VIII.—The Notoark River.
From the reports of the two expeditions to the Notoark river, my own in December to the upper valley, and Mr. Reed's from below, the following description is made.
The Notoark, or the Inland river of English charts, rises in the same chain of mountains as the Putnam, Allashook, and Colville rivers. The head waters of all these rivers are not ten miles apart.
Like the Putnam, the Notoark has a delta, not so extensive, but very much like it; through it flow the five outlets of the river (only three of which are worthy of notice) which empty into Hotham inlet on the northern side near its connection with Kotzebue sound. The two most easterly outlets carry two fathoms over the bar; the most eastern, though narrow and winding, has little current. The mouth of the western branch is the widest, but yet has the strongest current. The inhabitants are not so numerous as on the Putnam; a few families live on the delta, and others in scattered villages around the headwaters. The many deserted villages on the lower portion of the river show that the natives are following the deer into the mountains. Its general direction is parallel to the Putnam from which it is separated by a range of mountains 3000 to 4000 feet high. The mountains on the northern side of the valley are less regular and not so continuous. The tributaries are few and unimportant. The river is full of sand bars and islands making navigation difficult; it is generally narrow, until about sixty-five miles above its mouth, when it opens out to greater width for twenty miles up and becomes dotted with innumerable sand bars and islands. Here many hair seal come to breed where they are never disturbed by the natives. The channel is narrow and crooked, and the current rapid, to within fifty miles of the mouth, and when the river is swollen from the rains it is impossible to stem it; when the water is low it can be ascended since a foothold can be had for tracking. Although this river is like the Putnam, the current is much stronger, but both rivers are so affected by the height of the water that no approximate strength of current could be determined.
The Notoark valley is like the Putnam valley consisting of rolling tundra land with many high hills, interspersed with numerous lakes. The growth of timber, grass, etc., is also similar one hundred and fifty miles up; then the spruce and birch disappear and there remains only a scant growth of dwarf cotton-wood, willow and alder.
The Selawik River and Lake.
Selawik lake was first explored in 1884 by Ensign Purcell of my second expedition as described in his report. During the winter I explored the upper part of the valley with a party from Fort Cosmos. On July 16 I left Camp Purcell with a party to complete the work, which we did in eight days. The results of these expeditions are given on the chart and in the following summary.
The Selawik river rises in the mountains south of the upper Putnam and flows west to Selawik lake. Its valley is rolling but less so than the Putnam's and is interspersed with more lakes. The river is not so long as the Putnam or the Notoark, and its course is more winding. The current at the place where the river forks is .8 knots, and less lower down. Many tributaries enter from both banks; they are deep but of no great length. The banks of the Selawik are as regular as canal banks. Two fathoms can be carried up to the fork where there is a five fathom hole; beyond, the water of the forks was too shallow for the "Explorer."
There are three outlets into Selawik lake; the westernmost is the deepest, two fathoms can be carried over this bar; over the others only a few feet. There is a fourth outlet into the smaller lake "Inland" to the eastward of Selawik lake which is very shoal, not having over three feet of water in the deepest places and for the most part but one foot. There is every indication that this second lake was formerly part of the Selawik lake. Selawik lake itself is very regular in shape and depth. There is little animal life in it; it was dredged for hours, but no specimens were found.
On the Selawik river a little spruce grows in small clusters; more of it is found on one of the northerly branches. The principal growth is of willow and alder, the latter attaining considerable size. The river and lake were triangulated from July 17 to 24. The work was comparatively easy as the same mountain peaks used on the Putnam were visible from the Selawik.
Expedition to Jade Mountain.
On my first visit to Hotham inlet I noticed that the natives had a great many implements made of jade stone, and one man had a piece in the rough state. I inquired where they had gotten it and was told "on the big river" meaning the "Putnam" for which I was searching. When I discovered the river, and again asked about the jade, I was told it was further up.
On my second visit, the mountain where it was said to exist, was pointed out from the river, but the natives refused to accompany me to it, saying that they would never return—that only the medicine men could visit it, and then not until after a long fasting. I tried in every way to get at least one of them to go but without success. One man finally pointed out to me the best route, and I decided to take one white man and go anyhow.
On reaching the mountain I saw a green stone in large quantities; but it was so tough that only with the greatest difficulty did I succeed in chipping off some specimens with a cold chisel. These specimens were sent to the Smithsonian Institution, but proved not to be jade. In conversation afterwards, Professor Spencer F. Baird, then at the head of the Institute, told me that if I could find the jade deposit it would be one of the great discoveries of the age. So on my third expedition I determined to make a special effort to find it.
On July 27, 1886, I left Camp Purcell, Pipe spit, in the "Explorer" to visit the group of mountains which I had named Baird and find the jade stone. I went up the Putnam to the point nearest the mountains, left the "Explorer" and started overland. The expedition consisted of myself, two white men, five natives, and three days' rations. The walking over the tundra was severe and the mosquitoes terrible both day and night. Owing to the recent rains the creeks were very much swollen and the party was obliged to swim across one. This stream, about thirty yards wide, was running at the rate of five or six knots in the middle with still water along the banks. I made a raft of theodolite legs and tent poles; and to make it more buoyant inflated our skin boots and tied them all around it. I then made a tow-line of all the odds and ends at hand, straps, ropes, etc. Those who could, swam over, temperature of water 38° F., the rest were rafted across, as were the stores, tied up in a rubber blanket. Later on, we forded another creek in water up to our waists. Much of the walking was through water knee deep.
On August 1, I reached the mountains and spent two days digging and looking for the jade. The entire spur of mountains was of green stone and amongst it I found the jade. I also found asbestos in the strata of the rocks. I saw only a few marks that indicated visits of the natives. I got a round of angles from near the top on one of the mountains. On the return, the coal vein discovered on my second trip, was visited. This coal was not good. Specimens of the rocks and coal were forwarded to the Smithsonian Institute. The road back was less irksome as the water had fallen so that all streams were fordable. August 3 I reached the "Explorer" and August 7 reached Camp Purcell, Pipe spit.
Prof. Thos. Wilson, Curator, Division of Prehistoric Archaeology, U.S. National Museum, Mr. J.R. Bishop and Prof. Geo. F. Kunz, of New York, have taken great interest in this jade deposit. The former has written the subject up in his article on jade.
IX.—Expedition to St. Michael's and return, under Passed Assistant Engineer A. V. Zane, U.S.N.
In obedience to orders, Passed Assistant Engineer Zane left Fort Cosmos on December 26, 1885, en route to St. Michael's, via Nulato. The party consisted of himself, Socolofif (W.R.S.), Riley (interpreter), Suan (native guide from the Yukon) and Suan's son, a boy of eighteen years. They carried a complete outfit and provisions for fifteen day, on two sleds, one load weighing three hundred and seventy-nine pounds and the other two hundred and forty pounds which were drawn by twelve dogs. A third sled belonging to Suan and his son was drawn by five dogs.
The trip was made as directed. It took twenty-seven days to reach St. Michael's and nineteen days to return. The following is a summary of each day's journey as reported by Mr. Zane. All courses are per compass.
December 26, at 8.55 A. M. left Fort Cosmos and arrived at Kallamute. Traveled the usual route along Putnam river; found snow too deep for easy progress. Distance made, good twenty-eight miles. December 27, left Kallamute. Road easier; less snow. Traveled along the river; noticed many open places in the ice along the left bank. Quartered at Iyak, just below Par village. Distance made, good seventeen miles. December 28, left Iyak, having bought dried fish for dog food, and quartered at Par village, five miles beyond, where we remained next day repairing damages. December 30. Left Par. Shaped a S.E. by S. course following generally the Par river. Road good owing to recent travel by trading natives. Encamped on left bank of the Par. Distance traveled about seventeen miles; made good on course twelve miles. December 31. Broke camp. Stood S.E. along the Par for one mile, then E.S.E. leaving the river and taking a road over the tundra. The Par at this point made a large bend to the westward, and then to the eastward, by south. Found the country level and indented by numerous lakes from one hundred feet to a couple of miles in diameter and considerably below the level of the surrounding land, making the getting on and off the ice heavy work. Reached a deserted house and spent the night. Distance traveled about sixteen miles; good, twelve miles.
January 1, 1886. Shaped the same course, E.S.E. Road as before though over fewer lakes. Crossed the Par river three times; informed by guide it would be met no more as it made off to the eastward. Weather intensely cold; thermometer reading—70° F. at 3 P.M. when camp was. made. Distance made good fourteen miles. January 2. Broke camp. Course E.S.E. Road level, through dense spruce forests intersected by many small streams and lakes. Mountain ranges lay on the right hand running northwest and southeast and distant five miles. The road led around their southeast end. Went into camp. Distance made good fifteen miles. January 3. Broke camp and took a S, E. course. Road through dense forests requiring great care in steering sleds. After going eight miles made the Koyukuk or Tug-ga-rag-a-wick river; changed course to S.W. by S. to follow the river, a fine stream about a mile wide with high, thickly wooded banks. Reached a native house and went into quarters. Found the family, a father, mother and two children starving; gave them food. Distance traveled about twenty miles; made good on S.E. course eight miles; on S.W. by S. course, seven miles.
January 4. Under way. Course S.W. Road generally good over tundra; crossed several lakes and tributaries of the Koyukuk, Quartered in a native house. Distance traveled about twenty miles; made good, fifteen miles. Bought fish for dog food. They were from three to eight inches long, fat and oily, and abounded in the small streams of the tundra. The natives roast them on a stick stuck in the ground and inclined towards the fire. As they thawed they apparently regained life and squirmed and moved until roasted to death. They tasted of the tundra. January 5. Under way. Stood S. by W. Road very bad in places and frequent detours were made. Passed a house two hours after starting. Struck the Koyukuk river and journeyed on it. Reached a house and went into quarters. Wind blowing a moderate gale from N.E. Distance traveled twenty-eight miles; made good fifteen miles. January 6. Under way. Course S.S.E. Road as usual through forest and brush and over tundra dotted with lakes. Made the Koyukuk again opposite a small tributary which was followed for seven miles when the house of Suan the guide was reached where the party quartered. Distance traveled twenty-eight miles; made good fifteen miles.
January 7. Remained at Suan's, a well-built hut of logs, containing three rooms, crowded with dirty natives, good natured and obtrusively helpful. Repaired damages and rested dogs. Bought dog food so as to give two fish apiece per diem, one not being sufficient for the heavy work in hand. Paid the following prices: A hand of tobacco for six fish; a block of matches for three fish; a tin of powder for ten fish ; one box of caps for seven fish. Tea, needles, thimbles, etc., were also good trade articles, January 8. Left Suan's. Course S.W. by S, Left the Koyukuk, which here made a big bend to the westward, and crossed a hill 500 feet high. Thence the road led over a succession of lakes separated from each other by wooded tracts from one hundred feet to a quarter of a mile in width. Made camp. Distance traveled eighteen miles; made good fourteen miles. January 9. Broke camp and stood S. by W. Snowed all day, making the road very heavy. Found broad iron runners of big sled a great impediment. Encamped, having made fifteen miles. January 10. Broke camp. Course S. by W., over tundra and through forest and brush. Road heavy from recent snow. Reached a native house on the Koyukuk river and quartered. Distance traveled eighteen miles; made good fourteen miles.
January 11. Under way. Course S.S.W. Soon met a small stream; followed it until the Koyukuk was met, down which we traveled until it met the Yukon, a broad, beautiful river with a large bend where the Koyukuk entered it On the right bank, five miles from the mouth of the Koyukuk, a peak, 1500 feet high, called Be-ne-le-rah-cher (big mountain) rose abruptly from the water; the sides sloped one-third the way down and then fell perpendicularly to the water. Along the right bank of the Yukon was a mountain range, thickly wooded with spruce; along the left bank the wood was poplar and cotton-wood. In the center of the river, here two miles wide, lay a large island; and for fifty miles down these constantly succeeded each other. Reached a good house called the "Big Mountain house," just below the Be-ne-le-rah-cher, kept by a prosperous native. Went into quarters. Distance traveled twenty miles; made good sixteen miles. January 12. Left Big Mountain house. Course S. by W.½ . over hard snow. Reached Nulato, one-half mile above the Nulato of the time of the Telegraph Company. Went into quarters in the house of a native trader named Philka, where we were treated royally and furnished all I was short of. Distance made good twenty miles.
The storehouse of the Alaska Commercial Company was closed though Philka had charge of a few trade goods. Nulato, besides the company's store, had four well-built log houses, clean and comfortable. Modern stoves were used and other conveniences. In Philka's there was a mess-table with china, etc., and good food, which I enjoyed, having been short for several days. January
13. At Nulato. Overhauled sleds and gear and rested dogs. Borrowed three big, strong dogs to help on large sled. One native here spoke good English.
January 14. Left Nulato. Course S. by E. on the Yukon. Road heavy from new snow. The new dogs, apparently part Newfoundland, proved much superior to the others. Reached the house of a celebrated old native called Tehunka. In 1851 he traveled eighty miles in one day on snow-shoes from Nulato to St. Michael's, carrying the news of a massacre of the whites at Nulato by the Koukuks. Hired him for fifty pounds of flour to act as guide to St. Michael's. Bought fish and quartered at Tehunka's. Distance traveled twenty miles; made good seventeen miles. January 15. Left Tehunka's. Course S. by W. on the Yukon. Bought for a box of caps a pair of wooden runners three inches wide and lashed them on the iron runners of the big sled. Found them a great help, relieving the dogs of much strain. Road good enough though snow was deep and soft. Quartered at a native's, name Kaltaga. Distance traveled twenty miles; made good seventeen miles. January 16. Left Kaltaga's. Crossed the river and started on course S, S.W.½W. through a level valley three miles wide intersected by numerous small streams; over tundra and through spruce forests. Road covered with snow. Found the way by walking ahead and sounding with poles. Had to tramp down the snow to make a path for the sleds. Encamped, having traveled eighteen miles; made good thirteen miles. Before starting across tundra it is necessary to take plenty of dog food. January 17. Broke camp. Course S.S.W.½W. Road good one-third the way, over tundra; bad through forest and brush. Encamped, having traveled eighteen miles, all good.
January 18. Broke camp. Course S.S.W.½W. over same kind of road. At 10 o'clock reached Beaver house on Beaver lake. At 4 o'clock reached the base of Vesolia Sopka, a mountain 2000 feet high with a triangular top and square base. It marked the intersection of the valley in which the road lay, with another running to southward and eastward. The Unalaklik river rose in the second valley, crossed the first valley at this point, and ran along the northern side, emptying into Norton sound. The road from this intersection lay along the foot of the mountain over tundra covered with good, hard snow. Reached Ulukuk on the Unalaklik, a clean, well-built village of three houses, and went into quarters. Distance traveled thirty-five miles; good twenty-six miles.
January 19. Left Ulukuk. Course S.S.W.½W. Road over tundra until noon. Then made the Unalaklik and traveled on smooth ice. Found iron runners better than wood for ice. Dogs had hard work, slipping continually. Left one dog on the ice completely worn out. Reached the village of Unalaklik at the mouth of the river facing Norton sound. Went into comfortable quarters at the house of Zulaluk of the Alaska Commercial Company. Distance traveled twenty miles; made good thirteen miles. This village, the largest on Norton sound, comprised fifteen dwellings and a dance house or Cazeem. Forty-five miles to S. S. W. the mountain of St. Michael's loomed up. Offered a reward of five skins for the thermometer lost a short time before arrival. Had sealskin soles put on boots, deerskin being unfit for ice or wet snow. Bought provisions. Exchanged Socoloff's sled for a better one shod with whalebone. January 20. Under way. Course, south. Norton sound being open, took a road on the ice skirting the shore. Crossed over Tolstoi point. Made Nu-wayn-yuk, on a river of the same name, called also by its Russian name Galtzora. Went into quarters. Distance traveled twenty-five miles; made good sixteen miles.
27th day, January 21. Course S.W.½W. Road good over ice. Passed the village of Keg-ich-tow-ik, and at 1.15 P.M. reached St. Michael's. Distance traveled twenty-five miles; made good seventeen miles. Went into the hospitable quarters of Mr. Lorentz, the Alaska Commercial Company's agent. Next day the guides, with ample provisions of flour, hard bread, sugar and tea, were sent back; Suan to be ready at Nulato for return trip. Purchased for $18.00 a new, well-constructed sled, made of ash, and for $8.00 new, halter girt-line harness for dogs. The large sled and gear were condemned, being beyond repair. Got provisions for return trip, paying only for such articles as flour, tea, tobacco, etc. Beans, rice, butter, canned goods and trade goods, etc., were given, as much had to be declined for want of storage-room. Procured a maximum and minimum thermometer from Mr. Clark, the U.S. Signal Service observer; and borrowed a dog from Mr. Lorentz. The greatest kindness and assistance were universally met with. Remained seventeen days at St. Michael's, having been detained three days by heavy gales.
On February 7, the return trip of nineteen days was begun. At 10.30 left St. Michael's. Found the sound frozen, so headed direct for Nuwaynyuk. Road heavy from fine particles of frozen snow and salt slush, offering a resistance like sand and gravel. Reached Nuwaynyuk and went into quarters. February 8. Under way for Unalaklik where quartered. The road over the ice was better. Shot a dog who had gone lame and became worthless. Found the lost thermometer and paid the reward. Got back Socoloff's sled thoroughly repaired as ordered. February 9 and 10. Left Unalaklik direct for Ulukuk. Road in fine condition. Crossed the portage, sleeping out one night. February 11. Left Ulukuk. Made the Yukon river at evening. Crossed it, and quartered at Kaltaga's. Broke runner of Socoloff's sled, repaired it temporarily.
February 12. Made Nulato by nightfall and quartered. Found Suan, the guide, waiting. Feb. 13 and 14. Remained at Nulato resting. Bought a new sled for $10.00 to replace Socoloff's. Got natives to draw a chart of the Koyukuk river with tributaries, and the Par river, showing the portage from one to the other used in the summer trips to the Putnam.
Old Nulato, where the massacre of 185 1 took place, was visited under the guidance of Kargarine. The only building remaining was that of one of the party of the Western Union Telegraph Company occupied in 1867 and 1868. Saw the grave of Lieutenant Barnard. The headboard was upright: on it, surmounted by a cross, was the following:
Lieutenant James J. Barnard,
H. B. M. S. Enterprise,
Who was killed near this place
by the
Koukuk Indians
Feb. 16, 1851. F. A.
February 15. Left Nulato. Traveled on Yukon. Passed the Big Mountain house and made the Koyukuk river. Quartered in a native house. February 16. Under way; but soon went into quarters, Sucoloff having rheumatism and unable to walk. February 17. Under way. Road over tundra good. Went into camp at nightfall. February 18. Traveled all day following regular road. Reached Suan's house and quartered, February 19. Remained at Suan's. Repaired damages; hired three dogs and bought dog food. The road over the mountains was decided upon in preference to following the regular route, in spite of guide's objections.
February 20. Left Suan's house. Followed road which was good. Went into quarters in the native house used on the outward journey. February 21. Started on the route across the mountains. Course west. Followed the Koyukuk a little while and then struck across. Road good, over many lakes and small streams. Made a short cut from the road to reach a deserted house, where quartered. Distance traveled twenty miles; made good fifteen miles. February 22. Under way. Course N. by W. over the mountains. Road heavy over tundra and through forest and brush, a way having to be made. Reached the top of foot hills overlooking the valley in which the road lay. Encamped in valley. Distance traveled twenty-five miles; made good eighteen miles. February 23. Broke camp. Course N. W. by W. over tundra, with little snow, and hills 500 feet high with gentle southern slopes and steep northern faces. A stream wandered through the valley and on its banks grew the only wood to be had. Encamped, having made good twenty-five miles. February 24. Broke camp. Course N. W. by W, fve miles; then N. by E. ten miles. Reached the head of the valley, forty-five miles long and eight to ten miles broad, running north and south. The mountains on the eastern side rose from 500 to 2500 feet high; on the western side they were lower. Started over the mountains, course N. W. Road heavy over hills 800 to 1000 feet high. Made camp. Distance traveled thirty-five miles; made good only twelve miles.
19th day, February 25. Broke camp. Course N.W. over the mountains. From the summit overlooking Putnam river, saw Fort Cosmos bearing W.N.W. Killed a worn-out dog. Came in the Putnam river ten miles above the Fort, and reached Fort Cosmos at 7.55 P. M. The route to St. Michael's was that used by the natives in their winter trading expeditions. It led along the Putnam river fifty miles to the Par, up it forty miles to a portage of twenty-five miles, through dense spruce forests, to he Koyukuk river; down this fifty miles; next, forty miles across tundra, a chain of lakes, and through forests to the Yukon river down the Yukon, seventy miles; then fifty miles of tundra with occasional thick spruce growth, to the Unalaklik river; fifteen miles on it to Norton sound; and finally thirty-five miles off Norton sound and St. Michael's was reached. The road to the Yukon country via the Par, is an old one extensively used in winter by the natives. For the most part it is good, well defined and easy of travel, though it had been but little used the winter before my expedition went over. The route over the mountain: traveled the last four days of the return trip, though a trifle shorter to make Fort Cosmos, seldom used, is not so short to reach Par. Stops were generally made in tenanted huts and dog-food bought of the occupants, who were hospitable and made the party as comfortable as possible. They nearly all spoke a little Russian. Some nights were passed in the open air, several while going, and less returning. The weather was of all kinds several heavy snow storms and gales of wind were encountered the lowest temperature -70° P., the highest 30° F. All hands and the dogs stood the trip well.
The summer route from the Yukon to the Putnam is up the Koyukuk or Tug-ga-rag-a-wick to the Kokachatna; up it a short distance; then a day's portage carrying the canoe; and finally down the Par to the Putnam. The journey to St. Michael's required twenty-seven days including three days of rest. Four hundred and ninety mi'es were traveled, of which three hundred and eighty were good. The actual time under way was one hundred eighty-two hours and thirty minutes or a little more than seven days. The average daily distance traveled was twenty and four-tenths miles, of which fifteen and eight-tenths were good. Under way each day seven hours thirty-five minutes at a speed per hour of three and one-tenth miles, of which two and four-tenths were good. The return trip took nineteen days including three days of rest. The road was fine, having frequently been used since the trip out. In fourteen days traveled two hundred and twenty-five miles along the old route, then stood across, taking five days to make about one hundred miles good averaging twenty-six and one-fourth miles a day, of which seventeen and a half were good; under way nine hours twenty minutes each day at a speed of three miles, of which two went good.
X.—Expedition to Point Barrow under Ensign Howard.
In accordance with the arrangement made with Owpuk at Issheyuk on my visit to that place in December, I started a party out on April 12 to join the natives at Issheyuk and go with them down the Colville to Point Barrow. Ensign Howard who accompanied me on my trip, was placed in charge of the expedition and I assured him that I would not leave the country until I knew that he was all right; and that I would leave provisions at Fort Cosmos in case he should return after our departure. The trip occupied ninety-six days, from April 12 to June 16, and the account of it is here given in his own words.
April 12, 1886, I left Fort Cosmos with Price (C. M.), Riley, the interpreter, and two natives, en route to Point Barrow. The expedition started with two sleds and outfit weighing 485 pounds and 432 pounds, and 15 dogs. Passed Assistant Engineer Zane with one sled and seven dogs accompanied the party to Notoark. The outfit consisted of the following articles: Provisions, 25 lbs. flour; 25 lbs. bread; 25 lbs. corned beef; 4 lbs. tea; 50 lbs. sugar; 15 lbs. lard; 3 lbs. baking powder; 10 lbs. salt; 20 lbs. pork; 1 bottle pepper. Cooking Gear, 1 frying pan; 1 camp kettle; 1 small kettle; 1 tea pot; 2 tin cups; 3 tin pans; 2 forks; 2 spoons; 2 small axes; coal oil stove and feeder; 5 gallons coal oil. Clothing, 2 suits underclothing; 2 pairs trousers; 4 pairs socks; 6 handkerchiefs; 2 towels; 3 pair boots; 2 blue shirts; 2 hats; 1 sleeping bag and sleeping socks ; 1 parky ; and 1 pair blankets. Instruments, 1 sextant; 1 chronometer watch; 1 artificial horizon; 2 note books; 1 pocket barometer; 1 spirit thermometer; 1 spy glass; 1 compass. Medical outfit as made for the Greely Relief Expedition. Arms and Ammunition, 1 shot gun with 200 cartridges for same; 1 Hotchkiss rifle, 300 cartridges for same; 2 revolvers, 50 cartridges for same. Trade Articles for purpose of paying natives, 50 lbs. leaf tobacco; 8 lbs. lead; 12 ½ lbs. shot; 17 boxes caps; 8 knives; 10 papers needles; 12 thimbles; 12 combs; 6 bundles matches; 6 packs cards; can of beads; 3 pipes; 10 lbs. powder; 6 snow goggles; 6 files; some match-rope and snappers; and 150 lbs. dried fish for dog food.
The Nutvucktowoark river was reached the first day after a hard journey over almost bare tundra and over lakes and streams the ice of which was covered with water. Made camp where some stuff had been cached on the previous reconnoitering trip. Found the cache unmolested. Natives had been near but had camped a little to one side to avoid disturbing it. The next day made the Evesheark river and camped near Camp II of the previous trip. Found cache undisturbed. This river is a tributary of the Nutvucktowoark river. April 14, camped at old Camp III on the mountains in a native snow hut made of blocks of snow cut from a packed snow drift and piled around a circular base to a height of a few feet, the roof formed by overlapping the higher layers. Upon becoming warm the moisture congeals upon the snow inside which keeps them dry. These huts are found all through the mountains, being made early in the season and through the winter by hunting parties. At this camp my natives went off deer-hunting. April 15, made Koolooguck and learned that Owpuk, the native with whom I intended traveling to the coast, was still at Issheyuk. The deer hunters returned, bringing five deer. April 16, left the village and reached Aneyuk on the Notoark river, distant about ten miles N.W. (p. c). Found the guide of my former trip, Ashewanuk, who said Owpuk was not at Issheyuk and that the village was deserted. Hired this guide to help me find him. Aneyuk is the highest point on the Notoark river reached by the natives in boats. In the fall they come here and wait for the snow to sled into the interior. The skins of the boats are cached until the next season and their frames are placed on high racks to prevent animals eating the lashings. In the spring the people come down by sleds to Aneyuk, put together their boats, and go by water to the coast. This custom is general, only a few families remaining in the mountains. April 17, left Aneyuk and arrived at Shotcoaluk twenty miles distant N.E. (p. c.) where I remained until the 20th on account of a heavy wind storm that filled the air with fine snow obscuring the nearest objects. Here I received one hundred pounds flour that had been sent ahead. April 20, left Shotcoaluk for the mountains. The snow drifted so the leading dogs could not be seen, and everybody suffered from the piercing cold. Connected all the dogs and sleds in line ahead and made for the nearest valley, clinging to the sleds to avoid getting lost. Finally went into camp in a shelter cut out of a large snow drift. April 21, left this camp; made about 12 miles north (p. c.) and reached the Etivluk river whose headwaters are at Issheyuk and which helps form the Colville river. The village, twenty miles west (p. c.) of Issheyuk, contained one family, and I was informed that all the natives had gone down this river and were encamped below. April 22, started down the Etivluk; came to a deserted village and was disappointed in not finding Owpuk. Continued on and reached the village of Tooloouk where I found him. The natives seemed glad to see me and sent dogs to help as soon as we were sighted. There were ten houses in this village and seventy natives; but this number varied, as people were constantly coming and going. After a long talk with the natives, Owpuk consented to take me to "salt water ". In the meantime a special hut had been built for myself and party, out of poles stuck in the snow with their upper ends bowed and lashed together and over this frame was put a cover of sewed deer skins. At this place I discharged my new guide and sent back the two natives brought from Fort Cosmos, with a large sled and eight dogs, and a written report of my trip up to date.
We spent a week at this village situated in a deep valley just off the Etivluk river. On the hills above, natives were always on watch for deer, and when sighted, all the young men would leave for them. A number were killed which the women brought in, dressed and prepared. All the work in the village was done by the women; they sledded for and gathered the scarce wood, cooked the food and took it to the men who generally eat together sitting around in a circle. They eat ravenously until everything is gone, there being no apparent limit to their capacity. It is also wonderful the fatigue and exertion they can undergo without food or sleep, recuperating by eating and sleeping alternately for several days. These natives had immense bundles of skins to trade on the coast for seal oil, rifles, etc., the natives on the coast depending on them for their skin clothing. The skins are dried and kept in bundles outside the houses, except wolf skins which are hung from poles at some distance from the village, as a charm against disease. Whenever the sleds stopped the wolf skins were first taken off and hung away as above. A grand dance took place which I attended. This was a rehearsal in preparation for the dance upon meeting the Point Barrow natives. May I, twelve sleds, including mine, left Tooloouk. Each sled averaged four natives and four dogs. Some were bound down the Colville river and some down the Ikpikpuk. Stopped twice to get deer and learned that the long wait at Tooloouk had been to allow the deer to get ahead as they depend upon them for food. All the deer killed were covered with parasites which the natives eat greedily. May 2, under way; making frequent stops to allow the old people to catch up. All hands traveled on snow-shoes, the sleds being too heavily loaded for any to ride. Sighted a large herd of deer and encamped, having made about twelve miles N. W. (p. c). Eight more sleds arrived from Tooloouk, having left the day before. The mountains passed this day were lower than those at Issheyuk (showing evidence of their limit) and irregular in shape, and rocky. May 3, in camp waiting for four more sleds from the mountains. These new arrivals were strangers to me. I was advised by a native to distrust Owpuk; this was the only instance I ever met of one native speaking ill of another. May 4, under way, and made about fifteen miles N. by W. (p. c.) avoiding long bends in the river by crossing the tundra where the women gathered berries. These ripened in the fall just as the snow comes; they then freeze on the bushes and are thus preserved until the snow melts down in the spring. We gathered a great many and I found them especially good, their effect being that of a mild laxative. During the forenoon passed a hill about 500 feet elevation with out-croppings of coal. On the sides of this hill beyond the coal were also found large pieces of a substance called wood by the natives; it was hard, brittle, light brown in color, very light in weight and burned readily, giving out quantities of gas. This material was scattered about in all shapes, sizes and quantities. The snow and ice made it impossible to climb and dig; a specimen was preserved. May 5, under way, and made ten miles N. by W. (p. c.) when went into camp on account of strong gale from the westward which blew so hard the dogs could not pull against it. The driving snow covered my glasses, making it impossible to see, so took them off and in the evening suffered from an attack of snow blindness that lasted all night The natives suffer a great deal from this source. Their only cure is the shaman who beats a tom-tom and paints a circle around the eyes with a black paint made of ashes and seal oil, giving the appearance of having on glasses; as the eyes water a great deal, this pigment soon gets all over the face. This camp was at the limit of the mountains; on all sides and ahead was undulating land. May 6, under way, making frequent stops; made about six miles N. by W. (p. c). During the day an addition was made to the party in the form of a baby boy. A place was hollowed out of a snow drift and a couple of deer skins put in. The caravan then continued on leaving the woman behind alone. Towards evening the mother with her infant came into the camp, having walked a distance of three miles.
May 7, under way. Made about twelve miles N. by W. (p. c), when reached the village of Etivoli-par. This is situated at the point where the Etivuk river flows into the Kungyanook, or Colville river. At this place those who go down the Colville river leave their boats in the fall and wait for snow to sledge to the mountains. Most of the natives with whom I was traveling remained here waiting for the ice on the Colville to break up. The woman with the baby had hard work to keep up; upon my offering her a ride the others interfered, saying she must go on foot; she also had to make her own fire, cook her own food and use her own special utensils; according to their superstitions to do otherwise would result in misfortune to the child. May 8 to 12, remained at the village, during which time it was either snowing or raining. The natives opened their caches made last fall, and deer meat and fish were taken out frozen solid and in perfect condition. On Alay ii, the first goose of the season flew over, the natives were very jubilant and by imitating the goose's call kept it circling overhead several minutes. I was not allowed to shoot it. Natives here brought me a small mammoth tusk, but I left it on account of my load and their telling me there were plenty on the Ikpikpuk.
May 12, eight sleds, including my own, started for the Chipp or Ikpikpuk river, going on down the Colville. One native took his boat on his sled and started with us, evidently going down the Ikpikpuk on my account. Those left behind appeared very sorry to part with us and tried again to persuade me to go down the Colville. Made about twelve miles N. by E. (p. c). Found the Colville to be a very winding river with steep banks on this day's run, varying in width from 400 to 1000 yards. It appeared to be shallow and was filled with islands with a very heavy growth of brush. At camp that night the natives dug roots called mashoo, they were very succulent and tender, and later on formed my principal food. May 13, remained in camp. Sent ahead part of outfit and cached it, following the example of the natives. May 14, under way. Picked up cached stuff and continued on; made twelve miles N. by E. (p. c). Sighted a herd of deer near camp and shot five. Country undulating; river, wide and tortuous, sometimes turning at right angles, filled with brush; covered islands; banks steep, in places 300 feet high. May 15 in camp. Women sledged for deer killed the day before. Sent part of load ahead and cached it as before. Got six deer during the day.
May 16, under way; made twelve miles N.E. (p.c.) and reached the last camping-place on the Colville river. The character of the country and river as on previous day. From this point according to the natives, the river trends N. E. (p, c). May 17 to 20. In camp, detained by the snow-blindness of the natives I gave them an ointment of vaseline and laudanum which I had found beneficial. The shaman did his duty by shouting and beating the tom-tom. Sent load ahead as before. May 20, under way. Made six miles N.N.W. (p. c.) to the top of the hills, then changed course W.N.W. (p. c.) for six miles and camped on a small creek emptying into the Ikpikpuk, May 21, in camp. Sent part of load ahead as before. May 22, under way. Made ten miles N.W. (p. c.) and went into camp on the Ikpikpuk river. According to custom, sent native ahead to announce our arrival to the rendezvous below, where the natives from the mountains were assembled to start down the Ikpikpuk river. During the evening some of them came up to meet us and showed great curiosity at my presence, but all were kind. May 23, under way. Made the rendezvous village of Kigalik, consisting of thirty tents and one hundred and fifty natives. Just before arriving at Kigalik, came upon the racks holding the boat frames, and each native examined his to see that it was all right. Counted eighteen oomiak and twenty kyak frames. Under the frames was a cache containing the boat covers. As we neared the village our party was met and assisted with extra dogs and escorted to the lower end of the camp which had been reserved for us. In the center of the village a large dance house had been made by sticking poles into the ground and hanging skins over them, everyone furnishing a few skins. In this house the men worked at new boat frames during the day and all hands danced at night, their food being carried there by the women. The latter spent their time in tanning skins and making clothing. The wood for the boats came from the rivers to the southward, passing through many native hands. The boats are lashed with strips of whalebone; the oomiaks are covered with sealskin and the kyaks with deerskins.
May 24 to 30. In camp at Kigalik. Natives building boats, similar to those on the Putnam, and making preparations for descending the river. Children gathered berries and wood, and shot ptarmigan with bows and arrows. Some of the men gathered poles for tents, to be used in trade at Point Barrow where only drift-wood can be got. At this place the last green brush was seen ten to twelve feet high. After this fires were made from grass and creepers with a little coal-oil. A lookout was always kept for deer and all work suspended to pursue them. Flies made their appearance, and geese, ducks and ptarmigan were becoming plentiful, the latter commenced changing their plumage. Two mammoth tusks were brought me weighing about one hundred and fifty pounds each, one foot in circumference and ten feet in length. I was told of another too large to be lifted. There are many superstitions regarding their removal. I was never allowed to have mine in camp, nor even to touch it, until I arrived at Point Barrow. These tusks are found in the spring while going down the river; the water rising washes away the icy earth of the banks and shows the tusks firmly embedded. The natives cut them up into two-pound pieces and trade them on the coast. No inducement will make them take a whole tusk. They make handles, dippers, fish-hooks, etc. out of this ivory. The fish-hooks are made from a small piece six inches long, with a sharp pointed piece, an inch in length, lashed to one end at an angle of 45°. These hooks are baited with deer meat and set all along the banks where they are visited twice a day. Made a sledging trip to the headwaters of the Ikpikpuk river. It is formed by the junction of several smaller streams which drain the hills between it and the Colville. From the top of the highest hill on the river (500 feet), I got a good view of the Ikpikpuk. It is tortuous in the extreme, bending and doubling upon itself in a remarkable manner. During my absence the natives had made all preparations for starting down the river, boats were covered, sleds put away, etc. I gave my sleds and dogs to Owpuk.
June 2 to 8. In camp at village. The ice began breaking and the river rising. The high water forced everybody to leave the quarters on the spit and move into the interior. Many natives moved only a foot or two at a time. The shamans gathered in the bank and would stick their knives at the water's edge to prevent any rising beyond it. Each- failure was greeted with derisive laughter as the discomfited medicine men stepped back and picked up their submerged knives. Instead of dancing in the evenings the favorite amusement now was tossing in the sealskin blanket. The river rose six feet by June 6, and then commenced falling. Boats were got ready and all stuff not needed on the journey was cached. June 8, left Kigalik, five oomiaks starting, and made about fifty miles down the river. Just before camping passed a small creek coming in on the left which was stated to be very long. The boats are loaded and handled very skillfully; poles are stuck along the sides to keep the load in place, which is piled four feet above the gunwales Some heavily loaded oomiaks have kyaks lashed each side to insure stability. The owner steers from the stern, the family sit in the bow and paddle with short handled broad bladed paddles. Each boat has a long handled narrow bladed oar which the women pull, using a hide oarlock. Stopped often to get mashoo root for food, and killed three deer at the last stop. Upon reaching camp the boats were discharged and turned up to dry. This rule was always followed, and occasionally they were well rubbed with oil. June 9, in camp. The country was rolling land with small berry-bearing bushes here and there. The kyaks with the young men hunters went on ahead to secure food. June 10. Under way, and made about twenty miles. Passed a small creek coming in on right side, and camped on left bank of the river, just opposite the mouth of a large tributary. This day the Ikpikpuk averaged four hundred yards in width and fourteen feet in depth. The country was more open, and hills lower. Food was becoming scarce as the herds of deer scattered over the open country and the game kept to the lakes instead of the river, June 10 to 14. In camp, detained by a heavy gale from the southward and westward. It blew steadily for three days, then became squally, hauled to the northward, and died out. Caught , our first fish; native name Tee-tal-uk, scientific name, Lota marculosa, I learned that in going down only a few boats went together as enough food could not be provided for all hands at the same time. Their principal food now was the seal meat and oil which had been brought up the previous fall and cached. The young men were out after deer all the time. The dogs were fed on bones and pieces of deer skin with the hair soaked in seal oil. Sighted a few deer, all hands started after them, some going barefooted over the snow and ice tundra, but none were killed. June 14, under way; and made about twelve miles; stopped on account of heavy snow storm. Passed a small tributary coming in on the right side. The surrounding country was now changed to a level waste of tundra with an occasional mound-shaped sand-hill from 50 to 100 feet high. The river banks were low and of sand, on top of this was a network of roots. Low brush grew in scattered places. From this point no rocks were met with, hence all the boats carried stones to crack bones upon.
June 15 to 19. In camp; detained by bad weather. The snow was all gone so the deer had to be brought in on dogs saddled with sealskin bags or blankets placed over the back and tied around the neck and under the belly. These contained pockets on both sides in which the dressed deer meat was put. Two dogs can carry a deer. I noticed a great number of sick people, especially women and children who appeared to have severe colds. I gave them medicine and as they all recovered I was always consulted. June 19, left camp and continued down the river making about thirty miles. Passed a small tributary coming in on the right side. River wide and shallow with less current. Country flat, low and sandy, with occasional small sand mounds and a growth of stubble. Caught two white fish, native name, See, scientific name, Stenodus Mackenzie. June 20, under way and made about twelve miles. June 21 to 23, in camp, detained by sick people. The natives could not shoot game on this account and I was asked to do it. Only wooden bowls could be used in dipping water from the river as to use metal pots would cause the fish to leave. The fish caught here were dried and kept for future use as they became less plentiful lower down. June 23, under way with one other boat, the remainder being detained by sickness. Made about thirty-five miles. At this point the river divides into two branches. We took the left; was told by my guide both went to salt water, the right branch farther to the eastward. The left branch was about one hundred yards wide at starting, soon increased to about five hundred yards, very shoal in places and filled with sand-spits and sand-islands. Banks so low that during freshets the river flows over the tundra. Game getting still scarcer, remaining further in the interior.
June 24, under way and made about thirty-five miles. Banks of river so low as to be scarcely perceptible. Passed through two lakes made by the river widening over the tundra; the first nearly circular and about a mile in diameter; the second, half a mile further on, was about five miles in diameter. Both were very shallow (the boats grounded in the larger) and were full of sand-spits and islands. The surrounding country was level and a network of ponds and lakes of all sizes, with the river winding in and out among them connecting a great many. While crossing the second lake we sighted two tents of Point Barrow natives which caused the wildest excitement, the natives paddling their hardest, and shouting with all their might, although the tents were several miles away. I came to the conclusion from later observations that these people are afraid of the Point Barrow natives, though they have never harmed each other. The paddling and shouting were kept up until we reached the tents. These Point Barrow natives were filthy in appearance and condition, their clothing being covered with grease and oil. As soon as we landed they brought us whale and walrus blubber to eat which even the dogs refused, though the natives ate it with apparent relish. Their language I could not understand at first, the words seemed the same but the pronunciation different, being short and jerky, like that of the Yukon people. These natives had left Point Barrow a week before and were at this place to hunt deer and fish. We camped near these tents and the natives began visiting us. These people were on their way to the Colville and Mackenzie rivers, and crossed the tundra to meet us. They were making their way along the Arctic coast with dogs, sleds and boats, carrying the boats on sleds over the ice until they meet water. The trip from Point Barrow to Mackenzie river and return occupies two years. They communicate and trade with the Hudson Bay natives, the latter sometimes visit Point Barrow, and some of them visited us at this camp. They differed in appearance from the Alaska natives; the tattooing, only seen on the women, being several parallel stripes across the cheeks. The women wore their hair in a knot on top of the head standing about six inches high similar to that of the Eskimos of Greenland. They spent the day dancing and feasting. On hearing that I was out of flour they gave me a fifty-pound sack, which they packed several miles across the tundra.
June 25 to July 12. Remained at this camp waiting for the ice to break off from the coast. I offered every inducement to natives to take me to Point Barrow, but without success. One day a party arrived from the Point to trade. In the evening they got drunk on liquor they brought with them, and insisted upon coming into my tent, making all sorts of threats one moment and the next attempting to embrace us. The sober men of the party had taken their knives from them, and I was cautioned to keep my lire-arms out. of sight. They stole everything they could put their hands on, the women returning them as fast as taken. The orgie lasted all night, and the next day they boasted of having been drunk and wanted more liquor. Considerable trading was done here, the interior natives exchanging all kinds of skins for rifles, cartridges, caps, lead and tobacco, which the coast natives had in abundance. Price and I had both suffered a great deal from constipation, and one evening a shaman gaudily attired, visited our tent in one of his trances. He appeared very weak though in reality the strongest man in the party, and remained about fifteen minutes rubbing his hands, shaking himself and whooping all the time. He then left, having cured us as he thought. July 12. Ten oomiaks started for Point Barrow. We followed, the edge of the ice being out of sight of land about an hour. Camped on beach. July 13, in camp, detained by ice. July 14. Underway, pushing through the ice. Dense fog set in part of the time and we were out of sight of land. The navigating of these people was wonderful. We made our way through leads, heading in every direction, and towards evening made the beach along which we tracked until 4 A.M. the next day, only six boats reaching this camp, the others being delayed by the ice and difficult navigation.
July 15, tracked along the coast, and at 9.30 P. M. made Point Barrow six miles above the old headquarters of the U.S. Signal Station, under Lieutenant Ray, U.S. Army. I made my way overland, and at 2 A.M., July 16, reached the house, ninety-six days from Fort Cosmos. Here I found Captain E. P. Herendeen in charge, and three traders, all stationed here by the Pacific Steam Whaling Company for whaling and trading. I was very hospitably received and entertained. Everything they had was, offered me, and pay offered, was laughed at. The ice was jammed on the northern coast and I was told it would be impossible to make my way along the coast to the southward as the ice floe extended as far seaward as the eye could reach. The northern shore of Alaska is very shallow and sandy. All along the coast great spits of sand are shoved up by the ice. The beach is filled with drift-wood. I noticed many timbers of wrecked ships though nothing that could be identified. Two small streams enter the Arctic between the mouth of the Ikpikpuk and Point Barrow.
August 11, I started with the Point Barrow party down the coast in skin boats to meet the whaling fleet to the southward if possible. Forty miles below the point we met the fleet making its way north through the leads, and boarded the "Narwhal," Captain Maillard. Learning that the U.S. Revenue Steamer Bear was just behind the fleet, I returned in the "Narwhal" to Point Barrow and awaited the arrival of the "Bear," which reached there the 12th.
August 13, embarked on the "Bear," Captain M. A. Healy, U.S.R.M., commanding, for transportation to Hotham inlet. August 25, reached Hotham inlet and reported my return to the commanding officer.
XI.—Animals, Birds, Etc.
The mosquitoes are the first things noticed on arrival in the country. Nowhere have I ever seen so many as on the Putnam river during the summer months. It surpasses imagination. We suffered more from this pest than from anything else. At times they would drive us to distraction. The dogs would rub off all the hair around their eyes in efforts to drive the vicious things away. The poor animals would dig holes and crawl in them, hauling the dirt down over them, in their efforts to get rest. Smoke was the only thing of any avail against them, so the first thing on stopping was to build a fire, when the dogs would actually shove their heads right into it to keep the pests off. It is during a calm that the mosquitoes are so bad. The least wind drives them away. The natives relate instances when the mosquitoes have caused the death of reindeer. These animals generally keep off the low tundra land, when these pests are worst. But the deer occasionally during a light breeze venture into these bad places. The wind dying out the mosquitoes rise like a cloud and attack them, especially around the eyes. They run frantically for high land; but the mosquitoes get in their eyes and actually obscure their sight. In a short while the eye swells and the animal loses his way and wanders around. Eventually they succumb and die.
I provided my party with an arrangement that gave them full protection. It was a hood of light drilling which came down over the head and shoulders, with holes for the arms, by which it was readily held on. A steel band ran around the face of the hood and on this fitted a movable mask of fine meshed copper wire. In the lower part of this mask a hole was made with a hinged cover of the same material, so that a man could smoke or eat without removing his mask. When there is the least wind the mosquitoes do not bother one and the mask can be removed and hung to one side as with a soldier's cap. The mask was made of wire gauze because the mosquito netting tears so easily. Having to use instruments in observations for latitude and longitude, I made an additional hole in my mask opposite the eye used.
Bears were very numerous and the natives were abundantly supplied with their skins. We saw four kinds, black, brown, cinnamon and a small bear of gray color. They never gave us any trouble, though we saw natives who had been in encounters with them.
Black wolves are also quite plentiful, and I saw a number of blue wolf skins. We saw four kinds of foxes, red, silver-grey, white, and a cross-fox. Other animals were numerous, such as the wolverine, land otter, marten, mink, beaver, muskrat, and ermine, wood rats, squirrels and white rabbits. Porcupines were everywhere and in great numbers. The only animals of the deer family in the country are the caribou, which are killed by the natives in great numbers.
Waterfowl of all kinds are plentiful during the summer, but migrate south on the approach of winter, except one small variety, something like a sand piper, which remains during the whole year, as do the blue-jays, crow, ptarmigan, white owl and grouse.
Fish.
There are many varieties of fish in the rivers and lakes. Most of which are mentioned elsewhere—but the salmon is the principal one. There are three varieties of this fish in the Putnam and its branches on the north side of the river, but strange to say, not one is to be found in the streams coming in from the south. The reason of this I do not know.
Specimens of every variety of animal, bird, fish, and insect life, besides woods, mosses, and minerals, were collected during our stay in the country which were forwarded on my return to the Smithsonian Institute.
Geology, Etc.
The geological formations of the Putnam river valley show much disturbance and change, as may be gathered from the description given in other parts of the book. Granite rocks are the most abundant, though there is much limestone, slate and conglomerate in the upper part of the valley.
Gold Prospects.
Looking for gold was not one of the objects of my expeditions to the Putnam river country and no effort was made to find it. On our several exploring trips, the ground was always covered with snow, and the weather intensely cold, and in the summer we were engaged in other work, surveying, etc., and had no time to give to prospecting.
On my second trip, however, I was joined on the river by an old miner named Miller, who had come in with a party from the revenue cutter. They turned back after going a short distance up and Miller asked to join my party. I took him along to chop wood for the steam launch. Whenever we stopped Miller would go with a shovel and wash the sand on the bars of the creeks emptying into the Putnam, looking for gold. He invariably found traces of the precious metal, more in some places than in others, and would show me the "color," as he called it, which consisted of specks of fine gold.
Miller said at the time that the prospects here showed better than on the Yukon where he had been prospecting for a year. He was very enthusiastic about it and begged me to "stake" him with grub so that he could remain in the country and continue prospecting; but I could not comply with his request, as I had none but Government stores with me, and these I could not dispose of in such a way.
Coal.
On my second trip to the Putnam I discovered a vein of bituminous coal outcropping on the north side of the river about ninety miles from the mouth. I tried a lot of it in the furnace of the steam launch with very satisfactory results, though it had been long exposed to the weather. The vein was between two and three feet thick and dipped at an angle of 30° from the river. I think that a good quality of coal will be found further in the bank.
Trees.
Fair specimens of the various kinds of trees were cut down, measured and inquiries made of the natives concerning them; the following notes thereon are submitted.
Spruce.
A spruce tree cut near Fort Cosmos was a good example of its kind. Height, 50 feet; N.E. diameter of trunk, the longest, 16 inches; N.W. diameter, the shortest, 13 inches. Branches began three feet from the ground, increasing in size and length to the middle of the tree, then diminishing to the top. The branches next the ground were dead, as is always the case. Branches from three to five feet long never have a greater diameter than 2 ½ inches. This tree inclined to the southwest (as most of them do). The roots to the northeast were longest and largest, one being nine feet long and eight inches in diameter. The depth of soil in which this tree grew was but seven inches, the smallest threads of roots went no further down. The main root extended five inches below ground. All the roots ran laterally in soil of black and gray dirt with light sand and dirt below. All the spruce trees were about like the one described. In the Putnam valley the roots are longest and stoutest to the northeast; in other valleys this applies in the direction of the prevailing winds. All side roots are small and unimportant. The little soil over the roots is barely sufficient to hold the trees against the prevailing winds of summer. The snow and freezing of winter enable them to stand the gales of that season.
The native name for spruce is Nu-puck-tuck. The trees lose their leaves in spring; they get frozen to the tree in winter and so cannot fall. When young and tender the leaves are sometimes eaten as food.
The Cotton-wood.
The cotton-wood grows all over the country and is found in places where no other trees grow. The wood splits easily and on this account is often used in building, and in making fish traps. When spruce or birch is scarce it is used for canoes. It is also used to weaken too strong tobacco, and to make it last longer. The cotton-wood dies first at the top, caused by the winds cracking the upper bark which lets in the cold. The native name of the tree is Nimyuk, hence so many villages of that name.
Birch.
The birch are clean, well-shaped trees, varying in height from twenty-five to forty feet. A specimen tree cut was 31 feet high; circumference at butt, 18 inches; five feet up, 16 inches; at ten feet from butt. 13 inches. Branches began fourteen feet up, none lower, and not very many above. The largest trees all seemed dead and on them a parasite was found. Before dying, when the branches show signs of decay, a soft white fungus appears; after death this changes its color to slate or gray and becomes hard. The birch grows all through the country and is not confined to the water courses like most of the other trees.
This tree shows the advancement of the seasons; its buds are the first to appear in the spring and its leaves are the first to change color in the fall. The tender wood of the branches is eaten with the juice of the tree. The native name is Ool-la-Ieyuk. Its wood is the hardest of all trees and is used to make sleds, bows, etc. The bark is gotten in spring and from it are made canoes, house coverings, pans, etc. The buds are eaten by ptarmigan. The fungus called ap-pa-chuck women mix with their chewing tobacco.
The Willow.
There are several varieties of this tree. The specimen cut at Fort Cosmos will serve in dimensions for all. Its length was 17 feet; circumference at base, 6 ¾ inches; five feet up, 5 ¼ inches; ten feet up, 4 inches. About five feet up the branches begin increasing and so to the top where they are thickest. The largest trees are 10 inches in circumference at base, but these usually had dead tops and from the lower parts numerous sprouts grew. The willow growth is mostly thick like that of the Mexican mango; it is more of a shrub than a tree; it is found on all the lakes, and along the banks of the streams its growth is rank.
The native name of the above specimen is Con-nugn-yuk, and it is found in all parts of the country. It is sometimes used for bows when birch is scarce, and snow-shoes are made from it. The ptarmigan eat the buds, and the moose and bears, the twigs.
Another kind of willow is the Oak-pik, similar to the above in most respects. The bark is used to make nets. The animals eat the buds and twigs as above. A third kind is Ar-koo-too-ark. It has a fibrous blossom from which match-rope is made. The buds of the young plant are eaten in summer. Animals eat them as in the other kinds. This willow grows around lakes and rivers and in the water. A fourth species is Nu-wung-yuk. Its bark is used as a red dye, made by scraping it fine and letting it stand in water until it turns red, when it is mixed with the water. From the wood, pipes, snow goggles, etc., are made. Ptarmigan and rabbits eat the buds, beavers the roots, and moose the twigs. This willow never grows in water; it thrives on high land and on elevated tundra.
Fuel Wood.
Dry spruce wood was used exclusively in the boats for fuel; other dead wood gave poor results. The standing dead spruce was used; the higher the land the better the wood, having fewer knots and a straighter grain; in the low wet places the grain of the wood runs spirally. The green spruce gave no satisfaction in the boats but did well in the heating stoves at Fort Cosmos and was used altogether. In the summer the green spruce is nearly impossible to split, owing to the sap; this in the winter freezes and the wood is split with ease. The opposite is the case with dried spruce.
The largest tree seen in the whole country was a spruce near the headwaters of the Putnam. Dimensions, circumference at base, 80 inches; six feet up, 68 inches; height, 80 feet. Trees of this size, however, were seldom met with.
XII.—Natives.
The people inhabiting northern Alaska are known by the general name of Inuits and belong to the Esquimau family. They seem to be divided into geographical sections each having its own name; thus, those about Point Barrow are known as the Ugliammis, those about the Peol river are the Tatlits, those to the southward on the Yukon are the Kutch-a-kutchus. Those with whom I was most thrown along the Putnam, Selawik, Notoark and Colville valleys are known as Malemutes. It would be difficult for me to say much concerning their origin. Long ago they were undoubtedly closely allied to the natives of the Koyukuk river; because the oldest natives of the Putnam valley still speak that language and say that their fathers knew no other. But further than this I could learn nothing.
The Malemutes all speak the same language and have the same customs and social laws. Those living in the Putnam or Kubuck valley are called Ku-wung-mutes; in the Selawik valley, Se-Iewing-mutes; in the Notoark, Notoarkmutes; and in the Colville or Kunyanook they are Kunyamutes. Their complexion is light brown, the color of a new saddle. The skin of the face is darker as it is much exposed and seldom washed. There are shades of color but such diversities are merely accidental. The features are quite regular; the countenance round, and the expression open and good-natured. The eyes are small and black and nearly even with the face; the eyebrows short and straight. The nose is small and flat; the mouth, large with moderate lips and good teeth which in the old get worn to the gum from hard use. The hair is black, long, coarse and straight. Aged persons become gray but seldom bald. In stature, weight and size they compare favorably with the whites. The shape and size of their heads are normal and well proportioned; the forehead is high, like Europeans, the cheek bones are slightly prominent, but less so than in the North American Indians.
The faculties of seeing and hearing are highly developed, but the senses of smell and taste seem to be deficient. In actual masculine strength they are inferior to the whites, nevertheless their power of endurance is remarkable; they travel unceasingly and untiringly, regardless of the severity of the weather, and oftentimes with insufficient food and little sleep. Concerning their longevity it is difficult to say; there are many old people especially men, numbers of whom are grand-parents but they are very decrepit. The age of puberty is the same as in whites. There is nothing peculiar or strange connected with the functions of generation; they are subject to the same laws as the other races of human beings.
The women braid their hair in two long plaits hanging down the back; occasionally a man does the same. The men, however, as a rule wear the hair long and flowing excepting a bang across the forehead. They are generally beardless. It is said that they pluck out the hair, only permitting it to grow when they become old men. Tattooing is restricted to the women. It consists of a few lines on the lower lip and chin, and is seldom done until after marriage. The cartilage of the nose in both men and women is often pierced, though no rings or other nasal ornaments were seen. Ear-rings are worn by all the women and some of the men; bead ornaments on the hair and bracelets, only by the women.
Wearing labrets in the under lip just below the comers of the mouth, is confined to the men. The custom seems to be dying out, for though all the old men had pierced lips many of the young did not; also many who had holes for them wore only a single labret, and others, none at all. The first eventful ceremony in the life of a youth is the operation of cutting the lower lip for the labrets; after it he assumes the prerogatives of a man. The holes are cut by some old man, generally a medicine man, with a knife. The boy stands the operation uncomplainingly, pushing his tongue against the inside of the lip so as to assist the doctor. Before the cutting, the boy has to make presents to all the old people in the village, and in return he receives their blessings. If he be the son of a wealthy man he gives skins, knives, etc., but if poor he gathers and distributes large quantities of berries and roots.
Marriage.—The marriage ceremony is an unimportant one and seldom attended by any demonstrations. A man desiring a woman for his wife obtains the permission of her parents, and then asks the woman. Should either object there is no marriage. If accepted he makes presents of clothing generally to the parents, sometimes to the bride. If the groom be rich his marriage is sometimes followed by a supper and a dance. The public announcement of marriage is by word of mouth. The wedding is of the simplest, the groom goes to the hut of the bride and establishes himself there or else he takes her to his to-pee.
Polygamy though lawful and practiced is not general, the limit to the number of wives being the ability to support them. The wives live in the same hut if they can do so amicably, but when this is impossible the favorite wife is retained and the others cast out to shift for themselves. Widowers re-marry. In case of disagreement between stepmother and stepchildren the stepmother leaves, and another and more acceptable wife is taken. Widows also re-marry, but their children are distributed among the deceased husband's relatives, so that on their second marriage they are unencumbered. Relatives marry, but incest is not approved and seldom committed.
Death.—Death is regarded as a necessity and the natural end of man. Their grief is violent for a couple of days, occupied by loud crying and moaning, and then it passes. The ceremony of burial is simple; the most common way, that practiced by the Notoark natives and to a limited extent by all the others, is to place the corpse on the tundra and leave it to rot or become the food of beast or bird. The Putnam and Selawik tribes sometimes put the body in a rough box of hewn logs placed on the tundra. Frequently the dead are placed on the ground and a tent of poles made over them; and again they are laid between and across uprights.
The graves of the rich are distinguished by stones or poles piled about them. The dead are never placed underground. Sleds, arrows, utensils, tools, etc., are left with them, but no food. It is believed the dead go south, returning often as ghosts, and sometimes they can be seen playing games in the aurora. Graves are always visited soon after the interment to ascertain whether the dead have returned to life; but these visits are not often repeated, and the departed are soon forgotten except in story and legend.
The men live the longest. Judging from the great number of graves seen, and the reports of the natives, the race is diminishing, and the death rate largely exceeds the birth rate. The summer is the season of illness, and in the fall they die. Pulmonary diseases are the most prevalent, the damp and exposure of summer give bad colds which, for lack of treatment, develop into something more serious. A few get frozen to death.
Characteristics.—It can be stated that these people of northern Alaska are of exceptional good temper and kind disposition. They are tender and considerate to the aged, and possess a wonderful love for their own blood. The friendship between Ounalena and Callupuck was closer and more devoted than is often met with in more civilized places. Ounalena had been my guide on my previous trips and had died during my absence; his brother Callupuck was my guide on my last trip. Callupuck cried when he first met me, telling the story of Ounalena's freezing to death in the cold of last winter. Great tears rolled down his unwashed cheeks as he spoke of his brother's bravery, his power, his hunting, and his love; and when I showed him the old chart his brother had made for me, he broke out in sobs, "Oh yes, I loved Ounalena better than my wife; I could get another wife, but never, never, another brother."
Relationship is binding; the most distant cousinship is recognized. The family never forgets its own no matter how far they may be separated. Parents are noticeably kind to their children. They work for them, help them, and do everything to please them. The male children are preferred; a father will exhibit his boy with the greatest pride but the daughter will be kept in the background and merely mentioned, yet each is treated with equal consideration in their bringing up. The young babies are in the care of their mothers, who carry them inside their parkies, usually on the back so as not to be in the way when working. The older children are carried astride the necks of the women with their feet held in front to prevent falling. The excessive pigeon-toe formation of the women's feet is probably the result of this mode of carrying, for the girls are kept on their mothers' necks longer than the boys.
A sort of communism exists among the natives in a village; all articles are used in common, and borrowing and lending are obligatory and customary. The aged and infirm are taken care of by the people of the villages in which they live; so are the sick and helpless. Blind people are looked out for by their friends. Insane people, of whom there are a few are in charge of medicine men, who bleed them to effect a cure. Violent lunatics are killed. They have no chiefs, but a decided respect is paid the richest man, and his voice is the deciding one. They are very imitative and practical and follow the whites as much as possible, adopting such habits and customs as will be beneficial to them.
The women have entire control of the food, regulating when it shall be eaten, the kind, and the amount. They are always consulted in all matters relating to trade, traveling and domestic affairs. Though apparently treated with indifference their influence is distinctly felt. Instances are numerous where a man's stout denial has been changed to ready assent after an interview with his wife.
Crime.—The only disturbing element in the lives of these simple people is WOMAN. For her they quarrel and fight and even commit murder. A murderer is invariably killed by the son of the murdered man, if there be one, or by the brother or father. It may be that the proper avenger is too young to appreciate his responsibility as avenger, if so the matter rests until he reaches a proper age, and he then does his duty to his murdered parent by taking the life of the son of the murderer, for the original criminal will doubtless be too near the grave to make the killing him a satisfactory reparation.
Stealing is the greatest moral offense. A thief is looked down upon by everybody, and is treated with the greatest contempt. I knew of a case where a husband left his wife because she stole; he took his son with him, but said he had little love for the boy as he was the child of a thief. During my whole stay amongst these people I never heard of a case of theft.
Suicide is rare. There are instances where incompatibility has made life unbearable and the man hanged himself. So too, great sufferers get their sons or wives to end their miseries by sticking a knife or spear into their hearts.
Social Customs.
Heirships.—A son generally lives with his father until the old man dies, when he marries. Should there be several sons the older ones marry and establish their homes leaving the youngest to take care of the father. In case of death the property goes to the eldest son who divides a small portion of it among his brothers and sisters. The mother gets no property but is domiciled with the heir and exercises great influence in all his bargains. If the eldest brother dies childless, the next brother succeeds to the estate. Daughters are not lawful heirs but their uncles must give them a little something. When there are no sons or brothers the succession goes to a sister of the deceased. A child heir has his property taken charge of by his uncle who also must take care of the widow until the son comes of age and assumes the responsibility.
Surgery.—Surgery is practiced in the cutting off of frozen limbs. An assistant holds the patient and the medicine man performs the operation, cutting oft' the frozen part. The limb must mortify before cutting so that all the tissues will be contracted; no live flesh is ever cut. The instruments used are a knife and a saw and nothing is placed over the cut except a little seal oil. The invalid must stand the pain without flinching or uttering a sound. An ordinary severe cut is sewed with sinew; a serious cut is bandaged tight above the place, and then sewed. The loss of a finger is healed by sewing flaps of skin together over the bone. All these operations are performed by doctors or medicine men.
Medicine.—The only medicine employed is seal oil; its action is laxative. To cure ordinary petty illness such as headache, rheumatism, etc., the patient lies down and a belt from round the waist of a medicine man is put round the head, arm or leg as the case may be. Through the bight of the belt a stick is run as a lever. The shaman then asks questions of the spirits and raises on the lever; if the answer concerning the patient be favorable the member in the belt comes up easily; if not, in spite of all his pretended straining and groaning, the sick member will not move, as he makes it appear. Some natives before traveling go through this nonsense to ascertain whether they will remain healthy during the journey.
Doctors.—The influence of a doctor is all-powerful; he heals the mind as well as the body; he has much to do with the success in hunting and fishing; his tenets are those by which the people live. There is absolutely no knowledge or idea of a god or of a providence; nor is there worship of any kind, of animal, idol or things. A doctor, medicine man, or shaman is born, not made. The superstitions surrounding the "Unatcoke" (doctor) are unique. The child is born with blood over his eyes, and at four years of age blood comes from his eyes and his forehead, which must be wiped off by his mother or brother. No especial attention is given his babyhood. After his fifth birthday the child goes into the mountains, remaining from one to five months. In this retreat he sees the ghosts and holds communion with them. They instruct him, taking care of him, and feed him on back fat of deer, bushes, berries, etc., returning to his home the young doctor, in the presence of friends, vomits all he has eaten during his seclusion. He is now prepared for the many functions of his sacred office, and is qualified to cure his relatives of diseases. His position in the community is advanced; he takes what he wants, and can refuse meat if he by his occult powers, sees it is in motion, for to eat would cause his death. His trips to the mountains are made frequently and oftentimes in company with other associates. With increase of years comes increase of knowledge and power; he ties himself apparently hard and fast, and then suddenly gets loose, and performs many other simple feats of legerdemain; he spits fire; he pulls birds from his mouth; and he does tricks of jugglery. It is commonly believed he can cure all ills; that he can drive away by his spells the fish and deer, and perform miracles, even raising the dead to life. Whiskey he makes from water, and back fat from snow.
A doctor occasionally fasts for four days, and in order to renew or refresh his powers, holds communication with ghosts introduced by some other all-powerful shaman. By consulting the white man's ghosts he procures tobacco and gets beads. In the ordinary affairs of everyday life he does his share, nor is any great deference paid him, except when in the performance of the duties of his sacred office. He dies and is buried like other men. However, his spirit returns, and visits the earth four times before taking its final departure. There is a story that an Inuit doctor was beheaded and his body was placed in a dance house while his head was thrown into the sea; in the morning the head returned to the body and the man became whole.
Doctors marry, their wives living in the villages; they also have ghost wives in the mountains. Their offspring sometimes become doctors, but not of necessity. Women likewise are doctors possessing all the occult powers of the male members of the order. They marry. Sometimes they become the wives of the ghosts in the mountains as well as of men in the communities.
Perfect faith in these medicine men is not held by all. There are different degrees of confidence; and a few are prophets without honor.
Amusements.—The outdoor sports of the natives are very like those of the whites. The boys play shinney and are sometimes joined by the men. And they jump, wrestle and kick. In all, the old men take the deepest interest, encouraging and directing the youths. Kicking at a suspended object is great sport and amuses them for hours. Observing that some of them could kick higher than their heads, I had the object raised as high as I could reach and offered a prize of a sheath knife to the one who could kick the object. The young men tried repeatedly and failed. Finally an elderly man who had been directing the others was induced to try. Taking off his clothes, he made the attempt and succeeded. My men could not kick as high as the natives, but could beat them at jumping.
Tossing in a blanket of sealskin is a favorite pastime. The person tossed—man, woman, or child—goes through the motion of walking while in the air, and must alight on his feet in the same way. When he falls he is laughed at and some one else takes his place. Those holding the blanket sing and shout; as many as fifty people, men and women, sometimes enjoy this sport.
Dancing is the greatest pleasure of men, women and children. It is of different kinds, representing animals, birds, hunting and fishing, the habits of the whites, etc., and is always accompanied by all manner of contortions, persisted in until the participants are prostrated by sheer exhaustion. A good dancer is a man entitled to consideration and respect. As much noise and fuss as possible are made at these dances; tom-toms are beaten, and all hands sing and shout a rude monotone with their greatest power.
Card playing takes precedence of all games. These people are natural gamblers, and never let an opportunity pass of gratifying their passion. The game is Russian, played with a pack of ordinary playing cards, bought for a high price from the traders. They call it Car-tuk, playing it continuously sometimes for forty-eight hours. So infatuated are they with it, that even the few moments of rest on sledging trips are passed in gambling. The stakes are sometimes high; a man often loses his entire stock of skins at a sitting. Women play quite as well as men, but their stakes are never high. This habit of gambling with cards is becoming common to all the natives, even to those who have never seen a white man, yet it was introduced into the country but four years back. So prevalent is it that already there are some professional gamblers who live principally by their winnings. One of these came to my camp and lost everything. However, he got me a raft of good logs, and with his payment again tried his fortune; and when he left he had a good stock of skins. The game of poker is understood by a few and in a year or so will probably be very popular.
Music.—The natives are exceptionally fond of vocal music though their songs are decidedly monotonous and, to my ears, destitute of melody. Whenever a native from a different locality comes among them and sings a new song they gather about, listening until they catch the tune, when they take it up and sing it for hours. The tom-tom is the only musical instrument.
Traveling.—When the river breaks traveling begins, some go to the mountains, and others to the coast. Those going to the coast carry their families and all their possessions in large skin boats (oomiaks) the owner steering and the others paddling enough to keep in the stream while the current takes the boat down. Two or three small families often go in one large boat. They follow a day or so behind the ice, reaching Hotham inlet before it gets clear. Stops are made on the journey to catch fish for immediate use and for use at the trading station. A rich man travels in state; he never takes any other family than his own; he hires paddlers and a steersman; and enjoys all the luxuries he can. In returning up the river, they track along the banks using dogs. A sealskin tow line twenty to thirty fathoms long is made fast to a knee one-quarter the length of the boat from the bow, and four to six dogs are harnessed to the other end. A boy goes ahead as a dog leader and a man follows as driver; the latter's position is not an easy one; sometimes a dog will go to one side of a bush and the next dog the other side, or the head dogs will go over a fallen tree and the others under it, causing trouble and a dog fight and necessitating a delay to straighten out again. About two miles an hour is made in tracking; delay is caused by the dogs having to be shifted often from one bank to the other in order to get good footing. Occasionally in places dogs cannot be used and recourse is had to poles and paddles. Whenever the wind is fair sail is made. Lazy natives often wait two or three days for a wind rather than pole or paddle. Should a boat be under way all night as sometimes happens, the occupants stand regular watch.
On the return trips they fish a great deal, loading the boats down with the catches. Whenever stops are made boats are discharged, hauled up and turned bottom up to dry; tents are pitched, and camp made. In times of great hurry tents are not pitched, shelter being found under the lee of the boats. The families of the hunters remain in tents on the watercourses and catch and dry fish. At the first indication of thawing the winter huts are deserted and deerskin and drilling tents resorted to.
Hunting and Fishing.
Hunting.—Deer hunting is the most indulged in. The most successful hunter is the hero of the season, hence the sport is eagerly pursued and greatly enjoyed. Many superstitions surround the deer; at times the meat must not be cut with an axe, nor can it be cooked in the living house; only certain parts should be eaten, etc. All these observations are particularly necessary in the case of white men; and are rigorously enforced unless they are given a valuable present. There are deer all through the country, especially in the mountains at the headwaters of the Putnam, Notoark, Allashook and Colville rivers, where they gather in large herds, and numbers are caught by the following ingenious plan.
Running for miles in two converging lines they make piles of stones four feet high and having the general resemblance of a man. Beginning at the outer ends of these lines, which are miles apart, the piles are built every thirty yards; the distance gradually lessening as the lines converge, until at their inner ends, where the width is about forty yards, the piles occur every ten feet. Connected with the inner ends of these piles is a circular place marked out by bushes concealing a rope securely fastened at the ends and in other places along it. To this rope are made fast numerous laniards having slip nooses at their ends open and held up properly in the bushes by small stakes. The deer are driven inside the lines without observing the stones; the natives then close in shouting and frightening the deer, who mistaking the stones for men rush on and seeing the opening ahead dash at the brush and are caught in the nooses by the horns or legs when they are killed by spears. As many as twenty-five are caught at a time.
In the narrow mountain passes frequented by deer similar arrangements are made. One native caught ninety deer during the season. In the big lake near the limit of the mountains large herds of deer gather in the fall. It is shut in by the mountains, with the ends open and accessible, but the sides so very steep that only in places can the deer climb; at such points some natives conceal themselves while others drive the deer in the ends. The hidden natives rise and make a great noise and the deer becoming frightened take to the water, where they are speared from light canoes made of deer skins shaped like the kyaks of the coast. Hundreds are killed in this way. When I reached the lake early in March I saw a great many dead deer lying about the banks untouched. These deer are killed in the fall when the herds begin gathering to move further south and at this season they are in best order and the back fat is gotten.
Bears.—Bears are numerous but are very shy and not often encountered, though their tracks are seen in all parts of the country. Some localities are recognized as their homes, notably the small tributaries of the Putnam near the headwaters. The natives say that in winter the bears live on high land in dens carefully constructed of leaves and lined with reindeer moss, each den having three to ten bears. These places are discovered in winter by observing the bear marks, such as broken bushes, nail prints on trees, earth thrown up on adjacent brush, etc. Finding these, the snow is cleared away until the tracks leading to the lair become distinct, which is then surrounded by several natives and the bears killed by spears.
They are also killed by shooting them from blinds made of brush set up on the banks of the rivers at the places where the animals come down in early morning and late evening to get the fish swimming in shallow water. The natives say that the bear has one young one the first winter and there afterwards two. The period of gestation is from ten to eleven moons and birth is in the spring just before leaving the winter dens. During the long winter they live by sucking their paws. The natives say that they eat clay which they retain until spring.
The preparation of the dead bear for eating is a superstitious proceeding. The skin is removed from the head and the head cut off. A native then takes it and standing astride the body with the head in both hands raises it high in the air and lowers it three times, touching the body each time just over the heart and muttering an incantation. After the third touch he throws the head with all his might so as to hit the same spot over the heart and utters a loud shout in which all the natives join. This ceremony is supposed to drive the bear's spirit to the mountains. After removing the skin the abdomen is opened with more superstitious observations; but never in the presence of a white man; and certain parts of the animal are left on the ground, for to remove them would drive the deer from the mountains. The ears are always cut off the skin.
Mountain sheep are killed with rifles. These sheep are not numerous; they live in the mountains and are very wild. Their white skins make good blankets. The other animals are also shot. But they are principally caught in traps, the old-fashioned figure 4 under a heavy log, and the common steel trap being used.
Ducks, geese, ptarmigan and other birds are shot and caught in nets and traps, especially the ptarmigan. In the spring when these birds are mating, they are very combative, and the males fight one another constantly. Several birds are shot, skinned, stuffed and made fast to a net twenty-five feet to forty feet long and three feet deep, made of sinew quite like a seine but with smaller meshes, set up on the rocks and bushes where the ptarmigan feed. The live birds attack the decoys, get enmeshed, and by their struggles attract others who likewise get caught. By this means great numbers are captured. Another way of getting ptarmigans is to set small nooses in the bushes near the ground, the birds get their heads in and draw the cord tight in their efforts to escape.
Waterfowl are caught by anchoring to the bottom of ponds a piece of whalebone to which is attached a number of small nooses. The birds in diving for food get caught by their heads. During the moulting time in spring, birds, particularly geese and ducks, lose most of their wing and tail feathers and being unable to fly are speared.
Caching.—There are three ways of caching; above the ground, on the ground, and under the ground. In the former way a scaffold eight or ten feet high is built, and the meat placed on top covered over with a deer skin. Underneath the scaffold is hung by a piece of sinew, some small bit of clothing that can be moved by the motion of the wind to frighten away wolves and foxes. In caching on the ground, resorted to when wood is not convenient, the deer is placed so as to have the feet sticking up through the snow, and attaching to one end of the legs a small fluttering object which keeps off the enemy. The third way is described elsewhere, in the account of my sledging trip to the Notoark. I often noticed wolf tracks all around the caches but never dangerously close. It is thought that they fancy a trap is set for them, and so keep at a safe distance. A cache is regarded as sacred. Only to save life is one ever opened, and in this case the owners are found and paid for what is taken. All hunting parties cache their meat, leaving it until it is needed. So do traveling parties who go so heavily loaded that they can carry but little food.
Fishing.—All means are used to procure fish. They are caught in seines, by spearing, with hook and line, in traps and in gill nets. Seines are made of the under bark of the willow plant and from grass; stones and pieces of antlers make the sinkers, and pieces of spruce wood, the floats; the whole when completed is about seventy-five feet long and four feet deep and is like the seine of commerce. Women and children always haul the seine, running it from a woman's canoe—a small boat of birch bark—very much as white men do. Often a thousand pounds of salmon are taken in a haul. The salmon start up the river soon after the ice leaves and run until it freezes. As soon as the fish are caught they are split open down the back and the back bone removed; they are next spread out on poles until perfectly dry when they are put under shelter and lightly smoked for several days. The object of smoking is to prevent the fish getting flyblown. Spearing fish is the amusement of the boys and men. It is done from the banks and in kyaks. In hook and line fishing the lines are made of whalebone strips and the hooks of ivory with sharp metal points. The figure gives the idea; "b" is the sinker of ivory. "A" the ivory part of the hook into which the metal point "a" is fastened; and "1" is the line. No bait is used, the hook arrangement corresponding to the fly. Fish baskets made of willow and like those in ordinary use with us, are common in these waters.
When the river is frozen, fish are caught by digging a trench in the ice and placing a row of stakes in it close together and reaching to the bottom; this picket as it were, is allowed to freeze in the trench. At one end a pen is made connecting with the fence by a funnel-shaped basket, the smaller end opening into the pen. Fish follow the fence and entering the pen through the basket cannot get out. A hole is made in the ice over the pen, and the fish speared and brought out. In the early winter a great many are caught in this way; but none as the season advances. Hooks and lines are used principally through holes in the ice when the river first freezes.
Nearly all the lakes as well as the rivers abound in fish, although in some the water is too deep for much success in fishing. This is especially true of the large lake drained by the Colville. Its fish are Su-luk-pow-wuk, Copetic, Col-lic-pic, and Col-lick-puck the largest of all these fish. Natives have a story that they are sometimes over fifty feet long and swallow a deer, horns and all.
Salmon.—Salmon of several varieties are found in the Putnam river. They are at their best in Hotham inlet before starting up the rivers; then they are fatter, their meat is firmer and of a deep red color, and their shape is regular. Those caught up the river late in the fall would hardly be recognized as the same fish, their backs were bowed and had spots on them that were soft and seemed to be decayed meat. A great many dead ones were seen up the river. According to the natives, those fish that go up, never come back, and after spawning, unless they are caught, all die. The cause of death is said to be starvation, as they never eat in the river. In many that I examined, I noticed that there were no visible traces of food. The young fish are supposed to remain in the river until the ice breaks when they go to sea, returning after an absence of three years.
Food.—The principal food of the Selawik and Putnam natives is fish; it is the most relished and is preferred to any other meat and is eaten either cooked or raw. Besides fish, all animals and birds go to supply food; especially the deer. With the other natives, deer meat formed the principal food. Every part of the deer has its uses. The skin furnishes material for huts, tents, boats, clothing, bedding and rope; the sinew, thread; the antlers, sinkers, tool handles, etc.; the hoofs, as small boxes; the hair, mixed with tobacco, is smoked; the bones, crushed and boiled, yield oil; the marrow gives grease and hair oil; from the contents of the stomach a soup is made and the flesh is eaten raw or roasted or boiled.
As soon as a deer is killed the throat is cut and he is skinned, and the back fat cut off. This is the most highly prized part of the animal and is the favorite dish at a feast. It is eaten raw, boiled and roasted. To me it tasted like rank fat bacon. The cooked meat is either boiled in pots or roasted on wooden spits before the fire. I thought it excellent, also the marrow from the hot bones. The raw meat frozen is eaten on the march; I found it good. Generally when there is a surfeit of deer, the lean meat is given to the dogs, the natives preferring the fatter portions, intestines, and those parts usually thrown away by civilized men. The bones are cracked and the marrow extracted. The joints are saved until a sufficient quantity having been accumulated, they are pulverized by pounding between two rocks and then boiled; the grease is skimmed off and allowed to cool when it looks like lard. It is considered a great delicacy.
In the spring the backs of the deer are covered with parasites that spoil the skin by eating holes in them. They are an inch long, one-fourth of an inch in diameter, tapering at both ends, and cream colored. The natives say that they eventually turn to butterflies. These parasites are eaten raw and considered a delicacy. My disgust when offered them was regarded as ridiculous. Bear meat cooked like the deer is highly prized, and especially the paws.
The smaller animals, mink, marten, etc., are skinned, skewered and stuck up opposite a good fire to roast. Their meat was not bad. Birds, after removing their feathers, are spitted and roasted like the animals. They were very palatable. Seal oil is the condiment used with all food. It is eaten with the fingers, and each finger dip is followed by several mouthfuls of food.
Nothing is cultivated for food, so recourse is had to the natural productions of the soil, principally roots, buds and berries, eaten raw and prepared in different ways. Most of the roots are stringy, and are boiled before eating, though for want of time and fuel they are sometimes eaten raw.
Among the most common roots used for food are: the mashoo, tasting like the sweet potato, eaten raw and boiled; the arcot, like the mashoo, but of different smell and less liked, prepared the same way; ka-ka or pick-neck, a grass root around lakes and in damp places, boiled; karga-neck, a small ground root, boiled; koat-le-ruck, a plant, leaves and stems, boiled; ar-ku-toak-puck, a mountain plant, roots eaten raw; ko-ong-oo-lick, a plant put up in oil, kept for winter, eaten raw; ish-u-a-muck, kept for winter, eaten boiled; pil-lun-wick, a plant found around lakes, only the roots eaten, raw or boiled; mis-suck, the young willow, the buds are mixed with oil, eaten raw summer and winter; oueyelalookmissun, the juice of the birch drunk as it comes from the tree; narkoowick, a sea-weed, boiled and eaten with oil—to eat this raw would make one cross-eyed, hence its name.
The berries, of which great quantities are gathered, are put away for winter use. They are sometimes preserved in either seal or deer oil according to which is on hand. The deer oil is easily obtained in the mountains, the seal oil on the coast. Seal oil they prefer, though to my taste there was but little difference. The berries used are: arc-pu, the salmon berry, eaten raw and in oil; as-se-yer-wick, the whortleberry, eaten raw and with oil; oak-py-ge-wick, the currant berries; ig-ge-wing-wick, rose berries, seed and all eaten; kip-my-ye-wick, small red berries growing on low bushes, boiled and eaten with oil; tar-ted-e-nim-as-se-ark, small red berries, put up and eaten with or without oil; too-lookcome-as-se-ark, kind of whortleberries growing on large trees occasionally eaten with or without oil; pow-ner-ark, a small berry growing close to the ground, eaten raw or with oil; cub-lack, black berry, eaten raw or with oil; aug-ook-wick, a red berry eaten raw and with oil. Berries are eaten before the regular meal and constitute a course. Natives have lived on them exclusively for five days, but only through necessity.
The natives of Issheyuk on the Colville, eat a white clay at times. There is also an edible clay found in the Putnam valley. It is eaten by mixing with oil, berries and leaves. Some of this clay I found at the coal deposit. It was tasteless and easy to swallow. It is only taken when short of food. Food is cooked in iron kettles bought from the traders. Otherwise a clay pot from the Selawik country is used.
Feasts are given at certain times, when natives from all the surrounding country come together. Eating is the first object of these entertainments and dancing next. Often a bear is boiled in a wooden trough, the water being heated by throwing in hot stones. Wooden spoons are used but fingers are preferred.
Tobacco.—Tobacco is used to excess by both sexes. It is taken as snuff; chewed and the juice swallowed, and is smoked. The smoking pipe is a small metal or wooden bowl with a long thick, carved stem of ivory, bone or wood. A small pinch of tobacco mixed with a little deer hair is placed in the bowl, three draws empty it. The smoke is taken into the lungs and kept there some time, producing exhaustive attacks of coughing resulting frequently in complete prostration. This is not objected to and is repeated about every hour of the day and often during the night. The stronger the tobacco, the more it is relished. One of the first instructions to children is how to smoke and chew. It is customary for the mother to take her babe from the breast and put her pipe or quid of tobacco in its mouth.
Fires are lighted by flints and steels; a kind of cotton is used as tinder. It is gotten from the willow and rendered more inflammable by soaking in a gunpowder solution.
Native Astronomy and Time Reckoning.—It is held by the natives that the sun stands still and the world goes around it for the reason that the sun at stated periods appears always in the same place. The sun always produces heat; but its great distance from the earth during the winter prevents the heat reaching it. The moon moves and produces cold. The stars are stationary. The "Great Bear" called Toot-to-go-roak, like a big deer, is their favorite constellation and its motions are carefully watched. It is used to indicate direction. The morning star, Ar-go-roak, a favorite, is of use on account of its time of rising. Shooting stars, Ig-neck-pal-luck, are noticed but serve no purpose. They measure time by sleeps and moons. The number of sleeps in a moon is not known, one day is a sleep. A moon is a month and there are thirteen of them in a year. The first, which was in January (1886), they called Shack-kin-na-che-uck, because the sun is coming back. The second moon, She-con-na-shug-uruck, because the sun has high altitude. The third moon, Kushe-wuck-tag-gu-wick, because the snow begins to melt. The fourth moon, Kel-ler-rick-tut-ker-at, because the owl (Kellerick) first appears. The fifth moon, Tong-me-ret-tut-ker-at, because the geese (Tongmeret) come. The sixth moon, See-kur-ur-guwick, because the ice (Seekur) begins to break. The seventh moon, Ir-ger-ne-wick, because the birds lay eggs. This moon is also called Et-cher-wick, the birds are moulting and cannot fly. The eighth moon, Neg-ga-lar-lig-it-et-char-re-at, because the young geese (Neggalarligit) cannot fly and the old geese (Etcharreat) have no wing feathers. The ninth moon, Ar-makeuk-se-wick, because the deer horns have velvet on them. The tenth moon, Ar-rup-tut-ker-at, because the water begins to freeze. The eleventh moon, Nue-le-ar-gu-wick, because the deer cohabit (nuele, wife, arguwick, deer). The twelfth moon, November, Nue-ge-ru-erk-see-wick, because horns drop. The thirteenth moon, Pon-dru-wick, because the sun cannot be seen.
CONCLUSION.
As stated previously, the U. S. Revenue Cutter Bear had anchored off Cape Blossom on July 20, during my absence at Selawik lake. Arrangements were then made for her calling again later and taking us home. On Aug. 9 we loaded the boats and began moving from Camp Purcell to Camp Relief at Cape Blossom on Kotzebue sound, to await the arrival of, and be ready for transfer to the relief vessel. Bad weather interfered so that camp was not thoroughly established until Aug. 18. Aug. 23 the "Bear" again came to anchor off Camp Relief. Ensign Howard and his Point Barrow party were on board, all well. The next day the work of embarkation was begun and by the night of Aug. 25 all hands and all stores were on board. We hoisted in the "Helena" but decided to tow the "Explorer" astern. Aug. 26 the "Bear" sailed for Behring strait and the south, arriving at St. Michael's Aug. 28. Here I left Aloka, the interpreter, Bill and Riley, and their families. We hauled the "Explorer" up on the ways by laying timbers on the beach and using tackles, and I sold her, according to instructions, to Chas. Peterson, of St. Michael's, for $2000. On Sept. 4, the "Bear" left St. Michaels, and ten days later anchored in Ounalaska harbor. I rated the chronometers and we left on Oct. 10 for home. I arrived at San Francisco Oct. 21 and reported at Mare Island Oct. 25. Nov. 9, 1886, the "Northern Alaska Exploring Expedition" was put out of commission, and I was ordered to report to the Secretary of the Navy.
The Northern Alaska Exploring Expedition was in existence one year, six months and fourteen days. From the time we landed from the "Viking" until we went aboard the "Bear" on our return trip, we were four hundred and eight days in the country, during almost every day of which time we were actively engaged in hard work, walking, rowing, tracking, surveying, house-building, sledging, etc.
Sledging excursions were out from the fort twice for more than a month at a time, during a total of two hundred and seventy-three days, covering some 3000 miles of journeyings.
During the whole period there was not an accident or a case of illness of any kind, though the life was one of unusual hardship and unceasing exposure, often in a temperature seventy degrees below zero. Each officer and man entered into the spirit and purpose of the work with cheerfulness and determination, and each and every one did his duty well, and in a manner worthy of the highest commendation, and I take this opportunity of again thanking them. Nor should the natives be forgotten. They were honest, willing and obedient, and of incalculable service to the expedition. I also again tender my warmest thanks to Captain M. A. Healy, U.S.R.M., commanding; Lieutenant O. Hamlet, U.S.R.M., executive officer, and the other officers of the U.S. Revenue Cutter Bear for their kindness and consideration shown to the officers and men of the expedition on our passage south with them.
Note.—During the month of December, 1885, in one hour the temperature rose 29° F, barometer remaining quite steady. This sudden rise in temperature was closely followed by a terrible gale of wind. The thermometer, not the barometer, indicates an approaching gale. It is dead calm when the thermometer stands low, and during the gales the temperature always goes above zero. The more sudden the rise of thermometer the harder the wind blows and the more quickly it hauls. One should watch the thermometer closely and get under shelter if a gale is coming; for neither man nor dog can stand these gales. You must be under shelter. Have seen it snowing—that is a fine snow falling—when there was not a cloud in the sky and very light wind. It is advanced by some that there was a higher wind that carried the snow from the mountain peak.
When the thermometer is minus, it is denoted (—).
The temperatures during the months of July and August were taken partly at Fort Cosmos and while at work on the river. The others were taken at Fort Cosmos and an accurate temperature taken every hour by spirit thermometers remaining outside. These were the best (registered) spirit thermometers, made specially for the government for Arctic observation.
A person can't be too much impressed with the importance of watching the thermometer. I would recommend that the spirit thermometer have the liquid colored, as the white liquid is hard to read. The thermometer should also be protected by a wooden case, leaving only the bulb exposed, and even that should be screened. My observations were the mean of three excellent spirit thermometers.