(Compiled and translated from the Marine Rundschau, and other sources.)
NAVAL OPERATIONS, JUNE, 1912.
*This account of "The Italian-Turkish War," which is concluded in this issue of the PROCEEDINGS, has been published in one volume, and copies of the same may be obtained, at a cost of one dollar postpaid, by addressing the author at Annapolis, Md.
During the month of June the first squadron of the Italian fleet was in the vicinity of Rhodes and the new base at Astropalia. The third division had returned to Italy during the last of May. The fourth division, which had been undergoing repairs since the end of April, had not completed that work by the middle of June. The guns of the Garibaldi, Varese, Ferruccio and Carlo Alberto were replaced by new guns, as they had fired 2000 projectiles from the older guns. The four auxiliary cruisers likewise exchanged their old guns for new guns.
The Italian torpedo vessels disquieted the east coast of the Aegean Sea. They repeatedly entered the Gulf of Smyrna and the Gulf of Xeros, northwest of the entrance to the Dardanelles without opposition. Their appearance caused a panic among the inhabitants of the coast and a concentration of the Turkish coast defence forces. Considerable excitement was caused by the operations of the Italian torpedo boats in the Bay of Scalanova, south of the Gulf of Smyrna, where in pursuing Turkish merchant vessels the Italians bombarded coast towns.
An attack on Smyrna and the occupation of the Island of Chios was threatened, and the Italian press clamored for some decisive blow to make Turkey yield. This demand was inexpedient, as several of the European powers intimated objections to any further acquisition of islands in the Grecian Archipelago and desired to prevent the closing of the Dardanelles again. The Turkish government notified the powers that they would completely close the Dardanelles if the Italians took possession of any of the large islands north of Samos.
For the defence of Smyrna and the adjacent region an infantry division was sent from Constantinople and the reserves were called out, so that in the five districts of Konia, Uschak, Aidin, Smyrna, and Denizli there were about 8o,000 Turkish troops.
All Italian subjects were removed from the Island of Chios, and in view of the disposition of the Greeks on this island and the comparatively small garrison of about moo Turks, martial law was declared.
Thirty thousand Turkish troops were available for the land defences of the Dardanelles at Gallipoli, under the command of Risa Pasha.
The Turkish naval forces remained inactive at anchor in the Dardanelles. About the first of June the crews of these ships demanded to be led against the foe, but the ministry declined to allow the navy to attempt to engage the Italian navy.
The occupation of the 12 Turkish islands by the Italians was agreeable to the Greek inhabitants. The Italians established a sort of republican form of government in these islands. The administration of the government was largely given to the Greeks. Each of the small islands had a garrison of only about 13 Italians, with one officer, and they carefully refrained from interfering with the government, but were available in case the civilian authorities required their services. The Italians organized a system of police-militia similar to that of the Italian Carbineers. There were 400 Italian troops on the Island of Kos.
Rhodes was an exception to this administration, and had Italian officials exclusively. The central point of the administration of the group of small islands was Astropalia, which was also the Italian naval base of this region. The mail was carried to the different islands by Italian navy petty officers, and Italian postage stamps were used. The system of taxation remained as it was, but all the tax receipts were turned in to the treasury. There was no change in custom duties, except that all Italian goods were admitted free of duty, while the imports of others were subjected to duty. The Italian war-ships seldom visited the captured islands, and all was quiet during the month of June.
The forty-second regiment of infantry sailed from Genoa the last of May to reinforce the Italian garrisons on the captured islands.
The Italians raised the blockade of the Island of Rhodes, but no vessels could arrive or depart at night. In all respects martial law prevailed. Rhodes was, as stated by Sir Edward Grey in the British Parliament, occupied only temporarily (June, 1912) by Italian forces, and had not been annexed to Italy.
During June the cable between Rhodes and Canada was replaced by the steamer Citta di Milano.
In the Red Sea, Italian war-ships bombarded the Arabian port Havza, on May 26, and Mokka on June 3. The destroyers Artigliere and Garibaldino returned to Italy during June.
In Tripolitan waters, the Etruria repeatedly bombarded an Arabian camp near Benghasi, and the Marco Polo shelled a camp near Derna. The Marco Polo also led an expedition for the capture of Misratah. She sounded the channel off Buscheifa and planted buoys for the transports. Buscheifa was the last of the seven North African ports of Tripoli and Cyrenaica to be captured by the Italians, except Zuara, which still remained in the possession of the Turks. Nine transports arrived off Buscheifa on June 14. They were convoyed by the school ship division of three Sardegnas and six torpedo destroyers. The war-ships landed the naval brigade at Ras Zerek, and they shelled the Arabians that disputed the landing. The auxiliary cruisers Duca di Genova, Citta di Messina, and the Citta di Siracusa, with three transports, made a demonstration near Sliten, to divert the Arabians from Buscheifa.
THE BANISHMENT OF ITALIANS FROM TURKISH DOMINIONS.
The Turkish decree of banishment of all Italians from all Turkish dominions caused a bitter protest from the Italian press. The German diplomatic corps was accused of neglecting Italian interest in Turkey, of which they had assumed charge when war was declared. The protests were carried into parliament, but the minister, Giolitti, promptly stopped all consideration of the subject because of the agreement with the ministry that during the war the exigencies of the war would not be discussed by parliament, as it might aid and abet the enemy. But the charge against the German diplomatic corps in Turkey was vehemently denied.
The banishment of the Italians was accomplished without any incident, but the period was prolonged by the Turks from June 3 until June 18.
The Italian government recalled all her officials that still remained in Turkish dominions, and the home authorities were instructed to provide for the reception of all banished Italians at the expense of the government, and as soon as possible after their arrival to give them employment by the government. The king subscribed the sum of 100,000 lires for the relief of the banished Italians.
EXPENSES OF THE WAR.
The expense of the war did not require any war loans, even if the war prevailed much longer, since for many years previous to the war a surplus of 6o million lires had been accumulating annually, by economy in the budgets.
In a publication by the Naval Transportation Bureau at Naples, the expense for transportation of men and material from the beginning of the war to January 1, 1912, amounted to 13,500,000 lires, and the value of the material transported during that period was about 8o million lires. It was stated that the following movements had occurred:
In October 13 convoys with a total of 50 steamers.
In November .. .21 convoys with a total of 59 steamers.
In December ....21 convoys with a total of 43 steamers.
Total, 3 months..55 convoys with a total of 152 steamers.
In that period they transported a total of 101,389 men, 15,000 horses and mules, 12,000 head of cattle, 6o,000 cwt. of meal, 40,000 cwt. fuel, 43,000 cwt. of hay, 30,000 cwt. of biscuit, etc.
During the middle of June the Turkish government decreed extra war taxes that raised the ground tax, income tax and industrial taxes 25 per cent. The tax for exemption from military service was raised from 8233.00 to $380.00, while exemption from the reserves was raised from $150.00 to $187.00. The taxes on salt and spirits were likewise raised. A tax of 3 per cent was laid on the salaries of all officials. The war taxes levied amounted to over $10,000,000.00. The Turkish finances were in a critical condition and, in the event of a mobilization of the entire army, the Turkish treasury would be bankrupt, especially as France had refused to loan any more money until after peace should be concluded.
OPERATIONS ON LAND IN NORTH AFRICA.
During the period from May 15 to June 20 there were constant engagements at the seat of war in North Africa. May 19 a strong Italian force of five battalions, with mountain artillery and machine guns, marched towards El Ate!, on the Tunisian caravan road, southwest of Sidi-Ali. They were repulsed by the Arabians and vigorously attacked by Arabian cavalry upon their retreat to Sidi-Ali. Positions remained unchanged.
The Italians started another expedition on the same route on May 31, and after meeting with some success were finally obliged to return.
June 8 the Italians at Tripoli made an attack in force to capture the Oasis of Sansur. This expedition left Tripoli at daylight and was composed of 14 battalions of infantry, one brigade of cavalry and a mountain battery, a total of about 12,000 men, under the command of General Camerana. The Tarks occupied the heights at Abd-el-Gilil and the eastern border of the oasis. The Italians were supported by the guns of the Italian war-ships on the coast. The oasis is 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) west of Tripoli, and after a hard-fought engagement the Italians captured the heights and intrenched themselves there.
An attack on the left flank was repulsed by the brigade of Italians from Bu Meliana. The Italians secured their position on the heights, but the main body returned to their barracks in Tripoli that afternoon, leaving the Arabs in possession of the oasis.
The Arabs attacked the Italians at Mergheb Heights, near Lebda, but they were repulsed, with heavy losses on both sides, on May 30, June 8 and June 12. On June 12 the Italians completely routed their assailants by a clever counter attack.
The Italian army succeeded in effecting a landing at Buscheifa with a force of 10,000 men, but the town of Misratah was on June 20 still in the possession of the Arabs. There were numerous skirmishes, and the war was conducted without interruption, though the Italians did not make any material advances in the conquest of the country.
The cable from Benghasi to Syracuse was opened for business on June 10.
GENERAL.
During June and July, 1912, the bulk of the Italian fleet remained in the home ports. The armored cruiser San-Giorgio joined the fleet in June, after nine months' repairs, during which she had been floated with remarkable skill. Her commanding officer was dismissed for having run this ship upon the rocks.
The Italian press reported that, in accordance with the unanimous wish of all the great powers, Italy would in the future refrain somewhat from further operations in the Aegean Sea and devote her active hostilities more to Africa. This report seems to have been verified for the time being by the fact that the Italians did not seize any more islands during these two months.
On the Tripolitan coast the Carlo Alberto, hide and Ardea participated in engagements at Sidi-Ali, near Zuara, while the Etruria cooperated with the land forces near Benghasi.
The Italians substituted the army personnel in Africa by relieving 60,000 reservists with a like number of active-service men belonging to the conscription of four years later.
During the war the government had the use of 92 chartered steamers of the merchant marine for transportation of troops and material to Africa. Among these chartered vessels two were used as hospital ships and seven served as auxiliary cruisers.
A royal decree allotted a monthly sum of $1,400,000.00 for the navy and $4,000,000.00 for the army as war expenses.
The Turkish war taxes, amounting to $10,000,000.00, were authorized by the Turkish Parliament.
Considerable discontent was expressed by officers of the Turkish army against the Young Turk administration. This took such proportions that orders were issued forbidding Turkish Officers from taking any part in political questions. The troops in Albania were so discontented that a mutiny broke out, which was suppressed.
The Turks were annoyed by the hostile attitude of the population of the islands that Italy had taken and occupied in the Aegean Sea. The people on Patmos Island instructed their delegates to seek annexation to Greece or independence.
The Italians were anxious to annex at least some of these islands occupied by the Italian troops, especially Rhodes and Astropalia. The Italians claimed that in making peace these two islands should be ceded to Italy as an indemnity for the banishment of Italian subjects from Turkish dominions.
The Italians claimed that the seizure of these islands did not violate the Berlin Treaty, since that treaty had been practically annulled in this respect by Austria's annexation of Bosnia, and furthermore these islands were seized as a result of war operations and therefore had been acquired in accordance with international law.
England desired to keep Russia and Germany out of the Mediterranean Sea, but Italy is a Mediterranean power and enjoys the most friendly relations with England. The British minister stated that Italy's friendship was prized most highly and he did not object to Italian measures to improve her strategical position in the Mediterranean.
The seizure and permanent occupation of these islands was, however, thought to increase the preponderance of the Triple Alliance, and the annexation of these islands by Italy was opposed by France.
OPERATIONS IN THE CAMPAIGN IN AFRICA IN JULY.
The Italian expedition under General Camerana that landed at Cape Zuruk, 12 kilometers east of Misratah, on June 16, was attacked by 5000 Turkish-Arabian troops on July 2 without effect. July 9 the Italians, supported by shell fire from the ships, attacked the Arabians and succeeded in capturing the town of Misratah, with 9000 inhabitants. The Italians also succeeded in clearing the fertile oasis around this town of all the hostile natives, on July 20, after a series of engagements. The Italians lost 9 killed and 121 wounded in these engagements and in the campaign to capture Misratah.
On the Tunisian frontier at Bu Kamez, the Italians had a number of serious engagements with the Arabs. The Italian position on the peninsula there was at one time very precarious and was relieved by the cooperation of the navy. During these battles, which were fought for a period of two weeks, the Italians finally succeeded in capturing Sidi-Ali by storming the Turkish-Arabian intrenchments. In these battles the Italians gained a great moral success by the consequent security of their position on the Tunisian frontier, which had been the goal of the Italian commanders in the western part of Tripoli since Tripoli was occupied. In these battles the Italians lost 18 killed, including two officers, and 114 wounded. The Turks lost 158 killed and 200 wounded.
In Cyrenaica there were minor skirmishes and engagements with the outposts but no serious operations.
The Turkish forces captured a quantity of telephone material from the Italians, which they used in their own operations to advantage.
During the relief of the reservists of different classes during the summer, the officers were granted leaves of absence alternately to visit their homes in Italy.
The war caused anxiety in diplomatic circles and the entangling nature of conflicting interests presented some knotty problems. The principles of neutrality tend to make both belligerents antagonize all neutrals. The temptation to violate the obligations of neutrality, coupled with sympathy for one belligerent, nearly caused a conflict between France and Italy when the Turks managed to smuggle contraband of war through the French Tunisian territory. The friendship of England was manifested by a strict observance of neutrality on the Egyptian frontier, in striking contrast to the open smuggling through Tunis.
Germany was anxious to preserve her influence with Turkey, because of her commercial interests in Asia Minor and Syria, with special interests in the Bagdad railroad and other enterprises. The Germans had great influence with the Turks, and Germany was the most favored nation. This position conflicted with the interests of Austria and Italy in the Triple Alliance. Russia protested against the blockade of the Dardanelles by Turkey, which caused serious losses to her Black Sea commerce. The Kaiser and the Czar had a meeting in July, which was followed by a visit of the President of the French republic—to cooperate, it is said, in reference to Russia's protest against the blockade of the Dardanelles. The results of these two conferences with the Czar are not known, but the Franco-Russian alliance is reported to have been strengthened, and the French and Russian navies were allied for future events in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.
England and Germany were also more involved by the war through conflicting interests, and agitators in both England and Germany stirred up a bitter feeling in the press. England concentrated her fleet in the North Sea and apparently abandoned the Mediterranean to the French navy. Germany increased her army by adding two additional army corps and by doubling the active fleet in commission—instead of keeping a large part in reserve as theretofore. The Reichstag, though having a majority in opposition to the government, almost unanimously approved the government's proposal to increase the German navy and army.
The Italians were remarkably successful in maintaining radio communication direct between Caltano, Pisa, and the station at Massowah, Red Sea. The radiograms traversed a portion of the Sahara desert and were transmitted for a distance of 2350 miles.
OPERATIONS OF ITALIAN FLEET DURING JULY AND AUGUST.
The first squadron cruised in the vicinity of the islands in the Aegean Sea occupied by the Italians during July, while the second squadron remained in home ports completing repairs, replacing the guns and preparing to relieve the first squadron during August.
The Italian admiral took measures against any attack by the Turkish fleet to regain possession of the captured islands. Some of the ships cruised in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. The admiral then decided to send a reconnoitering expedition into the Dardanelles to ascertain the condition of the Turkish defences in the straits and the preparedness of the Turkish fleet for a sortie.
THE RECONNOISSANCE OF THE DARDANELLES.
July 14. the flagship Vettor Pisani, with the destroyers Nembo and Borea and five high-sea torpedo-boats, each of 200 tons (Spica, Perseo, Astore, Ciimene, and Centauro), left Stampalia for the northern part of the Aegean Sea. At Leros, one of the small islands in possession of the Italians, the torpedo-boats were stripped of all equipment not absolutely necessary; they were repainted with a somewhat lighter color than before, and a third officer was detailed to each in addition to the regular complement. Life-preservers were placed on deck, to be available in case a torpedo-boat should be sunk by gun-fire, that the crew might float thereon with the current, which runs at a rate of from 2 to 4 miles per hour out of the straits, and be picked up by the other vessels of the squadron.
July 17 the squadron steamed to the sparsely inhabited island of Strati (Bozaba), which lies out of the usual route of commerce and on an unfrequented channel. Here Captain Millo joined the flotilla of five torpedo-boats and with the Spica as his flagship took command of the flotilla to personally conduct the expedition. The flotilla left Strati in the afternoon of July 18 for the entrance of the straits of Dardanelles distant about 6o miles, where they arrived about 11.30 p. m. The Vettor Pissani and the Nembo and Borea remained out of sight of the coast, prepared, when necessary, to make a demonstration before the outer forts.
The five torpedo-boats proceeded in column at a speed of 12 knots, which was increased to 15 knots on account of the strength of current. Upon entering the straits they first hugged the Asiatic shore, and then, to avoid the barricade of mines, they went in to the European side of the channel. Fine weather, smooth sea and a dark night favored the Italians, so that they passed in through the entrance between Cape Helles and Kum Kale, which is about two miles wide, without having been observed. They escaped observation at first, though the Turks had four search-lights, two on each cape; one of the four, however, was not in operation at that time. At 12.40 a. m., the Astore was picked up by the search-light on Cape Helles just as the flotilla had passed. The alarm was given, guns were fired and rockets were sent up all along the shores of the Dardanelles. Fort Seddul Bahr opened fire on the flotilla.
Captain Millo increased the speed to 20 knots, and then to 23 knots, while the boats proceeded in close order and as close to the European shores as possible, so that the search-light beams might not reveal their position because of the difficulty in depressing the beams of light to illuminate the surface close to the bluff shore. At Suandere, about 6.5 miles northeast of Seddul Bahr, they were again exposed to heavy gun-fire, but none of the shots took effect The flotilla proceeded up the long stretch through the straits for 11 miles under fire from field-guns and small arms, all along to Killid Bahr, as search-lights along the straits revealed their position to the Turks plainly. At Killid Bahr, the leading boat was stopped by a barricade that effectually closed the passage. During the two or three minutes while the Spica was stopped at the barricade, the lights on shore and numerous search-lights revealed the numerous batteries on both sides of the straits, and Captain Millo saw the Turkish fleet of seven ships at anchor six miles to the northward, and the Turkish search-lights revealed among those ships the Peik-i-Schewket.
As it was evidently useless to try to pass through this strongly defended narrow passage, and as the crossing beams of searchlights made it almost impossible to clearly distinguish the condition of the Turkish fleet, the flotilla went about and steamed at full speed back to the entrance of the straits, at first in close order and subsequently in dispersed order. At 1.30 a. m. the flotilla rejoined the Vettor Pisani, having escaped without any serious loss, none in the crews were wounded and the torpedo-boats were only slightly damaged. The Spica had several shots through her smoke-pipe, while the Astore and Perseo had several shots in their hulls, but the damage was slight.
The Turkish fleet took no part in defending the straits, and in consequence of this neglect the Turkish admiral was relieved of his command and Tahir Bey was appointed Commander-in-Chief.
Every man in the Italian flotilla was highly rewarded for this gallant expedition. Captain Millo was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral, passing over 25 officers that were senior to him, and he was appointed Chief Inspector of Torpedoes. All the lieutenants in the flotilla were promoted to the rank of Capitaine de Corvette (Lieutenant-Commander). Distinguished-service medals were presented to the personnel by the king, who also gave each of the five boats a special flag.
After this experience the Turks narrowed the open spaces through the barricades and mine fields, without interfering with the free passage of merchant vessels with pilots through the straits.
RED SEA OPERATIONS.
In the Red Sea the Italian naval forces attacked the fortified positions and forts near Hodeida with the Piemonte, Caprera, and Aretusa, on July 27 and August 12. In the last bombardment the Italians destroyed a Turkish powder magazine.
ON TRIPOLITAN COAST.
The school-ship division, consisting of three Sardegnas, two destroyers and six high-sea torpedo-boats, convoyed a fleet of seven transports, with the Tassoni Division of Infantry, from Augusta, August 3, to take possession of Zuara. The navy conducted the landing of this force on August 5 at a point about 3 kilometers east of Zuara. The naval landing force constituted the van in landing and the guns of the fleet bombarded the coast. The troops were landed by means of the ship's boats and 12 coral fishing smacks.
The recently organized Naval Academy Division, consisting of the naval cadet school-ship Etna and the naval apprentice schoolships Fl. Gioja and America Vespucci, under the command of Admiral Bono, had in the meantime relieved the troops in garrison in the Italian positions west of Zuara, so that that force could operate against Zuara from the westward simultaneously with the attack from the eastward. The Italian garrison proceeded in three columns under Generals Garioni, Lequio and Cavaciocchi to approach Zuara from the westward and southward. The Carlo Alberto followed this movement and supported the march of the column under General Lequio along the coast.
Upon arrival of the Italian forces from all three directions, they found the city almost completely deserted. The occupation of Zuara completed the Italian possession of the entire coast of Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The Turkish-Arabian forces had all withdrawn from the vicinity of the coast, but still held the Italians in check against any prolonged excursions into the interior.
INTERNAL DISORDERS IN TURKEY.
The crews of the Turkish fleet participated with the army in the political affairs of the country. The discontent among the troops in Albania, protesting for political rights and denouncing privileges, spread and caused the formation of the Military League, to which the majority of the naval officers also belonged. This League protested against the Young Turk government and claimed that they had adopted unconstitutional measures, especially during the period of the elections; that they had introduced politics in the army, by which mediocre elements had been favored, to the detriment of the efficient officers; that unnecessary bloodshed must be avoided in regard to the Albanian incident; and finally that the Young Turk government was responsible for the disasters of the war, because of their failure to prepare for proper defense of Tripoli before the war.
This Military League was the most potent in causing the downfall of the Young Turk government on July 17 and the dissolution of Parliament on August 5.
On August 4 the League sent a delegation of officers in the destroyer Nemune-i-Hannie to Constantinople, to demand the dissolution of Parliament. The destroyer anchored off the Parliament House, and three other vessels were ready to follow her the next day when the demand was granted.
The officers demanded by telegram from Nagara that a naval officer should be appointed Minister of Marine, and threatened to bring the fleet to Constantinople in case their demand was not granted.
The new Minister of Marine, a naval officer, issued an order for all officers to refrain from political agitation, and the League supported this measure. The new government declared martial law as soon as Parliament was dissolved, which was strictly enforced in Constantinople, Salonica, Adrianople and Smyrna in order to prevent any uprising of the Young Turk party. These decisive measures compelled the Young Turks to give up all idea of resistance. The Central Committee of the Young Turks assured the new government that they would refrain from further agitation. The League was disbanded, and August 14 the army officers swore allegiance and declared they would refrain from all political discussion. All officers in the navy and provinces took the same oath to refrain from politics.
These internal disorders interrupted the negotiations for peace for which Italian and Turkish delegates had met in Switzerland.
The fall of the Young Turk government, which could not consider any peace that involved the loss by Turkey of the two African provinces without risking their loss of the control of the government, removed one of the chief obstacles in the proposals' for peace. The financial burden and the maintenance of the mobilized army in Turkey created a strong demand for peace by yielding to the demands of the Italians. The prospects for peace seemed promising.
OPERATIONS DURING AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, 1912.
The vessels of the first squadron of the Italian navy were refitting in home ports when the second squadron sailed from Tarento, August 22, for the coast of Syria. The appearance of this Italian fleet on August 27 and 28 off Jaffa, Haifa and Beirut caused considerable anxiety among the inhabitants of those cities. The fleet, however, merely searched neutral ships for contraband of war and captured several Turkish sailing ships, after which it proceeded on a cruise along the coast of Asia Minor to the islands in the Aegean Sea occupied by the Italian forces, and thence to the African ports in Cyrenaica and Tripoli.
The Piemonte and the four large destroyers left the Red Sea, and the Italian naval forces remaining there were the cruisers Liguria, Elba, and Puglia, the torpedo-vessels Aretusa and Caprera and the special ships Staff eta and Governolo.
The Greeks on islands of the Aegean Sea which had been hitherto under Turkish dominion endeavored to free themselves from Turkish control. The two small islands about 6 miles west of Samos, Nicaria and Furni, with about 15,000 inhabitants, succeeded in overpowering the Turkish garrisons and declared they were independent. They sent delegates to Athens and submitted a memorial to the European powers for recognition of their independence.
The struggle of the Greeks for independence on the Island of Samos was supported by the Independence party in Crete, who endeavored to send an armed expedition of 600 men from Crete to Samos to support the insurrection. They planned to overcome the Turkish garrison of goo troops and then proclaim the independence of Samos.
The attempt was temporarily frustrated by the English and French cruisers Diana, Medea, and Bruix, which cruised in the vicinity of Samos. Notwithstanding these efforts, about 300 Cretans managed to land on Samos, and they assisted the Greeks in their war for independence.
During September the commander-in-chief of the Italian armies in Africa, Lieutenant-General Caneva, was recalled and promoted to General of the Army. The two corps commanders Lieutenant- General Briccola in Cyrenaica and Lieutenant-General Ragni in Tripoli were given independent command of their respective districts, with both military and civil control of affairs in those provinces.
September 17 there was a battle at Derna in which the attacking Turks and Arabians were repulsed with a loss of about iii killed. The Italians lost 61 killed and 113 wounded.
September 20 the Italian troops in Tripoli, under command of Lieutenant-General Ragni, finally succeeded in capturing the Oasis of Zanzur after a desperate battle that lasted ten hours and in which the Italians sustained a loss of about 200 killed. The Turkish-Arabian troops retreated and intrenched at Zavia, a place not far from the coast, about 16 miles west of Zanzur and 24 miles west of Tripoli.
September 13 the Etna bombarded the Arabian position at Zilagla, near the ruins of ancient Tripoli.
The "Popolo Romano" published a statement that at the beginning of September there were 95,000 Italian troops in North Africa and in the Aegean Islands. In Italy there were present in the army 150,000 troops, besides 25,000 Karabinieri and 135,000 recruits.
The Italian war minister published a statement that up to the beginning of July the Italians had captured 88 Turkish officers, 227 non-commissioned officers and 1436 private Turkish soldiers.
The Turks captured Captain Moizo, the commander of the Italian aviation corps, on September To, as his motor failed while in flight over the enemy's territory between Zuara and Tripoli.
The negotiations for peace in Switzerland continued during September, and probabilities for peace were so apparent that the Turks dispersed the army that had been assembled at Smyrna during August, which returned to its regular headquarters, while the reserves were sent to their homes.
The negotiations for peace were hastened by the threatened war of the Balkan states against Turkey. The second squadron cruised during latter part of September in the Aegean Sea, especially off Chios, Mytilene and Haifa and in the vicinity of Smyrna, with the object of bringing a pressure upon the Turks to conclude peace. This demonstration prevented the Turks from reinforcing their European forces with the troops from Smyrna that had but recently been dispersed.
October 3 the Coatit bombarded a Turkish camp in the Bay of Kalamaki on the south coast of Asia Minor, because the Turks had fired upon her as she was towing a prize out of that bay.
The Coatit also shelled an infantry batfalion on the shore of the Bay of Scalanova that was preparing to cross over from Kapomicali to the Island of Samos. The Coatit fired about 200 projectiles against the fleeing Turkish troops and inflicted considerable damage. The commander of the French cruiser Bruix is reported to have informed the Italian commander of the Coatit that his action was unlawful.
Since negotiations for peace were delayed, the Italians presented an ultimatum fixing the period for acceptance of Italian terms at a date not later than October x5, and at the same time began to prepare an expedition against European Turkey to influence the Turks to accede to the Italian claims. These measures included the departure of the first squadron for the Aegean Sea and preparations for the transportation of an expeditionary army. The first squadron had however just sailed for the Aegean Sea when the news was received that the preliminary peace treaty had been signed, and the first squadron was thereupon recalled by wireless to return to Tarento.
The insurrection on the Island of Samos ended finally by the withdrawal of all the Turkish troops from that island to Chios. The Prince of Samos also fled and the leader of the Insurrectionists, Sofulis, proclaimed a republic.
A number of Italian steamers employed as auxiliary cruisers, among which were the steamers Duca di Genova and Duca degli Abruzzi, were relieved from naval service.
The Italian operations on land were.likewise influenced by the probability of peace. At Derna only, they had some serious fighting. Here x8 battalions of Italian infantry made a vigorous effort to extend the area of the territory held by them around this port. The battles fought around Derna on September 14, October 7 and October 11 resulted in an extension of the area around Derna to include a rectangle of about 8 square miles, 4 miles along the coast and 2 miles back into the interior, where they intrenched and fortified commanding positions on the hills and along the streams flowing to the sea.
The Italians occupied Bomba after making feints at different points on both sides of that port.
In Tripoli everything was quiet after the occupation of Zanzur, and on September 8 the narrow-gauge Italian railroad from Gargaresh to Zanzur, about 14 miles long, was opened for traffic, with a view to further extension to Gharian as progress should be made in occupying the hinterland.
The Italian-Turkish war had prevailed one year on September 29, during which time, by means of 150,000 troops and at a cost of about $100,000,000.00, the Italians had succeeded in capturing and occupying the principal ports, viz.: Tripoli, Horns, Misratah, Zuara, Benghasi, Derna, Bomba, and Tobruk. At Tripoli only, they had acquired a considerable area, which extended for about 24 miles along the coast and about 8 miles into the interior. The territory occupied at other ports was very small, only about 10 square miles on an average at each port.
At the end of September the Italians had about 110,000 troops in Africa-45,00o at Tripoli and vicinity, 15,000 at Zuara and Sidi-Ali, 6000 at Horns, 10,000 at Misratah, 10,000 at Benghasi, 18,000 at Derna and 6000 at Tobruk. They were opposed by about 40,000 Turks and Arabians, half of whom were around Tripoli. A large portion of the Arabians were however absent on furlough to till the soil.
The Turkish-Arabians had their own field-guns, and as before, they received supplies from across the Tunisian and Egyptian frontiers.
The Italians sustained a loss of about 4000 killed and 6000 wounded in the year's war in Africa, which is regarded as comparatively small. The result is regarded as relatively small from a military point of view, and that meagre result is primarily due to a misconception of the relations between the Turks and Arabian inhabitants of the African provinces. In the beginning the Italians were greeted as liberators from the Turkish yoke, and the Italians expected a small force would be sufficient. At first the Arabians hesitated to oppose the Italians, but their failure to win decisive victories promptly, gave the Turks time to organize their forces and still further retard the progress of the Italians.
THE TREATY OF PEACE SIGNED AT LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND.
Three envoy-plenipotentiaries from Italy and three from Turkey negotiated the peace of Lausanne, which was signed preliminarily by the negotiators on October 15. In accordance with this treaty, the Sultan of Turkey issued a Firman on October 17 granting autonomy to Tripoli and Cyrenaica, with full amnesty to all the people of the islands of the Aegean Sea who had revolted or opposed the Ottoman government. The Sultan's Firman stated that a new government would administer affairs in Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which would respect the religion and customs of the people as before, and the Sultan's Viceroy—Naib-es-Sultan—Chemsedin Bey, would have charge of Ottoman interests in Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The current laws of the Sheriat will continue in force and the necessary Cadi (principal judge) will be designated by the Sultan.
The King of Italy signed a decree October 17 granting full and entire amnesty to all inhabitants of Tripoli and Cyrenaica who had taken part in hostilities, and all the inhabitants will continue to enjoy complete liberty in the Mohammedan religion as in the past; the name of the Sultan shall continue to be pronounced in public prayers and his personal representative shall be recognized. The emoluments of the Sultan's Viceroy shall be taken from local funds. The rights of the pious foundation (Wakufs) shall be respected and no impediments shall be put between the Mussulmen and their religious leader, the Cadi, and their Naibis, who shall have incomes from local revenues.
Another decree will establish a commission, a part of whom shall be notables of Tripoli, to propose civil and administrative orders inspired by liberal ideals and in keeping with local uses and customs.
The peace plenipotentiaries also agreed to have two commissions, one for Tripoli and one for Cyrenaica, who shall confer with the leading Arab chieftains to persuade them to submit to Italian Sovereignty, as in their interest, and to see that all the just demands of the inhabitants are granted. These two commissions were already organized during the middle of October in Libyia.
The Arabian rebel chief Said Idriss was also pardoned. After the publication of the foregoing proclamations, the Treaty of Lausanne was ratified and confirmed on October 18. The eleven articles of this treaty provide essentially as follows, viz.:
Immediate cessation of hostilities.
Recall of all Turkish troops and civil functionaries from Tripoli and Cyrenaica.
The evacuation of all the islands of the Aegean Sea occupied by the Italians.
Exchange of prisoners of war.
Complete amnesty to all the inhabitants of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, as well as those of the Aegean islands.
Italy also agreed to consent to a commercial treaty in which higher duties will be imposed by Turkey and certain monopolies will be granted.
Italy also agreed to support measures to leave Turkey her economic independence, with the right to act in commercial matters in the same way as all other European powers, without being bound by capitulations and other acts now in force in Turkey.
Italy also agreed to suppress Italian post-offices operating in Turkish dominions, when other states having post-offices in Turkey shall suppress theirs.
Italy agreed to support Turkey's efforts to substitute the regime of international law in Turkey instead of the hitherto prevailing capitulary regime.
The Ottoman government agreed to reinstate Italian subjects who had been faithful employees of the Turkish government and who had been dismissed on the outbreak of the war, and to grant them half pay during the months they had been absent on account of the war, and that this enforced absence would not interfere with their claims for pensions, etc.
The Italian government also agreed to pay annually to the Turkish Treasury a sum corresponding to that which the two provinces had paid annually to the Turkish Treasury on an average during three years before the war.
The Italian government recognized that this annuity will not be less than 2,000,000 lires ($400,000.00), and Italy is ready to pay to the Administration of Public Debt the corresponding capitalized sum on demand.
Article XI required that hostilities cease on date of signature, October 18, 1912.
The sovereignty of Italy over Tripoli and Cyrenaica was recognized by Germany, Austria and Russia on the date of signing the preliminary treaty, and by England shortly afterwards, while France delayed in order to define the Tunisian boundaries of Tripoli.
NOTE.—The full text of the Treaty of Lausanne and the royal decree of the King of Italy and the Firman of the Sultan of Turkey were kindly furnished by the Hon. Secretary of State, Philander Knox, for this article, and the facts about the treaty were taken from those official documents.