dupuy-de-Lome and the Sane, built at Toulon in 1916, which performed good service on the Moroccan coast during the war.
Besides building numerous "cannonieres" for submarine hunting, the Rochefort has finished since 1914, the submarines Chlorinde and Cornelie, the large destroyers Mecanicicn-Principal-Lestin and Enseigne-Roux, the submarines Amphitrite, Astree, and Bellone, with Sabathe 2-cycle engines.
New School for Officers at Brest.—It has been decided to create a school at Brest for the purpose of "finishing those young officers whose courses at the Naval School were cut short on account of the war. All the ensigns who were admitted to the Naval School or the School for Student Officers since 1913, except those now actually in one of those schools, will take the new course. The course will last six months, with two sessions a year. It will probably open November 15.—Journal de la Marine, Aug. 23, 1919.
The Cruise of the "Aldebaran."—Under the command of Lieutenant Guierre, the sloop Aldebaran sailed August 20, (from Toulon) for a cruise in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific, for radio experimental work. The utilization of this type of vessel solves the problem of small cruisers for distant stations, the lack of which was keenly felt before the war. More than one young officer will envy his comrades of the Aldebaran, far away from the constraints of fleets. Ports of call will be plentiful. Among them: Djibouti, (our colony on the Somali coast, port of Abyssinia), the Seychelles, Diego-Suarez, (the Brest of Madagascar), Colombo, Batavia, Freemantle, Melbourne, Auckland, Noumea, (New Caledonia) and Papeete (Tahiti).—Journal de la Marine, Aug. 23, 1919.
How Some of the French Submarines Were Lost.—1. The Curie left Brindisi December 17, 1914, for the purpose of entering Pola harbor to torpedo Austrian capital ships. She fouled the chains of the harbor barricade, and could not extricate herself. The boat became inclined 30 degrees, the storage batteries spilled, short circuits occurred and the air became unbreathable. Seeing all hope of saving the boat gone, the captain had all tanks blown, and managed to come to the surface, to be greeted by gunfire from the waiting Austrian vessels. The captain was wounded and his second was killed beside him, and several men were wounded. Before coming on deck the valves were opened and the boat soon sank. The captain would have gone down with her but was saved by a quartermaster in spite of himself. All the survivors were picked up. The captain later died as a result of his wounds. The Curie was subsequently raised and used by the Austrians.
2. December 4, 191S, the Fresnel, on patrol off the Albanian coast, went aground near the mouth of the Bojana. All attempts to float her were unsuccessful. An Austrian hydroplane saw the submarine at daylight, and sent news of her to several enemy torpedo boats, which soon arrived on the scene. The Fresnel was heroically defended, but after receiving several vital hits, it was decided to abandon ship. In four trips of the small boat all the officers and crew were landed on a small islet. An attempt was made to send the small boat to the mainland a mile away to get assistance, but she was attacked, a man killed, the others wounded, and she drifted until picked up by the Novarra. The men on the islet were attacked by rifle and machine gun-fire and after a sharp battle the captain decided not to prolong a useless resistance, and surrendered. The commanding officer was court martialed after being returned to France, and was acquitted.
3. At 2 a. m., December 29, 19x5, the Monge was cruising about 15 miles south of Cattaro, when several enemy ships were seen. She submerged to attack, when a terrible shock was felt—she had been rammed by the cruiser Heligoland, which had not been seen so close. The conning-tower plates were ruptured and water poured in. The safety hatch was immediately closed. But the submarine, inclining more and more, sank very quickly. At 60 meters (197 feet) an attempt was made to come up. At this moment, with an inclination of 30 degrees, the batteries spilled, and all lights went out. The crew, thinking themselves lost, cried "Vive la France!" However, she succeeded in arriving at the surface. She was a beautiful target, illuminated by searchlights of the enemy warships, and was soon hulled, causing her to sink a second time. The captain now decided to try to save as much life as possible. All tanks were blown, and the forward hatch, the only one out of water, was opened, all of the crew came out in good order, the enemy ceased fire, and their boats picked up the survivors, while the Monge sank for the last time, taking with her the captain, Lieut. Morillot.
4. September 15, 1916, in clear weather, off Cattaro, the Foiicault was attacked by three hydroplanes. The explosions, though violent, did little damage to the hull, but a small stuffing box in the motor compartment was carried away, a stream of water fell on the motors, causing a short circuit, and the lights went out. A fire in the insulation of the cables started. The forced submerging continued, the steering motors having failed. She was finally brought up at 75 meters (246 feet). The hull resisted well at this depth, but a great deal of water was coming in. The captain was very cool and collected. He blew the after tanks to regain proper trim, then the central tanks to rise to 25 meters (82 feet) where they stayed, endeavoring to repair the damage, and to plug up the hole. But nothing could be done, not a single pump functioned, and so the boat was brought to the surface. The hydroplanes were beaten off, but not being able to start the engines, and knowing that Austrian vessels would soon be on the spot, it was decided to destroy the boat. A bomb was set to explode at 15 meters—this functioned, and the officers and crew were later picked up by Austrian torpedo craft. The commanding officer was acquitted by the court held after he was returned to France.—Journal de la Marine, Aug. 23, 1919.
The French Army.—On the ratification of the Peace Treaty with Germany by the French Parliament, which is expected to take place this week or next, the French Army will be placed on a peace footing and will occupy its peace garrisons, with the exception of the troops detailed for holding the left bank of the Rhine. By October 4, at the latest, demobilization will have been completed, and only re-engaged men and the 1918 and 1919 classes of conscripts will be remaining with the Colors. But Class 1920 is due to be called up on October 1, and the foregoing numbers, together with contingents from the African and Colonial armies should, it is calculated, bring the total of the French Army on a peace footing to 750,000 men. This total would allow of a detachment of 75,000 men for the left bank of the Rhine, but Class 1920 will require at least three months' instruction before being fit for duty.— The Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 6, 1919.
GREAT BRITAIN
Drastic Disarmament.—Great Britain is reducing her navy in a most drastic way. Since the war she has sold or condemned over 150 ships, and the most amazing part of this disarmament is the fact that it includes every one of her big fleet of pre-dreadnoughts. She has retained the Lord Nelson and the Agamemnon, presumably on the ground that their armament of four 12-inch and ten 9.2-inch guns puts them in the semi-dreadnought class. The sweeping character of this disarmament affords food for thought by our Navy Department which is asking Congress for funds to bring our own pre-dreadnoughts into fighting shape. With the single exception of the Hood. Great Britain has stopped work on all capital ships, that is, on all battleships and battle cruisers. We, ourselves, on the other hand, have six battleships and six battle cruisers under construction.
Dispatches report that the First Lord of the Admiralty is endeavoring to cut the present expenditures in half. The future navy is to include only dreadnoughts, battle cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers and submarines. All other ships are to be ruthlessly scrapped. Although all the capital ships that were under construction during the war including the Anson, Howe and the Rodney, 42,000-ton ships, sisters of the Hood, that were building at the end of the war, have been discontinued, 36 of the smaller vessels, scout cruisers, destroyers and submarines will be completed.—Scientific American, Sept. 27, 1919.
Active British Fleet Smaller Than Ours.—In an article in The Daily Telegraph on the peace reduction of the British Navy, Archibald Hurd says:
"It is an arresting fact that, judged by the strength of its battle squadrons in active commission, this country's supremacy has at least temporarily passed away. The United States has now in commission 31 battleships and the Navy Department at Washington plans to have 29 next year, that reduction in number being balanced by the increased power of a number of ships now being completed in the shipyards. We have in a similar state of readiness 22 battleships and five cruisers, and in accordance with the order published yesterday with reference to the reduction to the reserve basis—that is, care and maintenance parties—of the majority of the ships of the home fleet our instantly ready battle force will fall at an early date to 16, 10 of them forming the Atlantic fleet and the other six cruising in the Mediterranean—16, as compared with 29 under the Stars and Stripes.
"That comparison between the sea standing of the British and American fleets now and in the immediate future is not of much importance judged from the political or the naval point of view, but it is of interest. I doubt whether at any period during the last two or three hundred years the British fleet ever approached, much less has fallen below, an equality with any other power in its standard of commissionings, and we used to aim at a two-power standard."—N.Y. Times, Sept. 12, 1919.
British Destroyer Sunk.—The Secretary of the Admiralty announces that H.M. destroyer Vittoria was fired at and sunk by torpedo in the Baltic on August 30, the ship sinking in five minutes. Two ratings are slightly wounded and eight are missing, believed drowned.
The Vittoria was a new destroyer, completed by Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Co. as recently as last year. She embodied the experience of the war and was of large displacement—about 1300 tons. Her length was 300 feet, and she had a beam of 29 ½ feet in association with a draft of 8 feet 10 inches. She developed 27,000 shaft horse power, and had a speed of no less than 34 knots. Her armament consisted of four 4-inch quick-firing guns, with one 3-inch anti-aircraft gun, and she was pierced for four torpedo tubes. Carrying normally about 367 tons of oil, the Vittoria had a large radius of action. —The Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 6, 1919.
Reducing the British Navy.—The need for strict economy in maintaining the British Navy in the future, in order that over-zealous economists in Parliament may not in reducing expenses allow the navy to decline below the minimum compatible with bare safety, is urged by the London Engineer. The German Navy, our British contemporary points out, has practically disappeared; Russia is not likely to become a first-class sea power for many years; and France and Italy will not spend money on large naval programs. This, it is held, removes all doubt as to the stability of Great Britain's maritime position in Europe.
"Nor for many years," says the Engineer, "is that position likely to be affected in other quarters of the world by the naval activity of the United States and Japan, which alone among the powers are continuing to build capital ships. In brief, our supremacy in every class of fighting tonnage is so great that no serious risk would be incurred if we suspended construction altogether for a few years. That being so, the Admiralty, we fear, will find it difficult to explain to Parliament why it determined to complete 84 of the warships which were on hand when hostilities ended.
"In ordinary circumstances we should rejoice at the worthy manner in which it is proposed to display the flag in every part of the navigable globe, not from motives of chauvinism, but because we recognize the commercial and political benefits that flow from such a policy. But the present circumstances are extraordinary, and we doubt whether the country is in either the position or the mood to sanction the disbursement of a penny for which no direct return can be guaranteed. In respect of materiel there are methods by which the efficiency of the fleet can be not only maintained but increased without the heavy outlay entailed by new construction. The lines of technical development are clearly indicated by war experience. The possibilities of long-range gunnery have not yet been fully explored, neither has there been time to assimilate the lessons we have learned in regard to the best system of protection against gunfire and submarine attack. Ordnance experts tell us that if the guns in our ships had been able to fire at an elevation of 25 or 30 degrees, instead of at only 15 degrees, we should on several occasions have inflicted more damage on the enemy. It is known, too, that Germany secured excellent results with her elongated shells and with the reliable fuse fitted to her armor-piercing projectiles. Moreover, she possessed a marked advantage by reason of the superior mechanical efficiency of her torpedoes and mines. It is careful attention to these technical minutiae that prepare the ground for decisive results in war, and research work of this kind is not so expensive as new construction.—Army and Navy Journal, Sept. 27, 1919.
British Navy Reorganization.—According to a dispatch from London, "the campaign for administrative economy is gaining momentum daily." Great Britain must make a sweeping reduction in expenditures and practice thrift in little things as well as great, or she will find it hard to meet her obligations. Mr. Lloyd George has sounded the warning, and where can a beginning be made so effectively as in the navy? The menace of the German fleet is ancient history now, and the empire has nothing to fear from any existing navy, militantly or politically. Her dreadnought line of battle is so strong that the United States would have to build steadily for several years to equal it if not a rivet were driven in British yards, and the United States is a friendly nation, prospectively an ally to keep the peace of the world. Compared with Great Britain, France and Japan are second class sea powers; necessity as well as sympathy and mutual interest bind France to her loyal ally with hooks of steel, and with Japan Great Britain has a hard and fast alliance. Aside from the fair promise of the League of Nations, Great Britain is now in a position to call a halt upon the expansion of her navy and to reorganize it on an economical basis.
The British Navy, like our own for that matter, is top heavy. It includes pre-dreadnoughts that are obsolete and can be broken up; many of the British cruisers and lighter craft are little better than junk for either offense or defense. The pre-war complement would be much too large for the navy after desirable elimination of ships. Mr. Walter Long, First Lord of the Admiralty, calculates that naval appropriations can be cut from £140,000,000 to £70,000,000. The plan is to have no ship in the service that is not a fighting ship of the first class, according to type. While work on 42 vessels has been stopped or canceled, 36 others, presumably light cruisers, destroyers, and submarines, are to be finished, but plants in the yards are to be kept up for an emergency. This is a sane as well as a saving policy, and if red tape could be swept like cobwebs out of Admiralty halls, the British Navy should lose nothing in efficiency by the reorganization; but, of course, it will be necessary to put able and energetic men in the highest positions. Admiral Sir Percy Scott, who by the way insists that the naval lesson of the war is that large battleships are an encumbrance, being of no use in the presence of well-handled submarines, has recently told the story of the unreadiness of the British Navy for the war with Germany, because no more than "10 ships of the whole fleet had their main armament fitted for director firing," a neglect that was due to stolid satisfaction with the old method. At the battle of Jutland, Sir John Jellicoe had only six ships fitted with a complete system of director firing, secondary as well as main batteries, and not a cruiser was among them. Furthermore, according to Sir Percy Scott, the German guns had the longer range in many cases. But perhaps the worst ineptitude of the Admiralty in 1914 was the belief that a battleship would be in no serious danger from an enemy submarine. So long as Baron Fisher was in authority the navy was progressive, and it is significant that his voice is now loudest for the plan of reducing the fleet to first-class fighting ships and adding no others.—N.Y. Times, Sept. 5, 1919.
Australia to Have Fleet.—Admiral Jellicoe's world tour of the various dominions comprising the British Empire has resulted in a report on Australia's future naval policy which indicates a wide expansion of the empire's imperial naval policy. A copyrighted dispatch of the Philadelphia Public Ledger's cable service states that Admiral Jellicoe's report has been forwarded to the government at Sydney, Australia, and warns that country "that she must cease playing with naval defense and take the subject seriously." The dispatch continues:
"In accordance with the Admiralty's redisposition of the fleets in the Pacific, Admiral Jellicoe finally scraps the former policy of the British Navy with subordinate local fleets and submits a scheme providing for a real imperial naval whose future under a unified command is dependent upon the continuous expansion of the dominion navies, on a standardization plan common to all. In other words, Admiral Jellicoe suggests that Australia may accept the responsibilities which are the inseparable aims of recognition as a nation.
"The present system of administration is condemned, while the personnel of the commonwealth's naval board is considered unsatisfactory because it lacks the practical service and knowledge necessary to provide an adequate base for the fleet at Sydney. It is not impossible therefore that another station will be required, and the Garson Island adjuncts may be sold for other purposes in order to attract officers and men. Admiral Jellicoe recommends salaries and wages closely approximating the opportunities of landsmen."—Army and Navy Journal, Sept. 9, 1919.
The Revival of the American "Monitor."—An unexpected naval development was the reappearance, during the war, of the Monitor type of our Civil War days. Of course, in the 50 years or more that intervened between the two great struggles, there had been a great development in the principles and practice of naval architecture, all of which was available to the British naval constructors when they adopted the principle of the monitor and applied it to modern conditions. Consequently, in the British monitors, we notice a great increase in size, free-board, sea-keeping qualities and offensive power.
Strictly speaking it is stretching the point somewhat to call the 6650-ton Marshall Ney a monitor, inasmuch as she lacks the essential quality of low free-board. In this respect the Italian monitor, Fra di Bruno, which is described as a great armored raft for carrying heavy guns, is more strictly in the Monitor class.
Monitors of the past war were built for seacoast work, and this was done in the North Sea mainly against the German batteries on the Belgian coast, and in the various operations against the Turks at the Dardanelles. In the case of the Italian Navy they were used for coastal work in the Adriatic. The British built 16 sea-going monitors and 18 river monitors. The sea-going monitors ran, in size, from 1260 tons to 8000 tons and the river monitors had about 575 tons displacement. The armor protection, in the case of the sea-going monitors, consisted of belts of from 2" to 6", associated with 2" protective decks and 4" bulk-heads, while the gun positions carried armor of from 10.8" to 13.8".
The armament consisted, in the main battery of two guns, varying from 12" to 15" in caliber, and carried always in a single 2-gun turret. The speed in the majority of these vessels was 6.5 knots, but in the 1260-ton Merseys and in the 8000-ton Erubus and Terror the speed was 12 knots. The earlier river monitors mounted one 9.5" gun and the others two 6-inch. Their speed was 12 and 10 knots.
For the purposes for which they were used on the Belgian and Dardanelles coasts, a valuable feature of these monitors was their light draft, which was only 5' 8" in the Mersey class of 1260 tons and 10' in the Marshal Ney and other monitors of from 6000 to 6700 tons. This enabled the vessels to operate in the shoal waters which lie off the Belgian coast and in certain parts of the Adriatic.
The Italian monitor Fra di Bruno was one of the five ships, the others being the Carso, Cucco. Monfalcone and the Vodice. They were built, as we said, of raft-like form, and their low free-board and limited draft rendered them suited for work in the shoal waters at the mouth of the Piave River. They operated here in excellent concealment, and their powerful long-range 15" guns were of great assistance in checking the Austrian advance after the break through at Caporetto.
The monitor has always been considered as a strictly defensive vessel for operation along one's own coast-line and for cooperation with the forts in the protection of harbors and roadsteads. It is among the many surprises of the war that they should have been used in very strenuous offensive operations, in some cases at a great distance from their home ports. This, of course, was rendered possible only by the fact that Great Britain, and the Allies in general, had the command of the sea.—Scientific American, Sept. 27, 1919.
Sea and Home Service Defined.—The Admiralty announce that, for purposes of drafting, service is to be divided into two classes, viz.:
1. Sea.—Service in all sea-going fleets and squadrons, except ships of the home fleet other than torpedo craft; flotilla leaders, destroyers, torpedo-boats and submarines, and spare crews appropriated to submarines; seagoing submarine depot ships; seagoing destroyer depot ships and repair ships attached to the Atlantic fleet; vessels employed on fishery duties and harbor ships and establishments abroad.
2. Home.—Service in ships of the home fleet, other than torpedo craft harbor ships and establishments at home and their tenders; depot ships for torpedo craft in home waters, except the seagoing destroyer depot ships attached to the Atlantic fleet; non-seagoing depot ships and bases for submarines; and in stationary ships at home and their tenders, other than vessels employed on fishery duties.
Men proceeding in a ship of war from home to sea service, or vice versa, and the nucleus crew of a ship of war employed in conveying relief crews, are to count the period of absence as sea service. So far as the requirements of the fleet will admit, service in all harbor ships and establishments and their tenders, including stationary ships, will be for two years.—The Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 6, 1919.
Scapa Flow Not British.—It will come as a surprise to many people to learn that the Orkney Islands, which include the great naval station of Scapa Flow, do not really belong to Great Britain in the sense that they were ever ceded by treaty of acquired by conquest. They were simply transferred by Denmark to Scotland in 1468 in pledge for the payment of the dowrv of the Princess of Denmark, who was married to James III, King of Scotland.
In the deed of transfer, which is still in existence, it is especially mentioned that Denmark shall have the right to redeem them at any future time by paying the original amount of the dowry with interest to date. There is no likelihood, however, that Denmark will ever attempt to exercise her Right of Redemption, because 60,000 florins, the original amount of the dowry, would amount to perhaps several thousands of millions of pounds sterling—and that is a bit more than the islands are worth.
When the islands were given as security for the Princess's dowry, there is reason to believe that it was intended to redeem the pledge, because it was then stipulated that the Norse system of government and the law of St. Olaf should continue to be observed in Orkney and Shetland. Thus the udal succession and mode of land tenure (that is, absolute freehold, as distinguished from feudal tenure) still obtain to some extent, and the remaining udallers hold their lands and pass them on without written title.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 6, 1919.
A Year in the Fleet.—Just as they had concluded their midsummer leave and were on the point of starting on their cruises to the seaside resorts, en route to the northern bases, the ships of the Atlantic and home fleets were notified of the new arrangements which have been approved for regulating the work and play of officers and men throughout the year. The Admiralty have displayed posters on the ships giving an outline program of their prospective movements, with other information of great importance and interest, not only to those on board but to their families and friends.
From this program it is possible for an officer or man in the ordinary course of events to know in advance where he will be stationed at a given time, what amount of leave he is entitled to during the year, and from which port it will be given, and where his ship will have her periodical dockings and refits. This is a new departure and is made possible by the present international situation and the elimination of the German fleet. It could hardly have been done in the same way before the war, since it would have advertised the period during which our main fleets were at their maximum state of unreadiness. That it is given now is another indication of the care and consideration of the authorities for the interests and well-being of the ships' companies. The information in the new posters may be divided into three categories: That which concerns the movements of the fleets; the bases allotted to the various squadrons for exercising, manning, docking, etc.; and the important question of leave.
The outline program of movements shows that the custom inaugurated when Lord Selborne was First Lord in 1904-5 of bringing the squadrons together in February and October each year for combined exercises will be continued. From mid-December to mid-January is the winter leave period for the fleets, but in February and March they will carry out drills and exercises, which will be followed in April by the granting of the spring leave. From May to July inclusive the Atlantic and home fleets visit their northern bases, carrying out practices and exercises. Naval maneuvers will be the climax of this period of training, after which the fleets' regatta will be held. August will be given up to the midsummer leave period, and for the three following months, while the Atlantic fleet cruises around Great Britain and Ireland and returns to the northern bases for drills, exercises and experimental work, the home fleet carries out drills and exercises from Portland. It will be remembered that the February meetings for exercises started when Sir Arthur Wilson was commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, were usually held off Lagos, and, although no locality is mentioned in the new plans, possibly the two fleets will again proceed to the Portuguese coast for a similar purpose. Moreover, just as it was arranged in Lord Selborne's Memorandum of December 6, 1904, that the Atlantic fleet should come under the orders of the commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, (then the premier force) once a year for combined exercises, so it is now laid down by the Admiralty that from May to July inclusive the home fleet shall come under the orders of the commander-in-chief of the Atlantic fleet for the exercises which culminate in the summer maneuvers.
There is naturally, on the other hand, a great change to be noted in the plans now approved in regard to the bases of the two main fleets. Rosyth has been sufficiently developed during the war to be chief base of the battleships, battle cruisers, light cruisers and flying squadron of the Atlantic fleet, and also of the 1st submarine flotilla. The 2d and 3d submarine flotillas will be stationed at Devonport and Portsmouth respectively, while all the destroyers of the fleet will have their headquarters at Port Edgar. In the south Portland becomes a much more important base than it was during the war. All the ships of the home fleet will be stationed there and will give their spring and midsummer leave from this base, proceeding to their manning ports only to give Christmas leave. Invergordon and Scapa bases only, for the Atlantic fleet ships throughout the year and for the home fleet ships temporarily during the summer months. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the future use of the various bases is the manner in which the three older yards at Portsmouth, Devonport and Chatham fall out of the list, so far as the Atlantic and home fleets are concerned. Except as manning ports, they are hardly mentioned in the new schedule. All the heavy ships in the fleets are to carry out their annual refits and dock at Invergordon or Rosyth; so are the seaplane carriers and the home fleet light cruisers. An exception is made in the case of the Atlantic fleet light cruisers, which will dock at Qiatham. Only a few torpedo craft will refit at the manning ports, as the majority of these vessels will be accommodated at Invergordon or Rosyth. These arrangements are indicative of the manner in which during hostilities the Grand fleet ceased to be dependent upon the yards in the south. The facilities provided at the Scottish bases are of such a nature as to b6 able easily to cope with the reduced number of ships in the Atlantic and home fleets. Thus it comes about that battleships and light cruisers of the home fleet, stationed at Portland all the year round except for the midsummer cruise to the north, are to be sent to Invergordon or Rosyth for their refits. Except for the few torpedo craft, the southern yards are left entirely free for ships in reserve, and the reconditioning of merchantmen.
Leave arrangements must no doubt have proved the most absorbing topic to the majority of those who read the new schedule. An interesting experiment is to be tried of abolishing week-end leave in the Atlantic fleet, except when the ships are at their home or refitting ports, and of increasing, by way of compensation, the annual period of long leave from 28 to 42 days, to be given in three periods of 14 days each. A strong advocate of weekend leave was Admiral Lord Beresford, who described in his "Memoirs" how he altered the duration of this leave, from after dinner on Saturday to seven a.m. on Monday, and extended it from after dinner on Friday to noon on Monday. As Mr. Lionel Yexley pointed out in one of his books. Lord Beresford's interpretation of such leave was an extreme one, as "when the fleet was at its base at Portland, he made arrangements with the railway people for special trains, and granted leave each week-end from noon Friday to noon the following Monday, thus practically demobilizing his command for four days out of each week." Other admirals, of course, had very different views on this vexed question, and from the standpoints of the men themselves and the efficiency of the service, it is well that the Admiralty have laid down a definite line of policy which seems to have hit off a happy mean. Progressive training should benefit from the reduction in the amount of week-end leave, and the handsome compensation of 14 days' long leave will, no doubt, be satisfactory to most officers and men. Op the other hand, the board recognize the hardship in keeping full crews on board ships while they are in their home ports or refitting, and in these leave from noon Saturday to noon Monday is approved. On the whole, the Admiralty deserve the thanks of the personnel for their sound-minded policy.—The Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 6, 1919.
UNITED STATES
Navy Department—Bureau of Construction and Repair Vessels Under Construction, United States Navy—Degree of Completion, as Reported September 30, 1919
There are 136 destroyers, 58 submarines, 6 mine sweepers, 14 tugs, 7 harbor tugs, 11 oil tankers and 8 Ford eagles in various stages of completion.
There were completed and delivered to the Navy Department during the month of August 12 destroyers, 2 submarines, 1 mine sweeper, 4 seagoing tugs, 9 harbor tugs, 1 oil tanker and 23 Ford eagles.
There are in addition 12 destroyers and 16 submarines authorized, but not under construction or contract. Miscellaneous vessels authorized but not under construction or contract (3): 1 submarine tender No. 3, 1 destroyer tender No. 4 and 1 transport No. 2.
Naval Policy
Warships to Have Seaplanes.—Every American warship of the first and second class is to be equipped with a seaplane, it was learned at the Navy Department, September 13. This is to even up with progress already made by Great Britain.
This policy, with the correlative one of building a great fleet of dirigibles, is directly in line with the views of the naval war experts as to defense "in the next war."
They say the time has passed when a direct attack on sea coast cities like New York or Boston may be made by a battleship fleet, however powerful. The attack will be by seaplane, launched from a moving base of dreadnoughts at sea, navy officers assert. Hence the plan, now announced, to converting land planes into working seaplanes to be assigned to each of the larger ships.—Aerial Age Weekly, Sept. 22, 1919.
The Coast Guard.—The Coast Guard, which was placed under the jurisdiction of the Navy Department during the war, has been transferred back to the Treasury Department by President Wilson. Merchant marine and commercial interests asked for the change, while the Navy Department desired to retain jurisdiction.—Shipping, Sept. 13, 1919.
More Marines for the Pacific Coast.—Marine corps forces on the Pacific coast are to be augmented as a result of the creation of the Pacific fleet. Brig. Gen. Joseph Pendleton has been ordered to San Diego to establish the second Marine corps advanced base headquarters there. The force at San Diego will be increased from about 250 men to a full brigade. Complete equipment, including aviation and artillery material, will be kept in readiness, and the marine units at Mare Island and Bremerton will be absorbed into the brigade at San Diego. General Pendleton served two years in command of marines in Santo Domingo and acted as military governor there. He has had considerable previous service on the Pacific coast.—N.Y. Times, Sept. 26, 1919.
Navy Asks to be Heard on Air Bill.—The opposition of the navy to an amalgamation of the government's air activities under a single head was expressed in no uncertain language by Acting Secretary Roosevelt in a letter to Senator Page, chairman of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, and to Chairman Butler, of the House Committee on Naval Affairs, on August 22. The Acting Secretary wrote:
"A bill, S. 2693, 'To create a Department of Aeronautics, defining the powers and duties of the director thereof, providing for the organization, disposition and administration of a U.S. Air Force, creating the U.S. Air Reserve, and providing for the development of civil and commercial aviation,' was introduced by Senator New on July 31, 1919, and referred to the Senate Committee on Military Affairs. I have requested the chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs of the Senate that the Navy Department be granted an opportunity to be heard on the bill before final action is taken, and I have been informed that such an opportunity will be granted. I write to call your attention to this bill, as its provisions vitally affect the policy of the Navy Department relating to aeronautics in the navy and marine corps, and it is the unanimous judgment of the responsible officials of the Navy Department that if the bill, in its present form, is enacted into law it will materially interfere with the efficiency of naval aviation."—Army and Navy Journal, Sept. 6, 1919.
British Naval Information Confidential.—Secretary Baker issued information on September 20 for the guidance of all concerned containing the following letter from the British Admiralty: "A considerable amount of information has recently been supplied to official representatives of the U.S. Army, Navy and Government on technical matters connected with naval material; e.g., guns, torpedoes, mines, anti-submarine devices, signaling systems, etc. I beg to request that you will be good enough to arrange for all such information to be treated as confidential, and not to be published, except for the use of responsible officials of the U. S. Government." Secretary Baker directed that all information of this nature heretofore or hereafter received shall be considered strictly in confidence.—Army and Navy Journal, Oct. 4, 1919.
Materiel
The U.S.S. "Idaho" is Speedy.—The U. S. S. Idaho, the latest battleship of the U.S. Navy, during its official speed trial on the North Pacific coast on September 29, 1919, attained a maximum .speed of 22 knots and averaged 21 9.20 knots for the four-hour period, according to an Associated Press dispatch. These figures are said to be the highest ever attained by a United States battleship.—Army and Navy Journal, Oct. 4, 1919.
Bases for Pacific Fleet.—The Secretary of the Navy returned to Washington from the Pacific coast on September 22 and will soon submit data to the Senate and House Committees on Naval Affairs concerning necessary improvements and construction projects on the basis of facts learned by the naval mission to the Pacific coast. The battleships of the Pacific fleet will be based at Puget Sound and San Francisco, where there are efficient navy yards. Puget Sound may be selected as the fleet base, it is reported. Smaller stations may be established for the repair of small warships. Mr. Daniels said that no large fleet movements would be undertaken before January because of the necessity of overhauling the ships.—Army and Navy Journal, Sept. 27, 1919.
Admiral Fullam Predicts Navy Changes.—Rear Admiral W.F. Fullam, U.S.N., contributed to the New York Herald of September 29 an article discussing the probability "that a complete revolution in naval architecture" may be forced upon us owing to the necessity of more powerful protection for naval vessels against torpedo attacks from the air and from under water. Admiral Fullam points out " there are five different methods of attack that involve the possible destruction of the immense and costly ships that are now regarded as the measure of sea power," and he foresees that as the result of these effective forms of attack, "the present types of dreadnoughts and cruisers will be driven from the seas." Admiral Fullam summarizes the methods of attack as the plunging fire of modern guns at extreme ranges of 16,000 yards and above, attack by bombing from aircraft, submarine mines, torpedoes fired from destroyers, and torpedoes fired from torpedo-planes. He illustrates how at extreme ranges projectiles rise high in the air and says that the impact of such projectiles on "the unarmored deck will inevitably penetrate to the vitals and cripple or completely destroy the ship." Aircraft will be more and more, he states, a determining factor in successful range determination, and he declares that "sea power, or fighting power, in the future will be largely dependent upon control of the air, and that fleet that secures this control in future battles must win, other things being approximately equal. In other words, aircraft will not only constitute dangerous offensive weapons in themselves, but they will contribute greatly to the accurate and effective use of a ship's guns in battle. They will be of double value, and from present indications airplanes will soon become one of the most invincible elements in sea power."—Army and Navy Journal, Oct. 4, 1919.
U. S. Navy Makes Rapid Growth.—The rapid rise of the United States as a naval power during the last two years is graphically demonstrated in figures showing the sea strength of the various world powers, compiled by the Navy Department's office of naval intelligence. They show that the United States, close pressed by France in 1917 for its place as third naval power in the world, is now second only to Great Britain, and is at present pushing to completion a building program that will make the American Navy, for the first time in recent history, a formidable contender for first naval honors.
A little more than two years ago, the figures show, Germany, then second naval power, boasted more than 100 more ships of all classes than the United States, with a total tonnage exceeding that of the American Navy by nearly 200,000. Great Britain's fleet at that time numbered a total of 680 ships, aggregating 2,375,564 tons, as compared with Germany's 262 ships and 1,058,240 tons and the United States' 153 ships and 860,017 tons.
The completion of the present building programs, a matter of about three years, will find the chief of naval powers of the world with the following relative strengths: Great Britain, 955 ships, aggregating 2,772,542 tons; United States, 60S ships, totaling 2,117,922 tons; Japan, 170 ships, totaling 785,239 tons; France, 253 ships, totaling 719,237 tons, and Germany, 463 ships, totaling 923,437 tons.
As a result of the great torpedo-boat destroyer building program carried out by the United States during the war the American Navy now includes more than 150 destroyers of the fastest and latest type, with nearly 200 more building or contracted for. Great Britain owns about 425 of this type of vessel, many of them old and of little modern naval value, and have about no building or authorized. Germany's destroyer force has been so reduced as to make it a negligible factor. Japan owns 40 modern destroyers, according to the best available figures and have about 20 under construction.
Great Britain emerged from the war with by far the most powerful battleship and battle cruiser force in the world, although the United States now has under construction a formidable aggregation of major ships. England's Navy to-day includes 55 battleships and 9 battle cruisers less than 20 years old, with 4 powerful battle cruisers now under construction.
The United States has 36 battleships capable of holding a place in a modern battle line and not including a number of old type battleships listed for sale or the scrap heap. Thirteen of the most modern battleships in the world are under construction for the United States, and six battle cruisers are authorized and will be completed during the next three years.
Japan has 13 battleships and several battle cruisers completed and four battle cruisers under construction or authorized. Germany retains 30 battleships and one battle cruiser, most of which are of practically no naval value, and has two battleships and three battle cruisers laid down, on which construction has been stopped. France has 18 battleships and no battle cruisers completed and five battleships and four battle cruisers under construction.
The completion of the present building programs will find the following line-up of major ships: Great Britain, 55 battleships and 13 battle cruisers; United States, 49 battleships and 6 battle cruisers; Japan, 13 battleships and II battle cruisers; Germany, 32 battleships and 4 battle cruisers, still subject to the final naval peace terms, and France, 23 battleships and 4 battle cruisers.
Great Britain leads the world in cruiser and light cruiser strength, with a total of 118 vessels of these types, with 30 for the United States, 28 for Japan, 37 for Germany and 19 for France.—The Naval Monthly, Sept., 1919.
Operations
U.S. Naval Force Lands in Dalmatia.—The Navy Department on September 27 made public a cablegram from Rear Admiral Harry S. Knapp, U.S.N., commanding naval forces operating in European waters, saying that on September 23 a number of Italians surprised and captured Trau, a Dalmatian port in the zone assigned by the Supreme Council to be policed by American forces. A small landing force from the U.S.S. Olympia succeeded in recovering the town and preserving order there without bloodshed. Serbian forces were persuaded by Rear Admiral Philip Andrews, U.S.N., commanding naval forces operating in Mediterranean waters, to take no action, Admiral Knapp's report states.
The subject of the landing of the American force was brought up in the United States Senate on September 29. As a result Vice President Marshall on October 2 sent to the Senate a communication from Secretary of the Navy Daniels, dated September 30, relative to the recent operations of U.S. Naval forces on the Dalmatian coast, which included a report from Rear Admiral Harry S. Knapp, U.S.N., commanding American Naval forces in Europe, who is stationed in London.
Secretary Daniels in his communication explains that the armistice line extends from Cape Flanka inland. North and west of this line Italian troops are in occupation. South and east the line is garrisoned by Serbian troops. This latter section of the Dalmatian coast is the headquarters of the American Naval forces, in which by agreement after the Armistice American Naval forces took charge of all one-time Austrian-Hungarian vessels found there and which has since been generally called American zone. The Americans have no forces on shore, but have extended a strong moral influence for the preservation of order and avoidance of a clash between Italians. and Jugo-Slavs. There has been considerable friction along the armistice line between Serbians and Italians, but by the tactful firmness of Rear Admiral Philip Andrews, U.S.N., it has been kept from causing serious results.
On September 23 three truck loads of Italian soldiers in command of a captain crossed the armistice line and surprised and captured the small Serbian garrison at Trau. The Italian authorities informed the senior American officer present, Capt. D.F. Boyd, that the move was unwarranted and asked that the raiders be turned back. Captain Boyd sent a destroyer and two chasers to Trau at once, then saw the Serbian commander and got him to agree not to order an advance until he had an opportunity to get the Italians to withdraw. He sent Lieut. Commander R.S. Fields, U.S.N., and Commander Morony, of the Italian ship Puglia, by automobile to Trau and himself went in the U.S.S. Olympia to Trau. On arrival he found the Italians had been induced to return, leaving however, the Italian Army captain and three soldiers owing to breakdown of their truck. He landed a small guard from the U.S.S. Cowell and U.S.S. Olympia to see that no harm was done Italians and to preserve order pending the arrival of Serbian troops. He put the Italian army captain and three soldiers on an Indian motor boat and turned them over in charge of an Italian naval officer. Upon the arrival of the Serbian troops he withdrew the U.S. bluejackets, after receiving assurance that no violence would be offered civilians.
The Italian admiral, Milo, in command of ships and troops in Italian zone of occupation, sent the senior Italian officer present at Spalato to the U.S.S. Olympia with thanks for sending the Trau raiders back. He has brought the officer who commanded the raiding force to trial by court martial. The whole affair was most creditably handled and the prompt action of Captain Boyd, Secretary Daniels says, undoubtedly prevented a very serious incident which might have resulted in open warfare between Italians and Serbians. The landing was for the protection of the offending Italians left in Trau until adequate Serbian forces could arrive to preserve order.
The fact that the Italian authorities requested action of Captain Boyd, that he was thanked by Admiral Milo for his action and that Admiral Milo brought the offending officer to trial by court martial, Secretary Daniels states, all go to show that the raid was an isolated act of hotheads done in defiance of Italian authority, and that America acted in cooperation with the Italians to restore the situation. That no serious results happened is due to the prompt and efficient action of American forces. Secretary Daniels adds. Had they not so acted there would almost inevitably have been bloodshed, which would perhaps have resulted in a state of actual war between Italy and Jugo-Slavia owing to the intensity of feeling existing over the Dalmatian question.—Army and Navy Journal, Oct. 4, 1919.
Merchant Marine
"Leviathan" to be Changed to an Oil Burner.—The Letriathan, it is learned on excellent authority, is to be converted in the near future from a coal to an oil burner. The change, it is claimed, will do away with no less than 300 firemen. This decision of the Shipping Board is in line with what most of the leading steamship companies are doing. The Aquitania, the largest of the Cunard liners, is to be converted to oil burning during the next few months. The Cunard Line's new passenger and freight vessels are all to be oil burners.
With the Leviathan, the largest ship afloat, converted to oil burning the development towards oil bunkers will undoubtedly be stimulated. She measures 54,282 gross tons and has steam turbines. She was launched in 1914 from the Blohm & Voss Yard, Hamburg.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 20, 1919.
1227 Vessels Delivered.—A tabulation made by the Shipping Board shows a total of 1227 vessels delivered up to the week ending August 9. During that week 30 vessels, representing 97,550 gross tons (146,325 DWT) were turned over to the Shipping Board by the Emergency Fleet Corporation. The gross tonnage delivered to date is 4,542,278 (6,813.417 DWT).
During the month of July 108 vessels, aggregating 400,039 gross tons (600,058- DWT), were launched from yards under the control of the Shipping Board. A world's record in launching was established in July, 1918, when 124 vessels, of 423,167 gross tons (634,750 DWT), were sent overboard from Shipping Board yards. The launchings of July, 1919, were therefore only 16 less than the number launched during the record month of last year.— United States Bulletin, Aug. 18, 1919.
New Marine Scale for Pacific Coast Engineers.—Marine engineers of the Pacific Coast received everything they asked for at the recent conference at San Francisco, the Atlantic scale being adopted without a struggle. The revised wage scale is retroactive to August I on all Shipping Board vessels dispatched from the Pacific Coast, regardless of whether or not a clause to that effect was inserted in the ship's articles. According to the agreement adopted, vessels are divided according to their size and power into five classes. Steel vessels produced in Portland all fall into class C. Wooden vessels built at Portland are of classes D and E. The scale adopted for the Pacific Coast and thus made uniform for all seaboards of the United States, follows:
| Class C | Class D | Class E |
Master | $357.50 | $343.75 | $330.00 |
Chief engineer | $332.50 | $318.75 | $305.00 |
First officer, first asst. engineer | $228.75 | $222.50 | $216.25 |
Second officer, second engineer | $200.00 | $193.75 | $187.50 |
Third officer, third engineer | $176.25 | $170.00 | $163.75 |
The scale adopted for all vessels regardless of size and power includes the following wages: Carpenter, $105; boatswain, $95; able seaman, $90; quartermaster, $90; ordinary seaman, $65.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 13, 1919.
Hog Island Ships Record.—Forty-one ocean-going carriers built at the Hog Island shipyard have steamed more than 336,192 nautical miles, carrying 425,000 tons of American products to foreign ports, according to figures compiled here. All of the vessels, turned over to the Shipping Board by the American International Shipbuilding Corporation since August 5, 1918, are registered at the port of Philadelphia, and 18 of the ships delivered their first cargoes from Philadelphia.
Accomplishing more than any other shipyard in the country to place the American merchant marine on the seven seas, the Hog Island yard has launched 52 vessels, 11 of which will soon be delivered. Some of the ships have opened new trade routes between Philadelphia and South America, but most of them were used to carry foodstuffs to the stricken countries of Europe. Destinations of the 41 vessels include England, France, Italy, Germany, Japan, Brazil, Peru, Chili, Panama, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Batavia, Wales, Belgium, Buenos Aires, Colombo, Denmark, Cuba and the Verde Islands. The Quistconck, the first vessel delivered, has a mileage of 34,129 to its credit.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 13, 1919
Army to Retain Certain German Liners.—Testifying before the House Military Affairs Committee General Peyton C. March, chief of staff, stated that in the allocation of the German ships interned in this country which this government refused to put into a general pool for distribution among the Allies, a number of the German liners will be retained permanently as part of the army transport fleet.
By obtaining a great number of these ships, others of which are to be put in the naval and merchant marine service of the United States, General March said that this country would never again be without sufficient transports, as was the case when war was declared against Germany.
General March said that the President, who held out against giving over the German ships interned in this country to a pool, had decided upon a policy of distribution among the different services. The detailed announcement, he said, would be made shortly showing how many ships will go to the army and the merchant marine. This government intends holding these seized German vessels as part payment for the submarine destruction to American commerce and lives.
According to General March, the army will get a great number of these ships which will not be needed constantly. When they are not used in the military service they will be leased to private corporations for commercial purposes, subject to the call of the War Department in case of any emergency.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 20, 1919.
War Changes in Merchant Marine.—Figures compiled by Lloyd's Register of Shipping show the changes which have taken place in the steam and sailor tonnage possessed by the various maritime powers between1914 and 1919. Of the 27 countries listed in both years only seven now own more than one million tons of shipping as against 11 at the outbreak of the war. Germany, Austria, Russia and Sweden are the four nations which are no longer in the million-ton class. Nine countries show an increase in tonnage over pre-war times, the United States leading with a gain of 7,723,579 gross tons. Japan's merchant fleet grew by 616,880 tons, while that of the British Dominions was augmented by 264,121 tons. Brazil and Portugal show increases of 188,746 and 140,281 tons, respectively, the last-named country through the requisitioning of German ships having more than doubled the tonnage of its pre-war fleet. Steam tonnage changes were analyzed in our issue of last week. As far as sailing vessels are concerned, this class of craft constitutes now but one-seventeenth of the world's total merchant tonnage as contrasted with one-twelfth five years ago. It is true that the United States and seven other countries Have added to their sailor tonnage during the war period, but in every case the increase has been very slight. On the other hand, Norway has lost more than one-half of her sailors, both as regards number and tonnage. Three-eighths of the world's sailing fleet flies the American flag. The only other nations possessing a considerable amount of sailing vessel tonnage are France and Norway.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 13, 1919.
Ship Building in United States and Abroad.—More than 2500 merchant vessels, aggregating over 8.000.000 tons, were under construction in the world's shipyards June 30, 1919. Before the world war the largest construction, 3,445,000 tons, reported June 30, 1913. The United States is in the lead at present with nearly 1000 ships with a gross tonnage of 3,874,143. nearly one-third of which are wood.
To speed up production, the British shipyards are negotiating for an understanding whereby the employers agree not to place any limit on the possible earnings of workmen paid by results and the trade unions on their part, undertake to discontinue restrictions of output and that they will cancel any rules that limit output.
In Canada, for example, although water transportation is in its infancy, the government is building a large merchant marine in three types of ships at an estimated cost of more than $52,000,000.—Engineering World, Oct. 1, 1919.
NAVIGATION AND RADIO
Wireless Communication's Advance.—Very few branches of science have received greater impetus in their development during the war than wireless telegraphy and wireless telephony. Those interested in the subject who have not been directly associated with its progress during the past four and a half years will be amazed when the veil of secrecy is lifted and they become acquainted with the efficiency of present-day apparatus.
They will be struck first of all by the appearance of compactness of the apparatus, and on being further initiated will find that the simplicity of operation amounts almost to a revolution of method.
When the war broke out wireless communication in the British Navy and Army was as effective as was possible at that stage in the progress of the art. As the war proceeded those in authority realized how vitally necessary it was in the interests of the services that every effort possible be put forward to design apparatus for wireless communication possessing qualities of increased sensitiveness, increased selectivity, and, if possible, assuring secrecy.
The needs of the air service presented a peculiar problem. At first it was necessary to establish reliable communication from machines in the air to units on the ground to which observers wished to transmit the results of their observations. Later it was deemed advisable to communicate messages by means of wireless from ground units to machines in the air cooperating with them.
When "formation flights" became the essential method of attack and defense, it was decided that efforts should be made to give the leaders of formations vocal command of their units. This was accomplished by improvements in wireless telephony, which proved so successful that flying officers could speak to others in machines flying near them, with as little effort and with as good results as if they were chatting in a drawing-room.
When long distance bombing raids began, wireless again came to the fore and provided a means of navigating machines without the necessity of making ground observations. At the time the armistice was signed, aeroplanes were being navigated by wireless with perfect accuracy independent of visual observations of any kind.
Wireless as an Aid to Navigation.—It may prove of interest to those connected with shipping to know how far these improvements may be employed to assist in the navigation of ships at sea, and to what extent their employment may tend to decrease the risk of disasters.
Ships can now be fitted with small wireless telephone sets, which would enable the commanders or navigating officers on the bridge of one ship to speak to officers on the bridge of another ship within the effective range of their sets (say 30 miles). The cost of the set would, without royalties, be so low as to be almost negligible. The advantages of such a service during foggy weather may be readily appreciated by those responsible for the safe navigation of ships. It is also possible at the present time to equip ships with direction finders capable of taking a bearing from a wireless transmitting station (either ship or shore) to within an accuracy of one degree at the normal range of the transmitting station.
By means of one of these direction finders the commander of a ship could navigate his vessel with absolute accuracy without any observations. It would enable him to set his course when approaching such points as the fastnet and innishtrahull with safety in a fog, thereby avoiding the possible loss of a good deal of costly time.
The best method of employing these instruments for navigational purposes would be as follows:
A small wireless telephone transmitting and receiving set should be installed in the wireless cabin of the ship and should be subject to a remote control through the medium of a change-over switch to the bridge. The wave length of 300 meters granted to all ships, but which is seldom if ever resorted to, could be used exclusively for telephone work, thus avoiding as far as possible interference with ordinary wireless work.
The special aerial rigged for use with the direction finder could be used for this set to a very good advantage. In fact, the direction finder apparatus itself could be used for the receiving side so that when voice signals were being received the direction from which they came could be indicated automatically.
During fog every ship fitted with telephone sets would send out a predetermined voice signal on a wave length of 300 meters at definite intervals, of, say, 13 minutes. Any two ships arriving within a distance of 30 miles of each other would thus indicate their presence. The respective operators would immediately take the bearing and obtain the course of the other ship and convey the full information to the bridge. If for any reason one of the commanders wished to converse with the other this could be done easily and effectively from bridge to bridge by means of the remote control. The instruments could be designed in such a manner that the effective range could he reduced to ten or five miles by the operation of a small switch. This would be for use in channels or other congested waters.
The direction finder, apart from its uses in connection with the telephone would be used extensively both in good and bad weather. When only dead reckoning is possible these bearings would materially assist the bridge whilst in good weather they would tend to show how far they were capable of being relied upon as well as giving the operators practice in taking them quickly and accurately.
Hitherto, wireless has played a very heroic part in the mercantile marine by obtaining assistance for vessels in distress. In the future it should be the aim of those responsible for its employment to use it as far as possible to reduce the perils of the sea. A far-sighted policy on the part of ship-owners with regard to wireless would go a long way toward assisting those in command of their ships to navigate them safely. Considering the present possibilities of wireless as an aid to navigation, three-fifths of the accidents to ships at sea come under the heading of preventable losses.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 27, 1919.
Radio Telephone from Hydro-aeroplane to Submerged Submarine.—New London, Conn.—A radio experiment made on September 16 off New London in Lond Island Sound by the Experiment Station, Naval Station, established communication, both telephonic and telegraphic, between a hydro-aeroplane flying 2000 feet in the air and, a submarine submerged several fathoms in the water.
This was a demonstration for the delegates to the annual convention of the Edison Society of Electrical Engineers being held at Eastern Point.
It is said to be the first time than an aeroplane and a submerged submarine have communicated with each other_ directly, and is considered by naval officers here as an important factor in coast defense and in naval warfare.—Aerial Age Weekly, Sept. 29, 1919.
Ship Fog Guiding Device.—According to the New York Times, Earl C. Hanson, an inventor of Los Angeles, had invented an auditory system for guiding ships in a fog, which, according to those who have examined the apparatus, promises to make ocean travel free from all dangers of collision
due to fogs, if further tests prove as satisfactory as previous experiments.
The new device is described as simplicity itself. A cable is laid in the center of the ship channel. Through the listening devices on board, the ship gives off a sound of certain pitch that cannot be mistaken for any other sound. The ship hugs the cable from harbor line to the dock. On the bridge and in the captain's cabin listening devices like telephone receivers are placed and attached by wires to the hull of the ship. The ship follows the course of the cable. Any variation away from the cable is indicated by visible indicators which show in feet the distance away from the cable and the ship is then put back over the cable by the steering rudder in the usual manner.
By the ear receivers the indicators may be confirmed at all times. Vessels going into port will use one cable; those coming out another. The sound on each is different and there can be no confusion and therefore no collision. Along the cable at mile intervals a section is insulated with lead. Through this no sound can come and therefore the man on listening duty can tell instantly how far the ship has progressed, and by the cable chart in front of him can tell where the cable turns and where the ship must be steered to follow the curve of the cable and the center of the channel. The new device, according to those who have tested it and recommended its use is as reliable as the telephone. It will work in all conditions of water and weather, it is said, and no amount of electricity in the air or powerful wireless currents about the ship can effect it in any way.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 20, 1919.
ENGINEERING
Something New in Condensers.—A new development in steam surface condensers is announced by the Wheeler Condenser & Engineering Co., Carteret, N.J. It is a patented "compartment condenser" that can be cleaned while in service without shutting down the turbine. Any tube or tubes may be temporarily plugged and other repairs made without taking the condenser out of service.
This is a timely development in view of the persistent claims made by well-known fuel authorities that the price of fuel is not likely to go down for some time if at all. This condenser will enable the chief engineer to constantly maintain clean condensers, hence a constantly high vacuum. All engineers of experience know that in addition to increasing output a high vacuum means low fuel consumption and a considerable saving in money year in year out.
Upon installation of this condenser, it is claimed there need be no interference with the operation of the turbine. At the present time, in many important power stations, even where water conditions are regarded as good, it is necessary to occasionally shut down the turbine for a period sufficiently long to give the condenser a thorough cleaning. In such cases, and in fact in all cases where continuous and highly efficient operation are desirable, this new type will fill a long felt want.
To clean the average condenser is not a difficult task, but it is time-consuming, and for that reason the chief engineer is naturally tempted to put cleaning off until "to-morrow," or "next week," or "next month." During his wait for the opportune time the vacuum gradually drops and, with the drop, coal wastage increases. Sometimes the loss of vacuum amounts to several inches of mercury, hence the compartment condenser which can be kept constantly clean regardless of load conditions, will in the long run prove to be a paying investment from the standpoints of both uninterrupted service and coal saving.
The illustration indicates clearly how the compartments are arranged. The condenser shown is divided into four compartments, each compartment being equipped with a set of valves to control the circulating water. To clean the condenser while the turbine is delivering full power, the operator simply shuts off the water from one compartment, removes the cover, cleans the tubes, replaces the cover, turns on the water again, and then passes on to the next compartment repeating the operation until the four compartments or the entire condenser is clean. Thus, while one compartment is being cleaned, the other compartments are in full operation, temporarily taking over the entire turbine load.
An advantage that will not be overlooked by engineers in localities where water is bad is that no matter how severe the water conditions may be, the compartment condenser will take care of the cleaning problem. Shut downs for frequent cleaning will become a thing of the past. This condenser can be cleaned as many times per week or months as desired.—Shipping, Sept. 20, 1919.
Turning an Auxiliary Condenser Into an Oil Cooler.—The S.S. Anoka of the American Hawaiian Steamship Company, which recently arrived in New York harbor from Portland, Ore., ran through very warm seas, the log book showing sea water temperature of 88 degrees day after day. This condition made it very difficult to keep the lubricating oil cool, especially as the boat was equipped with only one cooler. In fact the oil entered the cooler at 124 degrees and came out but one degree lower. As a result of the use of this hot oil the bearings of her turbines grew hotter and hotter, and at last, when they reached 164 degrees, the chief engineer, Arthur Sheridan, decided that something had to be done. Casting around for a remedy, he conceived the novel idea of transforming his auxiliary condenser into an oil cooler, and this he proceeded to do with the aid of such tools and piping as he had on board. The success of this plan was complete, as the oil temperature was immediately reduced to 103 degrees and the bearings kept in proper condition. After reaching port, Chief Sheridan boiled out the condenser with soda and kerosene and was ready for port operation.—Scientific American, Sept. 13, 1919.
Putting Out a Burning Oil Tank.—Oil and gasoline are risky things to store, and the insurance companies ask high rates on them, owing to the difficulty in extinguishing the flames by ordinary means if the storage tank should catch fire. The use of water results in a further spread of the blaze over a larger area on account of the well-known property of oil to float on water. The use of carbonic-acid gas is ineffective, because of the great diffusion in the atmosphere by the rising currents of air and other natural conditions. Both of these difficulties are reported as being remedied by a method which has been recently introduced into practical use. Says a writer in The Engineering and Mining Journal (New York, August 30):
"The process is based upon the principle of applying a froth or blanket of bubbles containing the carbonic-acid gas, which thereby concentrates the gas so as to make it most effective. It is also said that by this means, not only are the flames extinguished but the smoke and fumes are also smothered.
"Another advantage stated is the comparative dryness of the foam compared to water, as it possesses no tendency to soak into the material, which results in less damage. The bubbles are minute in size and hold the gas efficiently. The composition of the solution used for the formation of the bubbles has not been revealed by the inventors. The froth resulting- from the release of the liquid from the extinguisher is eight times in volume that of the original liquid, which therefore gives it a large area-covering capacity. The physical properties show the froth to be heavy, tenacious, and lasting. Portable means for the application of the method have been provided by the use of fire pails, hand extinguishers and portable engines. For large storage tanks permanent installations are used. The first illustration depicts a 55,000-barrel tank fire at its height, with a strong wind blowing, and the lower is an illustration of the same tank 48 seconds later, showing how the foam blanket smothered the blaze. The tank was 114 feet in diameter, presenting 10,200 square feet of surface. The method of projecting the liquid is shown by the two containers on opposite sides of the tank. The distance of discharge is a maximum of 50 feet."—The Literary Digest, Sept. 27, 1919.
Conducting Aluminum—A New Invention.—A new invention called conducting aluminum M.277, which is said to be creating a profound impression, has been made by Dr. Georges Giulini, the most famous expert in aluminum trade. This new metal is produced by putting the ordinary aluminum through a special patented process, by which it acquires the same mechanical qualities and capacities as bronze, copper, and brass without changing its specific weight. It is said that the price of the new metal can be kept within very low limits; so that, even at the pre-war prices of other metals, it will be able, by reason of its smaller specific weight, to compete with copper and brass very favorably. The fact that the new metal is a conductor will make it especially in demand in the electrical trade. The inventor anticipates for it also a good market among the builders of motor cars, air-planes, ships, and railway carriages. Leading men to whom the invention is already known, are said to be much impressed with its possibilities.—Scientific American, Sept. 20, 1919.
New Electric Bulbs.—There has beeen recently introduced a new form of electric bulb which possesses marked advantages over the usual bulb in fixtures where no special shade or other protection is afforded for the eyes. The outstanding characteristic of this lamp is the pleasing softness of its light. The large volume of light which the small filament emits is diffused to the point where the bulb itself appears luminous. The white bulb—it is milky white in appearance—is made in the so-watt size, and notwithstanding the low brightness of the bulb, supplies more light than the 50-watt clear glass bulb.—Scientific American, Sept. 20, 1919.
Diesel Engine Power of the Future.—In a recent address before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers at Berkeley, Mr. E. N. Percy predicted that the Diesel engine would revolutionize American industry within a brief period. In part he said:
"The entire European maritime fleet is equipping its merchant marine with Diesel engines. Steamships cannot compete with motorships, and no country except the United States is now building steamships in quantity. The internal combustion engine possesses tremendous economic advantages over the steam engine. It requires only a third of present engine-room crews to operate, one-third of the fuel and its smaller bulk and cargo space fuel requirements afford far greater cargo space.
"Norway and Sweden are building 44 large motorships requiring 78 main Diesel engines. The East Asiatic Company, of Denmark, now has a large fleet of Diesel ships. The Scandinavian shippers are lifting steam engines from the holds and installing motors.
"Italy is now building a fleet of 8000-ton motorships. England is standardizing motorships of 8200 tons and 3300 horsepower. Eight of these vessels have been delivered, and a new one is launched every month.
"Prior to the armistice, Germany had evolved plans for an immense fleet of Diesel vessels and had a yard constructed with the foundation for eight shipways laid down.
"Twenty-five motor-ships equipped with Dutch Diesel engines of 4000 horsepower are now in active service. They have a tremendous cruising radius and some of them have run 300,000 miles with greater reliability and continuity than the average steamship.
"American firms for some years have been endeavoring to build semi-Diesels, light Diesels and high-speed Diesels with the result that Diesel engines have a very bad name in this country. They attempted to build a cheap engine.
"A reliable engine of this type is necessarily heavy and expensive, costing in the neighborhood of $150 per horsepower for the engine alone and $250 for the entire installation.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 6, 1919.
Lignum-Vitae, The Vital Wood.—The propeller shaft of every battleship, every destroyer, every transport, in fact, every large steamship, revolves in a wooden bearing at the stern end. Of all the thousands of woods in the world, true lignum-vitae, a native of the West Indies and certain other parts of tropical America, is the only one that has been found equal to this exacting service. The peculiar properties which so well fit lignum-vitae for the purpose are due to the arrangement of the fibers and the resin-content of 'the sap cells. The fibers never run straight up and down the log, but weave back and forth in a serpentine manner that cross and crisscross like the corded fabric of an automobile tire. The result is a material of extreme tenacity and toughness. When the sap cells cease to function, their every nook and cranny become filled with a resin which is about a third heavier than water. The result is a material which weights about 80 pounds per cubic foot.
Stern bearings provide the most important use for lignum-vitae but by no means the only one. Formerly it was in great demand for bowling balls, but now only one ball in ten is made of wood. A large quantity of low-grade logs, known as "cutting-up" wood, is consumed in the manufacture of rollers for furniture casters. Small round sticks made excellent mallets and fill a large demand, especially in England. Another important use is for sheaves of pulleys, and they have been known to last in constant use for 70 years. Another nautical application is for "dead-eyes," a small flattish block with a grooved rim to fit in the bight of a rope or encircled by an iron band, pierced with three holes to receive a lanyard, and used to extend the shrouds and stays. Among the miscellaneous uses may be mentioned stencil and chisel blocks, watchmakers' blocks, mortars and pestles, dowels, golf-club heads, wooden cogs, water wheels and block guides for band saws. In building the Panama Canal, the true lignum-vitae made the most serviceable railroad ties that could be obtained. Between 150 and 200 tons of genuine lignum-vitae are used every year in New York for fuel in grate fires. The very dense nature of the wood, together with the heavy resin content, produces a fuel with intense glowing heat and good lasting qualities. This provides one outlet for defective and crooked logs which are found in every shipment.—Engineering World, Oct. 1, 1919.
Deep-Water Speeds.—The new British destroyers of the "S" class, now nearly all completed, have reached some remarkably high speeds on their trials, well over the 36 knots for which they were designed. At least two of the Yarrow boats, the Torch and Turquoise have exceeded 39 knots. Curiously enough, however, the speed of 40.4 knots which the Teaser, of Messrs. Thornycroft, was reported to have achieved soon after her completion in July, 1917, remains the highest on record, but if this speed is accepted for purposes of comparison there is involved the question of the difference in trial courses. The Teaser's record was obtained on a run between St. Catherine's Point and Ventnor Pier, and the Channel between these positions is shallower than on the deep-water course at Skelmorlie, over which the greater number of our destroyers have been tried during the war. There seems to have been an idea, in big ships, at least, that a higher speed could be obtained in deep water, as where the Channel was shallow the drag of the bottom affected the rate of speed of the ship. As far as destroyers are concerned, this is certainly not the case, for the highest speeds have been made in shallow water. The Wolsey, for example, loaded to 1188 tons displacement, made 38.2 knots in shallow water in the Channel, but on the deep-water course at Skelmorlie, loaded to 1206 tons (only 18 tons more), her speed was 36.6 knots, or over 1 ½ knot less. A similar result was obtained with the flotilla leader Wallace, completed after the armistice. Her builders, Messrs. Thornycroft, obtained permission to try her over the deep-water course at Skelmorlie, in order to ascertain the difference in performance as compared with that in 20 fathoms. Over the latter depth she realized 37.79 knots. Tried at Skelmorlie the next week, the speed, at the same loading, was 37.72 knots, but this was only obtained at an increased horsepower of 960. This bore out the previous experience that deeper water means slower speed.—The Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 13, 1919.
Rust-Proofing Coatings for Iron and Steel.—The Bureau of Standards at Washington has issued a circular on a series of investigations concerning metallic coatings for the rust-proofing of iron and steel. The Bureau has studied a long series of methods to secure this result by means of metallic coatings, paint, lacquers, varnishes and enamels. The circular deals with the various types of metallic coatings, including those closely related in their nature and method of production, oxide and similar coatings. The methods of application and characteristics of the different metallic coatings are discussed, and it is shown that zinc, because of its electro-positive nature with respect to iron, is the one to be relied upon when protection against corrosion is the prime consideration. Other considerations, such as freedom from toxic effects in food containers, often lead to the choice of some other metal than zinc.
The circular discusses the structure and uniformity of distribution of the different classes of zinc coatings and their bearing upon the behavior in service. Of the various methods which are used for the testing of coated materials, the "salt spray" test is regarded as the most satisfactory. The articles to be tested are exposed to a fine mist of saturated salt solution, and the length of time they withstand this severe exposure is a fair index of the service life that may be expected for the specimen. This test while not entirely satisfactory, is the best which has yet been suggested, says the report.
A series of recommendations concerning the choice of protective metallic coatings for various types of works is given, together with a good working bibliography of the subject.—Engineering and Industrial Management, Aug. 28, 1919.
AERONAUTICS
Reducing the Fire Hazard in the Airplane.—Fire is the greatest danger faced by the airman. Structural collapse, loss of control, collision, engine failure, bad landings—all these possibilities are serious, to be sure; but conflagration in mid-air is the one danger over which the airman has little control and still less chance of combating, once it starts.
Various methods of reducing the fire hazard to a minimum have been worked out by British and French aircraft constructors, and many of the modern French airplanes are fitted with detachable or protected fuel tanks or tanks arranged with rip patches. In the case of the French airplanes, too, great care is taken with the gasoline, oil and water installations, in order to insure that installation failures should not provoke disasters. All air intakes have to be carried outside the engine fairing and so arranged that communication with the interior of the cowling is impossible, so that the risk from back fires is reduced to a minimum. Pressure fed gasoline delivery is forbidden. Ignition wires must pass under and not over the gasoline pipes.
The obvious thing to do with a flaming fuel tank is to drop it overboard. And so the problem of designing and constructing a fuel tank that could be instantly detached and released from an airplane at the will of the pilot has not failed to receive considerable attention. First in England, and later in France, actual tests have been carried out with encouraging results.
Various schemes have been worked out for detachable fuel tanks. Some depend on releasing a carriage which carries the tank, while others depend on the tripping of a latch. One of the French schemes for a detachable fuel tank is depicted in the accompanying illustration. The tank, in this case, is sort of wedge-shaped, and held in a wedge-shaped compartment by means of a simple latch device. The latch can be released from the cockpit, and the same operation shears all the pipe connections. Gasoline pipes coming from the gravity tank are previously closed off by a pet cock, or else automatically prevented from wasting fuel by a ball check valve.
As might well be expected, there are numerous objections to such an installation. The machine must be rearranged in most instances, resulting in some weaknesses. The fuel system must be altered, perhaps with detrimental results. The pilot is apt to release his tank without cause, due to nerves, resulting probably in a forced landing. In some cases, particularly the French Breguet bombers, tanks have become loose due to vibration. In a crash the detachable tank is just as likely to take fire as an ordinary tank. All in all, however, the detachable tank represents a distinct step forward in airplane design.
Then there are numerous schemes for protected tanks. The idea of covering a gasoline tank with India rubber originated with an Englishman, who took out a patent as far back as 1909. Various improvements have since been suggested, and a tank has finally been evolved which will take 20 or more incendiary bullets without leaking, and will not take fire even in a bad crash. One French inventor has developed a tank built of light steel with outer and inner walls, the intervening space being filled with glycerine and gelatine composition apparently similar to that which was at one time used as a filler for what were considered puncture proof tires. The composition is supposed to close and fill any hole made in this tank. However, the weight is so excessive that the tank has received little consideration.
Two French inventors have worked out a scheme calling for a steel tank of ordinary construction covered by a layer of felt and six or more layers of sheet rubber. One or more of the rubber sheets are separated by coarse interlaced hemp cord, and the whole construction is bound in place by a galvanized wire netting. This tank has been provided with a funnel member at the bottom which gathers such fuel as escapes from the tank and percolates down through the layers of the cover. Tests have shown that this tank is fairly satisfactory, although its great weight is against it.
In the machines constructed in France for the United States Air Service, non-inflammable tanks were installed and at least one type of machine, namely, the Sopwith "Dolphin," was arranged for the non-pressure system. These tanks may be described as a semi-rigid type. Essentially, each tank consists of an inner metal shell of medium thickness, covered with fabric and layers of vulcanized rubber of varying degrees of elasticity and outer layers of fabric and a screen covering.
Practically all of the fireproof tanks in existence are based on the use of several layers of rubber or fabric in combination with metal. The idea is to accord a flexible construction which closes in after being perforated, and which can withstand severe shocks without breaking apart. Originally, the fireproof tank was intended wholly for fighting machines, and it is certain that if war had continued till this year, both sides would have employed fireproof machines. As it is, the fireproof tank, both of the detachable and non-leaking types, has a, decided peace application if airplanes are to be made safe.—Scientific American, Sept. 20, 1919.
The Formation of Clouds by Aeroplanes.—As a result of certain observations it has recently been suggested that under favorable atmospheric conditions the passage of an aeroplane through the air can result in the formation of a temporary cloud more or less surrounding the machine. The creation of such a cloud appears perfectly reasonable, for given an appropriate degree of atmospheric humidity, it seems quite natural to expect that the local changes of pressure produced in the vortex and other disturbances in the air accompanying the flight of the machine would result in a temporary condensation of the atmospheric water vapor and the consequent formation of a "cloud." That the formation should be sufficiently marked to be observable at a distance, as apparently it has been observed, is we think, more to be wondered at than that the cloud should be formed. We learn that in the United States Army high-speed wind tunnel at Dayton the phenomenon has also been noticed on a small scale, and that it is being applied instead of the usual smoke or lycopodium powder method to make the flight vortices visible to the human eye and the lens of a camera.—The Engineer, Sept. 5, 1919.
Long Glides.—What is believed to be a world's record for gliding with a dead motor was accomplished at Ithaca, N.Y., in a Thomas-Morse' two-seater biplane. This machine flew to the head of Cayuga Lake, a distance of 35 miles, and having attained a height of 17,500 feet, the pilot switched off his motor and glided to Ithaca, at which point he still had 5000 feet altitude. If this glide had been continued it is estimated than an additional 15 miles could have been covered, making a total of 50 miles without the use of his motor. The longest glide previously recorded was that of Captain Raynham, according to Aeronautics, when he glided from Brooklands to Hendon, in England, a distance of 22 miles.—Scientific American, Sept. 27, 1919.
Aeroplane Takes Off from Sea Sled.—The Navy Department conducted a series of successful tests of "taking off" from a sea sled. The plane was lowered from the deck of a battleship onto the sea sled. The sled got under way, gradually gaining full speed. Then the aeroplane engine was tuned up to full speed. The plane rose straight upward as if thrown from a catapult. The test was repeated several times with great success.—Aerial Age Weekly, Sept. 29, 1919.
Moorings for Airships.—The mooring out of airships is a problem, writes Colonel W. L. Marsh in the London Times, of extreme importance. The first attempt in this direction was made in September, 1911, when his Majesty's naval airship Mayfly was brought out of her dock and moored to a mast on the Cavendish dock, Barrow-in-Furness. This mast was mounted on a raft and left free to swing with the wind. Attached to it was a screen in the form of a lattice made of rope to break the force of the wind.
The next development was a steel lattice-work mast. In this case, the top of the mast was a revolving cone, with its axis horizontal to the ground, into which the nose of the airship was led and securely fastened. Non-rigid airships tend to ride forward into the mast, and this, while being free to revolve, must be rigid. The envelope, however, must in some way be strengthened to resist the alternate pull and push of the anchorage. The ideal place for the attachment is the extreme point of the bow, but this is apt to break the nose-stiffeners which are fitted to reimburse the bow against the wind pressure in flight.
A mast has now been evolved comprising a vertical member at the top of which is a revolving pivot on a universal joint, carrying two horizontal arms forming a complete semi-circle. At the extremity of each of these arms is a circular disc, in the center of which is a hoop on the end of a wire rope. Corresponding to these two discs are two fabric rings, with a hoop in the center of each, on either side of the bow of the airship.
In this way the airship is firmly held by the two arms while being left free to revolve like a weathercock in accordance with changes in the direction of the wind. The universal joint allows a certain amount of play and allows the airship some latitude for a pitching motion. The chief function of the two arms is to prevent rolling, which was bound to be considerable when only one point of attachment was used.
In the case of rigid airships, the problem is in reality simpler, as it is comparatively easy to reinforce the nose. Messrs. Vicker's method is to fit a stout steel bar to the nose-cap of the airship. This has a ball on the end, which by an ingenious device, automatically dips into a cup fitted in a universal joint on the top of the mast.
On landing to a mast the airship will be brought down to a height of about 200 feet and as close to the mast as possible with her head to the wind. The trail rope will then be dropped and attached by a spring clip to a hawser from the mast. The airship will then be hauled up to the mast by a winch until the steel ball meets the cup on the mast. The cup automatically closes, locking the airship fast, and the trail rope will be cast off from the hawser, the ship remaining attached simply by the grip of the cup. In this way, it is estimated that a large rigid airship could be landed with the assistance of not more than half a dozen men, thus doing away with the present landing parties of 250 men.—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 20, 1919.
Soars to 34,200 Feet.—Roland Rohlfs soared to a new world's altitude record in his Curtiss Wasp at Roosevelt Field, Mineola, September 13. Rohlfs flew to a height of 34,200 feet, but because there were no officials present to seal his instruments the record is not official. The aviator is confident, however, he can repeat or better his performance under official auspices and promises soon to make a try at it.
The standing official altitude record is 38,136 feet, credited to Adjutant Casale of the French Army. In July, Rohlfs made an official flight of 30,700 feet. He was prevented from flying higher on that occasion by the chilling of his motor. Since then shutters have been fitted on the Wasp's radiator. Rohlfs's observations during the flight of September 13 disclosed a "temperature lid" at 34,000 feet. At that altitude his thermometer registered a minimum of 44 degrees below zero. Then it began to grow warmer, showing 40 degrees below at 34,200 feet.—Aerial Age Weekly, Sept. 22, 1919.
Bakelite Propellers Under Test.—During the past few years there has been developed for various electrical uses, and also for certain parts of automobiles, a composition material called "Bakelite," after its inventor, Dr. Bakeland. So successful has this material proved that experiments are now being made with aeroplane propellers built of it. From the results thus far obtained, it is evident that these propellers have several advantages over those constructed of wood.
Bakelite is a harmless and particularly inert composition material derived from the combustion of carbolic acid, cresol, or phenol, and formaldehyde. These, when combined in the proper manner, form a resin, which in its primary state may be either solid or fluid, but in either case is essentially a soft resin easily affected by heat and solvents. If subjected to combined heat and pressure for a sufficiently long time, however, the material is carried over into a hard state not affected by the ordinary solvents to temperatures that ordinarily would disintegrate a gum or resin. When in this condition bakelite is but slightly affected by acids or weak alkalies. It will not burn at all readily, but will char and burn slowly at temperatures in the region of 300 degrees to 400 degrees C.
Flat sheets of cloth or paper are coated with bakelite and pressed together to form solid blocks of various shapes.
The material, formed by coating a cloth or paper base with bakelitecompound and pressing a number of these prepared sheets into a solid block, is known by the trade name of Micarta.
Wooden aeroplane propellers are subject to warping, splitting at the laminations, chipping, etc. Moreover, the various laminations in any one propeller are rarely of exactly the same moisture content when assembled, and their density also varies. This results in unequal absorption of moisture, particularly in cold weather.
Propellers made of micarta are practically impervious to moisture. They are also, if properly made, much more uniform in structure and are practically as strong as wood propellers, but slightly heavier.—Technical supplement to the Review of the Foreign Press, Aug. 19, 1919.
British Reduce Their Airship Program.—A surprising development of the past year was the enormous scale upon which Great Britain launched her new aviation program. The proposed expenditure, which totaled the enormous sum of over $300,000,000, covered several airships which were to be larger and faster than anything that had yet been attempted. In addition to the governmental enterprises several large syndicates were formed for the purpose of promoting local, long distance and world travel, and the plans of these corporations, in the world both of finance and engineering construction, bordered on the sensational.
Since the announcement of these enterprises was made, strong pressure has been brought upon the British Government to exercise an all-around economy, and the pruning knife has already been taken in hand with most drastic results. In our last issue we showed what was being done in reducing the size and running expenses of the British Navy, 150 of whose ships have been condemned and stricken off the list, including practically the whole of the pre-dreadnought fleet. It is evident that the airship program is being cut down with an equally ruthless hand. The Air Ministry has decided to sell to private aviation firms a number of airships and also several airship stations, together with a large amount of stores.
That the curtailment is very severe will be realized when it is mentioned that among the numerous large airships to be sold is the one known as R-80, which has been nearly completed by Messrs. Vickers, and the huge R-39, which is being built by the Armstrong firm. Although the exact dimensions are not available R-39 is much larger than any airship in the service, including the famous R-34 which recently made the successful round trip from England to America and back. The government is so much in earnest in this matter that, if it is not possible to find purchasers, some of the airships, because of the heavy cost of maintenance, will be demolished. It is probable that those ships whose construction has not advanced very far will in any case be broken up. The necessity for cutting more deeply into airship program than into that for airplanes is due to the enormous first cost of the necessary landing grounds, air sheds and mooring posts which, so far as the air sheds alone are concerned, practically doubles the cost of each ship.
We are told that probably purchasers for several of the airships will be the syndicate which has been formed to establish air service between Liverpool and New York and between Liverpool and Australia, for if these services are to be maintained with any reasonable frequency and regularity, at least six of the larger type of airships must be built or purchased.
Of course we were all aware that the high first cost of the airship was a serious handicap; but it is not so well understood that its life is very limited. In the hearings before the House Naval Committee, its useful life was given, if we remember rightly, as about two years. That, of course refers to the machines of to-day, and is due chiefly to the perishable nature of the canvas covering. In any case those who pin their faith to the heavier-than-air machines will feel that this drastic action of the British Air Ministry has discounted to some extent the airship and put a premium upon its smaller rival.—Scientific American, Oct. 4, 1919.
MISCELLANEOUS
Submarine Scrapping.—After the _ destroyers, the submarine. Our present strength in under-water craft is not known exactly, but after the heavy toll of war losses, amounting to 54 vessels, it is manifest that the Admiralty order placing another 52 boats on the same list means drastic reduction, especially as we know now from Lord Fisher that when he returned to office in October, 1914, there were only 51 submarines in the whole service. Yet the reduction cannot be considered a bit too sweeping. In submarines, perhaps more than any other class, enormous developments must take place before the next naval war, and the service should not be encumbered with a lot of obsolete material, the retention of which could only lead to waste in money and men. The surprising thing is that 10 months should have been allowed to elapse after the armistice before the scrapping of such old and small submarines as the 26 of the "B," "C" and "D" classes which appear in the new list. If these classes, vide Lord Jellicoe, were unfit for oversea work in 1914, they certainly must have been even more unfit in 1918, and they were surely not retained merely for coastal duties. Having at length moved in this matter the authorities have also included submarines of six later classes, several of them built during the war. The post-war flotillas will henceforth be composed entirely of vessels completed since 1914. The oil driven "J" and "L" types, and steam driven "K class will form the backbone of the flotillas, with a proportion of older classes from the later "E's" onwards.—The Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 20, 1919.
Civil Engineers Wanted in Navy.—Young civil engineers who desire to become officers in the U.S. Navy have an excellent opportunity to secure an appointment in the grade of assistant civil engineer to fill existing vacancies. Appointees will be commissioned with the rank of lieutenant (junior grade), and there are at least 18 vacancies at present. A candidate who has passed his thirtieth birthday on December 15, 1919, or who has passed his twenty-first birthday on that date, will not be eligible for examination. The examination is open to all citizens of the United States, including reserve officers, temporary officers, and enlisted men of the navy who comply with conditions. The candidate must have received a degree from a college or university of standing, showing that he has satisfactorily completed a course in engineering, and must have had not less than 16 months' practical experience since graduation. The Navy Department reserves the right to waive deficiencies as to age in the case of any officer who has satisfactorily performed duties in the Civil Engineer Corps during the war period. A descriptive circular will be sent to all persons interested upon application to the Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks, Navy Department, Washington, D.C.—Army and Navy Journal, Sept. 27, 1919.
German Navy.—Berlin "Navy Orders" contain details of the new uniform to be introduced into the German Navy on November I. The letters "S.M.S." (his Majesty's ship) will disappear from the men's cap bands. Gilded buttons without the crown are to be worn, and a dagger will be the only weapon carried. The different colors of the velvet collar of officers' and warrant officers' uniforms, denoting the various branches of service, are to be done away with. The ranks of officers, pursers, and warrant officers will be shown by gold arm stripes, differing in number and width. Epaulettes are being abolished, but greatcoats will have shoulder straps bearing the badges of rank. The wearing of the uniform is compulsory on duty only.—The Army and Navy Gazette, Aug. 30, 1919.
The Allies on the Rhine.—The strength of the Allied Army of Occupation on the left bank of the Rhine has, it is announced in the Paris press, been fixed at 150,000 men, of which number France will find half. The remaining. 75,000 will, it is stated, be found by Great Britain, Belgium and the United States. Belgium, as a conscription country, will probably find the biggest contingent, for under any system of voluntary service numbers are always a difficulty. M. Clemenceau stated recently before the Committee of the Chamber on the Peace Treaty, that the occupation will be for a maximum period of 15 years, and that the left bank and the right bank of the river for a depth of 50 kilometers will be completely demilitarized. With the German Army for the rest of the Empire reduced to 100,000 men it would seem that there is every prospect of the provisions of the Treaty being carried out.—The Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 6, 1919.
Military Training for New York Boys.—The work of calling up more than 100,000 boys in the state of New York who are 16, 17 and 18 years of age for military discipline and citizenship training was commenced October I by the State Military Training Commission, of which Major General John F. O'Ryan of the New York Guard, and who commanded the 27th Division, A.E.F., overseas, is chairman. Training is to begin immediately in all parts of the state under regular army and state guard officers and male teachers and physical instructors of various schools and colleges. The Bureau of Technical Military Training, in charge of Brig. General William H. Chapin, has direct charge of the training program. The state law makes it necessary for every boy of the ages mentioned to possess a certificate issued by the commission showing that he is meeting with the legal requirements. No school may permit a boy to attend unless he has a certificate and no employer may continue to employ a boy unless similarly provided.—Army and Navy Journal, Oct. 4, 1919.
Proposed Japanese-Pacific Cables.—A recent dispatch from Tokyo states that prominent Japanese business men have decided to float a company with a capital of 50,000,000 yen (about $25,000,000) for the purpose of laying a cable line between the United States and Japan. This decision is the result of dissatisfaction which has been existing for a long time among business men on both sides of the Pacific with the present cable service, which seems unable to handle the constantly increasing volume of traffic.
It is expected that the venture will be supported by business men of the United States as well as by those in Japan, and that the establishment of a new cable line will do much towards promoting trade between the two countries.
"Some time ago a committee of business men formed to look into the matter of laying a cable between the United States and Japan," said K. Uchida, former Vice-Minister of Communications, who is the moving spirit in the proposition.
"It has not been decided as yet what route will be chosen for the cable, but we know it will be one of the two southern routes. One of these will run from San Francisco to Hawaii, to Midway, and to Ogasawarajima. The other will be the same with a substitution of one of the South Sea Islands, now under control of Japan, in place of Midway. The Hawaii route is the shorter, but the other gives a shorter distance between stations, which will enable it to do speedier work. No final decision will be made as to which of the two will be chosen until after a survey has been made."—The Nautical Gazette, Sept. 20, 1919.
China Building Ships.—In these days of planning for commercial prestige, even the Chinese are building ships. At Shanghai is a shipyard, the Kiangnan, operated by the government, which is turning out ships regularly, even though its capacity is limited, and the methods employed in many instances are antiquated.
Chinese directors are in charge of the plant, though the engineering problems are superintended mainly by Englishmen. The workmanship appears to be of high quality, and the vessels of the composite type which are constructed there are insured by Lloyd's for 20 years. In the last 10 years an average of 31 vessels a year have been turned out. Many have been for the use of the American Government in Philippine waters.—N.Y. Times, Oct. 5, 1919.
Poland to Have a Navy When Treaty is Ratified.—The organization of a Polish Navy, to become operative with the ratification of the Peace Treaty, is proceeding rapidly, according to advices from Polish sources. The fleet will consist, according to present plans, of four armored cruisers and 12 large torpedo-boats. It will have a personnel of 3500, including 150 officers, probably under the command of Admiral Porebski.—N.Y. Times, Sept. 20, 1919.
Japan's Navy Maneuvers.—Coincident with the return of the Emperor and Empress from Nikko, it was announced that extensive naval maneuvers would be carried out by the entire Japanese Navy, with the exception of ships in distant waters, in the Pacific Ocean off the Southeastern coast of Japan, beginning the middle of October.
The maneuvers will be under the personal supervision of the Emperor, this being the first time that he has been in charge of evolutions on the high seas. It is understood Japan will appropriate $125,000,000 for aviation, the program to be extended over four years.—N.Y. Times, Sept. 28, 1919.
Chasers Race from Bermuda.—Six submarine chasers, 110-footers, on their way from foreign bases raced from off St. Davids Head to a line off the Statue of Liberty and made a fine contest. Vice Admiral Morgan Singer, R. N., sent the racers away at five o'clock on Saturday afternoon, August 16. The Admiral and his party were on the government tub St. Abbs and a large fleet of vessels of all types went outside to see the chasers start.
A tender, Hannibal, left Bermuda 24 hours before the race started and she was passed by the leaders 36 hours after the start. Lieutenant Joseph L. Day of Portland, Me., had charge of the S. C. 131 and he succeeded in getting his vessel first across the line and maintaining the lead all the way. The Ambrose Channel Lightship was hailed at 2.19 o'clock on Tuesday morning, August 19, and the finishing line was crossed at 2.53. The actual time from start to finish, allowing for difference in time, was 57 hours, 20 minutes. The S. C. 217 finished at 3.01 o'clock and 5". C. 351 at 3.34 o'clock. S. C. go, S C. 224 and 5'. C. 237 followed in the order named.
Lieutenant Day said, "We ran into what was rough water for us right at the start, which held until we reached the Gulf Stream the next day. Going with the current we found practically smooth seas in what we expected would be a nasty spot. On Monday the weather was fine until evening, when the racers ran into fog and later they raced through a terrific electrical storm. It was hard work to pick up the Navesink Light, but we did so finally at 11.30 o'clock."
The best previous record over this course but going to Bermuda was
made by the Ailsa-Craig in 1907. That yacht, with a 100-h. p. Craig engine, made the 42 nautical miles in 64 hours, 21 minutes. The no's have three Standard engines of 225 h. p. each.—The Rudder, Sept., 1919.
100 Officers and Sailors of Naval Ship Die in Typhoon.—Lining up on the deck and crying "Banzai!" more than 100 officers and seamen of the Japanese naval oil supply ship Shijiki Maru went down with their ship in a typhoon off the Island of Kyushu.
According to the stories of eight survivors, the Shijiki Maru ran on the rocks during the typhoon, and in a dense fog. Warships are engaged in the search for possible survivors, who may be found on the island.—N.Y. Times, Sept. 11, 1919.
The First Submarine Victim.—In the course of his extremely interesting narrative of the Dover Patrol in the Daily Telegraph, Admiral Sir Reginal Bacon mentions that the submarine menace made a heavy call on our available destroyers, "especially when such vessels began indiscriminately sinking merchant vessels on October 21, 1914." The country may not remember that it was so early in the war that Germany began destroying merchantmen in this way. The first submarine blockade was not proclaimed until February 18, 1915, but for four months the "U"-boats had been trying their hands at the new game of piracy. The promptness with which this method of commerce destruction was taken up, as soon as boats were available for it, shows clearly that it was premeditated, but the earliest sinkings attracted little public attention and no one could have foreseen the lengths to which the submarines would go. Although, as a calculated insult, it was intended to sink the first British merchantman on Trafalgar Day, the incident actually occurred on October 20, 1914, the news reaching England next morning. It was the steamer Glitra, of 866 tons, owned by Messrs. Salvesen, of Leith, and commanded by Captain R.E. Johnston, which was destroyed, U-17 lying in wait for her while she was bound with a general cargo from Grangemouth to Stavanger. The submarine flew the German flag and the Glitra tried to escape, but her speed was too slow and she therefore complied with the signal to stop.—Army and Navy Gazette, Sept. 20, 1919.
Skoda Works Nationalized; Czechs and French to Direct.—The famous Skoda arms and ammunition works, near Pilsen, have been nationalized, according to messages reaching here. A new council has been named to conduct the works, comprised of six Czechs and three Frenchmen.
The last previous advices regarding the Skoda works were that their purchase was being negotiated for by an American syndicate. A Geneva dispatch on August 31, however, said that there was a hitch in the negotiations due to the differences on the question of the price to be paid.
The Skoda works produced the famous Austrian howitzers, one of the most effective heavy artillery weapons used by the Central Powers in the war.—N.Y. Times, Sept. 29, 1919.
Making Safe the High Seas.—One of the most welcome signs of peace for those who travel the high seas, has been the removal from merchant ships of guns, gun platforms, lookout-nests and the bizarre camouflage and their restoration to peace-time conditions. Not only does the passenger embark on a ship which has been restored her external grace and internal comfort, but she can steam on a direct course for her destination without fear of the bursting shells of the enemy raider, or the rending of her hull by a torpedo…
Not all of the war terrors were swept away, however, with the signing of the armistice; for, although the enemy might no longer sow the seas, the roadsteads, and the channels of maritime commerce with the deadly mine, the seas as he left them, were full of this peril. The Allies, of course, did their own share of mine planting; but since they possessed the charts of the mine-fields, the peril was limited. The enemy also was required by the armistice to furnish full plans of his activities.
The work of mine removal has been a simply stupendous task, the largest part of which was the clearing away of the great mine barrage, 250 miles in length, which was laid by our own and British navies. The greater share of the task, involving the laying of between 50,000 and 60,000 mines, fell to us, and to us was allotted the task of their removal, which in its way, was scarcely less full of peril and less burdensome than the work of putting them down. However, according to dispatches from London, the work has now been completed and we are given credit for its rapid accomplishment. Unquestionably, our North Sea mining operations, including manufacture of the mines in this country; their transport to Scotland; the formation of a great mine laying fleet; the laying of the mines and their remarkably speedy removal, will always be set down as one of the major operations of this great war.—Scientific American, Oct. 4, 1919.
Wanted—A Bouvian Port off the Pacific.—The government of Bolivia has made a demand on the League of Nations for an outlet to the Pacific. The Port of Arica, the terminus of the Trans-Andean railroad from La Paz, the Bolivian capital, is the port most desired. This port belongs to the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica, which were seized by Chile in a dispute with Peru in 1883.
Arica is connected with the city of Tacna, the capital of the province of that name, as well as with the Bolivian capital. Formerly it was the exporting center for a large number of Andean mining camps, silver, copper and manganese ores being shipped in large quantities. Now, it chiefly handles the exports of Bolivia. These consist chiefly of chinchilla skins, alpaca wool and other agricultural products. Loading and unloading of vessels is effected by lighters in an open roadstead behind the island of Alacran. The trade of the port has not yet rendered it necessary to go to the expense of constructing breakwaters and forming an artificial harbor.
Although the Bolivian Government has filed a claim for the port of Arica, it does not expect action to be taken until the pending dispute between Peru and Chile with respect to the provinces of Arica and Tacna is settled. According to the terms of the settlement of the war between these two countries, Chile had to restore the provinces to Peru, but now that the time to do so has arrived, the Chilean Government refuses to relinquish its hold. It has, however, agreed to refer the dispute to the peoples of the provinces. Meanwhile Bolivia is permitted to use the port of Arica freely. Its trade is prospering, according to latest advices.—Shipping, Sept. 27, 1919.