SHIPS' BOATS.*
The Board on Ships' Boats has the honor to submit the following report of the work to date entrusted to it by the Department in the order dated March 23, 1892. It is a matter of regret that more service performances of the types designed by the Board cannot be quoted, but owing to delays over which it could exercise no control, the number of boats built upon the Board's plans, and thus employed, is, at this time, limited to six. Inasmuch, however, as the reports made upon four of these seem to verify the conclusions reached by the Board, it ventures to express the hope that, at least, one boat of each class recommended may be speedily built for service use.
This will afford, absolutely, a practical demonstration of the value of the types proposed, and, relatively, will, through the resulting competition with other boats now furnished, enable the Department to decide which are better suited to man-of-war needs.
The orders under which the Board is acting direct it to inquire into "The number, class and general dimensions of boats for all the ships in the Navy with a view to secure absolute uniformity and interchangeability in boats of the same class and in all their interior fittings, and into the question of design with reference to stability, carrying capacity and all other requirements of man-of-war boats."
In order to establish a definite point from which to start, the first action taken by the Board was to ask for all the data concerning ships' boats then in possession of the Department, these to include the plans of all types and classes proposed, authorized, under construction or lately built at navy yards, or, for naval uses, in private establishments. It asked, also, that naval attaches should be directed to furnish such information as might be procurable, and that the views (on designs, fittings, rig, dimensions and motive power) of commanding officers of ships in commission, and of the naval constructors, should be elicited by a circular letter. The responses to these requests were sufficiently adequate to put the Board in possession at the very beginning, of valuable data which, hitherto, had been more or less scattered, and of opinions which had been more or less vague and indeterminate. These opinions and data were given a careful examination and study and were found to show a tendency in one direction.
As might be expected, the considerations governing the number and design of boats for any given vessel are found in all cases to be based primarily upon the necessities apt to be imposed upon that vessel when it had to be abandoned under the average sea circumstances. These necessities demand that all boats should have such seaworthiness and capacity as will enable them to embark and transport safely to the nearest land, or track of vessels, all the crew and the necessary stores and provisions.
Accepting this as the essential basis, it becomes apparent at once, that the number of boats already provided for each class of every type of vessel cannot be reduced unless, in lieu thereof, collapsible life boats and rafts better in design than any which now exist, are furnished. On the other hand, the boat stowage room of the modern ship is so limited by smoke pipes, ventilators, sponsons, etc., that any increase in the number is, in most cases, forbidden. These limitations demand, therefore, a treatment of the question which, while retaining the full number of boats that can be practically handled and stowed, will give these boats the greatest increase of seaworthiness and capacity reconcilable with other important qualities. As the simplest and first step, an increase of length has been adopted, and the smaller classes in each type have been abandoned; for it may be accepted as a truism that an increase of two feet, for example, in a boat does not increase in a like ratio, the difficulties of handling and stowage, and that the ampler carrying capacity secured does not entail a proportionally greater weight. This leads to the adoption of classifications, some one of which is suited to every type of vessel; and, as a corollary this gives such a possible interchangeability that the substitution of a sailing launch for a steamer, or a cutter for a whale-boat or barge, necessitates changes not in davits or hangings, but in the cradles only.
This standardizing goes farther, as it provides that uniformity of plan which, as a part of all smoothly working systems, permits any ship immediately to replace, at any navy yard, boats lost or damaged, or, should an emergency arise, to take from other ships at any station, however remote, boats necessary to the work in hand.
In order to secure the best possible types for the duties expected, the Board has graded in the following rank the qualities which every man-of-war boat should possess:
1. Seaworthiness; 2. Capacity; 3. Speed; 4. Appearance.
The first and second of these qualities are essential; the others, while important, are auxiliary. Speed is, of course, an excellent attribute, but it has its limitations and is so subordinate to seaworthiness and capacity, that no construction which diminishes them to increase it, should be permitted. Given certain factors of length, beam and depth, great seaworthiness and ample capacity with high speed are not difficult to realize; and the Board hopes it has secured these to a notable degree by adopting as few hollow lines as possible, by avoiding sharp risings of floor, by extending the width of amidship section fore and aft somewhat beyond the usual practice and by increasing the beam, and, in some cases, the shear. The Board would dwell especially upon the fact that in (sailing) launches speed should scarcely be a factor at all, as it believes a launch should be a wholesome sea-boat, of as great a carrying power as can be given on the two dimensions of length and breadth, while preserving a good appearance. She is essentially a carrier, the drogher of the ship, and with any possible lines she could not, under oars, make more than three or four knots an hour. As our steamers are, as a rule, limited to a speed of 7 to 8 knots, the latter could not tow them to more than 6 knots. It is thus most unreasonable to sacrifice their serviceability in any way by giving them lines fitted for a speed neither attainable nor desirable. Stability, strength, and durability are included in seaworthiness, and here investigation proves that buoyant and light as are our boats in comparison with foreign types, still the scantlings are usually too great.
Unnecessary size of scantlings means purposeless increase of weight, and weight is such a factor of boat efficiency that due lightness must be sought. This does not imply fragility of structure, but such a true relation of machine to its employment that there will always be a good margin of strength and durability beyond what is necessary to withstand the rough usage—the wasteful but existent rough usage—to which boats are subjected by the wear and tear of a three years' cruise. Considerations of quality as well as of quantity of material, influence this question, and imply the substitution of lighter and better wood and fastenings, reductions in the weight, and possible changes of material in all composition castings, such as breast hooks, thwart knees, box rowlocks, etc.
What may be accomplished by a judicious employment of scantlings and a rigorous inspection of material and labor is illustrated in certain results achieved by Naval Constructor Feaster, U.S.N. Taking the weights given to the Charleston as a basis, he succeeded in ten similar types of boats built for the San Francisco in reducing the total weights over 8 per cent, and this without sacrificing other necessary qualities. The weight of the Charleston's ten boats was 20,412 lbs., that of the San Francisco's ten boats 18,619 lbs., a reduction of 1793 lbs. in favor of the latter construction. In subsequent designs a still greater reduction under similar circumstances was obtained. Twelve boats of the San Francisco reached a total weight of 22,079 lbs., while on the Newark the same number of types of boats weighed only 19,324 lbs., a reduction of 2755 lbs., or in a ratio of 10 per cent.
TYPES OF BOATS
The Board has selected for service use these seven types of boats:
1. Steamers; 2. Launches; 3. Barges; 4- Cutters; 5. Whalers; 6. Dinghies; 7. Wherries.
The changes in nomenclature, two of which, as unusual, may sound a little strange, are recommended purely on the grounds of consistency. If cutters, why not steamers; if dinghies, why sailing launches; and why whaleboats, and not barge boats? Of course the changes proposed are, in the sense of efficiency, of slight importance. At present, more or less confusion as to the term launches exists; in some ships the steamers are called launches or steam cutters indiscriminately; and the launch which is a sailing boat has to be differentiated by the unnecessary term "sailing." Hence, the Board recommends the adoption of the nomenclature suggested. Should at any time electric or naphtha boats form any part of the equipment, they would be designated, somewhat strangely at first, but naturally enough after use, —as "electrics" or "naphthas."
The exclusion of the gig as a special type is due to a belief that its place should be taken by a whaler similar in design and equally efficient as other whalers, such differences as its special assignment seems to require being unessential, and confined to fittings and finish.
The retention of the barge has been advocated, and a design is submitted which will, the Board hopes, render this hitherto rather useless type fully as seaworthy as the cutter, and, at the same time, satisfy the demands imposed by the ceremonial character of its duties in port.
Except the barge and wherry, each type is divided into classes which, for purposes of identification and distribution, are grouped according to length.
The custom of giving two sizes to barges has lost its value, owing to the fact that when a flag officer or commodore shifts his flag, he is apt to find on board his new or temporary flag ship no davits to which a 32-ft. barge can be hoisted without displacing more important boats. With a 30-ft. barge this dilemma is escaped.
CLASSES.
The seven types are divided into these fourteen classes:
Type | Number of classes | Lengths, feet. |
Steamer | 3 | 33’, 30’, 28’ |
Launch | 2 | 33’, 30’ |
Barge | 1 | 30’ |
Cutter | 3 | 30’, 28’, 26’ |
Whaler | 2 | 30’, 28’ |
Dinghy | 2 | 20’, 18’ |
Wherry | 1 | 16’ |
Every ship, however small, should have a steamer, and all types a wherry.
STEAMERS.
Steamers are divided into two designs, one built normally with its keel extended to the usual skag, the other built on the "turn about" principle, where the keel is somewhat shortened and the skag is omitted. It is hoped that both designs will be approved, and that in all cases where vessels are equipped with two or more steamers, one will be a ''turnabout." Quick maneuvering power is a desirable characteristic, and the "turn about" design submitted has, in practice, developed this and all other good qualities to such a degree as to warrant its more extended service employment.
An inspection of this design will show that the keel is carried further aft than is usual with the boats of this type. No special protection has been given the screw, because the Board believes no such necessity exists. The unprotected screw of the 39' Herreshoff steam barge belonging to the Chicago has, so far, enjoyed immunity from accident; and, in the latest designs received from abroad, the adoption and continuance of this principle, even in the larger boats intended for ships of war, prove that special screw protection is unnecessary.
Even if such a danger did threaten, the Board holds that the vastly greater facility of handling of the "turn about," designed by the Board and given to the Philadelphia, over-balances for such use as that suggested, any moderate protection that might be given. So far no difficulty has been found with this boat.
In the report made upon her, by Captain A. S. Barker, U. S. N., commanding the U. S. S. Philadelphia, it is stated that "The steam turn about launch, which is a life-boat, is an excellent, buoyant, and seaworthy boat, her maneuvering qualities being exceptionally good, excelling in this respect all the steam launches in the fleet, for which reason alone she commends herself to the service. The boat has been in constant use since we have had her, and has done excellent work, . . . Where two steam launches are supplied to a man-of-war, I would recommend that one of them be of this type on account of her safety and maneuvering qualities."
In the tests made by the Board in November, 1892, with a crew of eight men, and allowance of coal and water (making a total weight of 1673 lbs.) this boat showed a free-board of 45 in. forward, 28 in. aft, and 22 in. amidships. With 35 men seated and supplementing the above weight, a free-board of 44 in. forward, 21 in. aft, and 19 in. amidships was maintained; and with 50 men in addition to the above 1673 lbs., the steamer turned and speeded in the East River (wind and water moderate), preserving a freeboard of 36 ½ in. forward, 22 in. aft, and 17 in. amidships.
So far as seaworthiness goes, three members of the Board who have tried her under conditions which tested this quality fairly, have no hesitation in declaring she is far more seaworthy than any other steamer of her length they have ever seen. In these trials she was run at a high speed through the most confused sea (made both by wind and the tumbled cross-wakes of passing ferry-boats) which could be found in the East River, and at no time did she ship the least water. All these tests were made under circumstances when every other steamer of her length known to them would have become so wet and so much in danger of shipping water, as to have necessitated an immediate and large reduction of speed.
Under a test for life saving qualities, very satisfactory and unusual results were secured. The machinery and passenger spaces were filled with fresh water up to the level of the rail, so high indeed that it flowed with force through the scuppers in the wash strake, and then, as an appreciable free-board still existed, over 2200 lbs. of weight (15 men) were added without submerging the boat.
These results have been partly secured by making her not a nominal, but an actual life boat. Under the rail, on each side, two cylindrical air tanks extend for a distance of 13 feet, and in the bow and stern two air-tight compartments are disposed. The square shape given to the stern affords room for one of these airtight chambers, and thus utilizes space which generally is wasted upon a mistaken theory as to what is good appearance. Three complete water-tight bulkheads subdivide the boat and add large margin to an already secured factor of safety.
So far as classes go, the33-ft., 30-ft. and 28-ft., both normal and "turn about," are intended for general service use. The Board hopes later to submit plans for a Vidette steamer of about 52 ft. length.
motive power, etc.
The motive power and fittings recommended for the steamers are as follows:—
28 AND 30-FT. BOATS.
1. The Bureau of Steam Engineering type "B" boat engine, without air pump and with long connections (5 cranks).
2. Independent combined air and feed pump (Blake) with a return from feed pump to tanks, which is fitted with a controlling valve.
3. Auxiliary feed pump of the Worthington-Duplex type.
4. Hand pump fitted to clear the bilge. A connection from this goes through a stuffing box in water-tight bulkhead to bilge in passenger space. A syphon for bilge is not recommended, it being too wasteful of steam.
5. An outside condenser of the Keel type or made up of smaller tubes and manifolds.
6. Propeller, true screw with generatrix at right angles with axis. Diameter 27 in., pitch 46 in., helicoidal area 363 square inches.
7. Coil or pipe boiler of 6 square feet of grate surface; not less than 107 square feet of heating surface; and which while being easy of access for repairs will make steam rapidly, carry water steadily, and be relatively lighter than those now in use. The boiler fitted with a steam jet in the smoke pipe for use in emergency.
8. Coal bunkers, capacity to be 600 lbs.; and three (3) water tanks (small one under boiler, and two side tanks) combined capacity 700 to 800 lbs. of water.
33 -FT. BOATS.
1. Bureau of Steam Engineering type ''G" boat engine, without air pump and with long connections.
2. Independent combined air and feed pump (Blake) with a return from feed pump to tanks, which is fitted with a controlling valve.
3. Auxiliary feed pump of the Worthington-Duplex type.
4. Hand pump fitted to clear the bilge. A connection from this goes through a stuffing box in water-tight bulkhead to bilge in passenger space. A steam syphon should be fitted to clear the bilge, but to be used only in case of emergency.
5. An outside condenser of the Keel type or made up of smaller tubes and manifolds.
6. Propeller, true screw with generatrix at right angles to the axis. Diameter 30 in., pitch 52 in., helicoidal area 439 square inches.
7. Coil or pipe boiler of 6 1/3 square feet of grate surface and about 150 square feet of heating surface, which will be easy of access for repairs, will make steam rapidly, carry water steadily, and be as light as possible consistent with strength and durability. The boiler to be fitted with a steam jet in the smoke pipe to facilitate the draught in case of emergency.
8. Coal bunker capacity 800 lbs.; and three (3) water tanks (small one under boiler, and two side tanks), capacity of all to be 1000 lbs. of water.
SAILING BOATS.
As already stated, certain considerations have been rigidly adhered to in all designs. Primarily the Board has tried to secure seaworthy and capacious types, and to avoid that useless fineness of lines whereby these are often sacrificed in a futile attempt at speeds which are not only unnecessary but impossible. Moderate dead rise, good depth and breadth, and adequate seating and working space have been sought in every class; while such length of thwart and such depth of side between risings and gun-wales have been allotted that, at all times, oars may be handled efficiently, and sails—always bent and ready for use—may be carried and stowed properly.
The decadence of boat sailing in the Navy or its relative abandonment is due not to any diminution of its usefulness or to the decrease of seamanship or sailing desire, but almost wholly to the fact that the sails, as a rule, cannot be kept ready for use in the average boat without diminishing its usefulness under oars.
So meager is the space assigned for bent sails that in many ships the spars are carried in the nettings or whatever stow hole is obtain, able, and the sails are made up neatly labeled in a cumbersome bag, and see the air only when, the prudent executive has them shaken out in the sunshine to kill the mildew.
The Board recognized this difficulty from the first, and its preliminary report stated that the distance between the seat of the thwart on the risings, and the bottom of the row-locks should not be less than 11 ½-inch gun. When possible, this distance might be extended, for upon this depression of the seat below the plane of oar effort depends the possibility of obtaining, with the least waste of power, the available energy exerted. When the handle of the oar moves, not on a level with the eyes, but straight in and out from the chest, the oarsman can pull better, faster, and drier, notably in a sea way; he will preserve his temper better, and be less exhausted at the finish. Still more, this depth of seat and its resultant depth of gang board below rowlock enable the sails and spars to be stowed at all times without difficulty, a most important matter.
In most boats, the forward thwart has been seated so that the bow oarsmen can do but little effective work. The handles of their oars constantly interfere, as there is no room for their proper use; when they are not catching crabs or splashing water, they are pretending to row, faintly dipping; and on occasions, they are so crowded together and have their knuckles so rasped by the fouling of their thwart mate’s oar, that they become embroiled in more or less noisy disputes. No matter how short may be the oars, the shear of the average boat compels a length of loom and blade which forbids two men being cramped together on a seat often less than three feet athwart ship; and the result is that the usual bow oarsmen are practically passengers, whose effective duty is confined to handling the boat hook. As the best means of overcoming this difficulty, the Board has taken out the useless oars and thwart, disposed in the acquired space the other thwarts, carried all of these well below the oar fulcrum, and, as it hopes, improved the design so that ample room for work and comfort is given every man.
In the 28-ft. cutter the number of oars is reduced from 12 to 10; in the 26-ft. cutter, from 10 to 8; and in the whalers, normally intended to be single banked, the fittings are such that the oars can be readily double banked, should any emergency demand this manning, or should such a permanent oar-disposition, which is often advocated in the service, be finally adopted.
The general gain here in the Board boats may, perhaps, be illustrated by a comparison between its 30-ft. whaler and one of slightly greater length designed for the battleships of the Indiana class. Leaving out of the question the advantage possessed by the Board boat owing to its great similarity to the whalers carried by vessels in the sea fisheries, and to those employed as surf boats on our coast, the comparison will, perhaps, possess a definite interest.
Whaler | Battleships | Board design | ||
Ft. | In. | Ft. | In. | |
Length | 30 | 6 | 30 | 0 |
Beam at forward rowlocks | 5 | 0 | 6 | 0 |
Distance between thwarts | 2 | 20 ½ | 3 | 0 |
Distance between after edge of thwarts and forward edge of stern | 8 | 7 ½ | 7 | 9 |
Breadth of boat at after edge of after thwart | 5 | 7 | 6 | 3 |
Breadth between stern benches (Forward end) (After end) | 2 | 10 ½ | 3 | 3 |
1 | 6 | 2 | 6 | |
Distance from forward edge of forward thwart, to after edge of stern | 5 | 5 | 5 | 9 |
The calculation of these figures will prove the greater internal capacity of the Board boat on a less length; and, when it is recalled that this efficiency is further supplemented by the good height given the rowlocks, it ought to be apparent that a speed-producing factor has been obtained, as well as a greater all-around seating capacity.
DINGHIES.
Next to steamers, dinghies are the types which have so much proved their adequacy at sea and in port, as to demand a specially careful study. In harbor, often in average weather, commanding and executive officers are compelled to keep these boats hoisted and idle because of their lack of seaworthiness and capacity, and this on stations where foreign boats intended for similar duty are going to and coming from the shore in safety and comfort. The Board has therefore designed two boats of this type, one of which has already proved its value in service.
WHERRIES.
Experience at sea has demonstrated the value of a small handy-boat, such as the wherry suggested by the Board. It is a favorite type with seamen the world over; it is found on board most foreign ships of war; at times, it has been supplied ships by the Bureau of Construction; and when this has not been done, officers have frequently contributed a part of their pay to buy one.
The reason for its popularity need not be sought far afield, for the small crew required, (1, 2 or 3 men) its adaptability to immediate use and compact stowage, and its general handiness and all-around merit, warranted and received the earnest consideration of the Board.
So far as other types go, not treated in this generalization, it may be added that in the launch design submitted, the Department will find not, as is so often the case, a magnified dinghy, but an able, sturdy, seaworthy boat. Capacity for the uses intended should be ample, it should be neither slow nor clumsy, and should possess such free-board and such lightness commensurate with the demands to be made upon it, as to make its employment no more difficult and no less general than that of the average cutter.
The only data in hand upon the actual service working of the board boats are those forwarded from the U.S.S. Philadelphia. These may bear quoting:
"The 2d and 3d cutters of this ship, 30 ft. and 28 ft. in length, respectively," writes Captain Barker, commanding the Philadelphia, "are excellent boats. They have a high free-board and are dry, even when filled with men as in abandoning ship. The 2d cutter has 41 men stationed in her under those circumstances, with provisions, etc., and carries them easily, her gunwales being well out of water. Under sail she is weatherly and dry. The 3d cutter has the same general good qualities. Both of these cutters have been tested under oars as well as under sail, and to the surprise of many they seemed as fast as the average of the old cutters . . . The Dinghy (20 ft.) is an excellent boat of its kind, serviceable in every way. The present sail is perhaps a little too large for her."
CONSTRUCTION.
As an anticipatory answer to criticisms, which may touch matters of design, it can only be repeated that the Board has laid down lines which it believes to be appropriate to the work expected. Whether a boat is too deep, too full aft or not full enough forward, too much rounded, or too cumbersome and wide, are questions wherein the Board has definite opinions of its own which it has tried to realize in practice. It knows its opinions are not shared by some, but as the question of design is yet hedged about by certain doubts, due to the inexactness of naval architecture as a science, it feels it must adhere to them until service practice, or still better, competitive trials with boats already designed or projected, may establish the justice or falsity of its beliefs.
In order to establish uniformity in the description of dimensions, the Board recommends that these definitions be adopted:
Extreme length of all boats (except whalers).—This is the extreme distance over stem band and rudder hangings.
Extreme length of whalers.—This is the distance from the fore side of stem band to after part of stern post at the top edge.
Extreme breadth, all boats.—This is the distance from outside to outside of planking at the top of deck or gunwale.
Extreme depth, steamers.—This is the distance from the top of deck plank at the side to the lower edge of the rabbet of the keel.
Extreme depth, sailing boats.—This is the distance from the top of the gunwale to the lower edge of the rabbet of the keel, in all cases to be taken at the lowest point.
SAILING BOATS.
The distance between the top of the thwarts and the bottom of the rowlocks should not be less than 11 ½ inches. The forward thwart should be placed in such a position that the bow oarsmen can help propel the boat. It will be seen by the plans appended that in all boats the breadth over the gunwale between the forward rowlocks is not less than six feet. No tumbling home of amidship topsides should be allowed. The Board does not believe that the bilges of steam cutters are the points of greatest strength, but holds that the support given by the deck makes its plane the best upon which to receive the greatest thrust or severest strain. In pulling boats, the Board has taken the buffeting point in broadsides above the lines of thwarts and upon the moldings, because it is only through a few feet forward and abaft, where tumble home could be of service.
As a means of comparison, the weights of the boats originally furnished the Philadelphia, and of those which replace them (Board's design) may be of interest.
Boats | Design | Hull | Weights in pounds | ||
Fittings | Spars | Total | |||
30-ft Cutter | Board | 2160 | 232 | 160 | 2552 |
28-ft Cutter | Board | 1830 | 190 | 155 | 2175 |
28-ft Cutter | Philadelphia | 2130 | 190 | 210 | 2530 |
28-ft Cutter | Philadelphia | 2490 | 190 | 210 | 2890 |
This shows that the 30-ft cutter of the Board design (total weight 2552) is only 22 lbs. heavier than the 28-ft cutter (two feet less length) of the Philadelphia design, and is 338 lbs lighter than the other 28-ft cutter (two feet less length) of the Philadelphia design. It will also be seen that the 28-ft Board boat is in one case 335 lbs. and in the other 715 lbs. lighter. This reduction, it appears, has, so far, not affected the fitness of the boats to withstand the rough usage of sea and harbor service, and surely, has increased their efficiency.
It is not intended to have the bottoms of the launches coppered, and the bow and stern rollers should be replaced by thick metal scores. The roller pins are usually too light to withstand any strain and the difference in friction between the roller and a smooth and beveled metal score is so slight that the roller had better be omitted.
The Board has considered the various methods of construction illustrated in bent frames, but it adheres to that adopted as being best suited to naval purposes. The question of steel boats and of such special constructions as paper and folding boats is reserved for further investigations, at which time their value will be carefully inquired into. Later, the Board will also submit its ideas upon such minor constructions as punts and catamarans, and, if require, will enter into the subject of balsas.
Opinions differ widely as to the value of armament and torpedo fittings for boats, and these can he considered definitely only under new instructions accompanied by the views of the ordnance authorities.
Extra davits to be shipped in port should be supplied for dinghies, but their disposition belongs to the inquiry embracing the handling, stowing, and securing of boats. The necessity of settling this important question is pressing, for the uniformity sought in boats will lose something of its great value should an equal uniformity and standardizing be neglected in the appliances intended for their handling.
THE RIG.
The question of boat rig is one upon which wide differences of opinion exist, and must naturally exist, even among those most competent to judge. To some degree it is a matter of special experience, of environment, possibly of temperament. The world over, boats are produced, which, by a process of evolution, are best suited to certain localities and to certain racial tendencies. These radical differences in design make equally radical differences of rig, and out of one or both, come a special aptitude and practice of boat sailing, which are apt to make the best boats of any given locality to do better work in their home waters than the best boats of other localities seeking competition with them.
Of course, certain immutable principles govern all, based upon frictional, wave and eddy making resistances, and upon the relation of moving body to impelling force; but until the inexact science of naval architecture becomes exact, it would be somewhat presumptuous to insist that any special boat or any special rig is the best. The Board fully realized this difficulty and determined upon a rig only after such study and investigation as the condition of its work permitted. Fortunately, the times fitted in fairly well for a trial of its theories with and against those of other nations. During the international competition between the boats of the warships assembled in Hampton Roads, Captain Barker, in the report partly quoted above, writes: "On the 22d inst. (April, 1893), an international boat race under sail was had in Hampton Roads, in which the 3d cutter (28-foot Board boat) was entered. Unfortunately, the coxswain failed to round the proper stake boat and was counted out; but, according to officers who witnessed the race; our boat sailed farther and made better time than any other. Whether this was so or not, I cannot tell, but she certainly showed herself an excellent sailing craft, and I think she will compare favorably with any of the boats of the foreigners."
It may be added here as a commentary upon a misfortune which has no official record, but was as widely and as publicly known as any other event of equal importance of the time, that this very cutter out-sailed, from the start, all other boats and all other types and rigs entered. The sailing rules ordered the competitors to turn the French flagship, but through a misapprehension, the coxswain who was in charge sailed to the end of the French division, and turned its rear instead of its van boat, and this when the race was well in hand. Its long lead thus became useless, and very properly it was ruled out, and the trophy went, through this error, to the English.
This speedy cutter, like the 30-ft. of the Philadelphia, was fitted with the lug-rig of the Board's design. For many years the lug-rig was a favorite one in our service, and was actually abandoned in favor of the sliding gunter only a few years ago.
Some modifications in the old rig have been made by the Board, all tending, as it knows, to greater simplicity, and as it hopes, to higher efficiency. It was moved to adopt it, because it believed that it is, for the following reasons, better fitted for service use than the sliding gunter:
- It can be more readily handled in making and shortening sail and in "down masts."
- It can be more conveniently and more readily stowed in the boat.
- It can more easily be reefed down, be better repaired in case of damage to the spars, and need have none of the metal fittings which are so fruitful a source of trouble and annoyance in the sliding gunter.
- It gives a greater sail area.
The Board recognizes the gracefulness of the sliding gunter, but believes that utility of sail power should be sought rather than grace of appearance, when both cannot be combined.
As a rule boats are sailed only when the wind is somewhat free, and as man-of-war boats should, under no circumstances be expected to indulge in the sailings or competitions appropriate to pleasure craft, any rig adopted must be fitted to the work expected.
In the opinion of the Board this is the lug.
In the plans submitted, the bowsprit is omitted in order to gain simplicity, while at the same time the disposition of the sail power is such as to give all the handiness required.
These suggestions were approved by the Department and, in compliance with the request of the Board, the cutters already mentioned were thus rigged and assigned to the Philadelphia. In the report made upon them. Captain Barker states that "there is a difference of opinion as to the proper rig, some preferring the sliding gunter and others the lug. Our experience thus far with these boats, in comparison with the old ones, favors the lug. Some, however, contend that in a very strong wind and in squally weather the sliding gunter is the safer.
In answer to this, those who favor the lug say that except in squally weather the lug is as safe as the sliding gunter. As lug sails and spars can be stowed more easily than the sliding gunter, I favor them."
Here is that difference of opinion which the Board expected to encounter and which it accepts with all respect, as being of the very nature of the conditions hedging the questions. But its experiences have been more certain and it still stands by the official opinions already submitted; indeed, it is fortified in them by the results achieved on board the Philadelphia. It believes that the lug is the right rig and that safety in squalls and heavy weather should be on its side, as sails of that cut and hoist can always be lowered, can be doused immediately; while the sliding gunter is, at critical moments, apt to bind and become dangerous.
Among the appendices, marked (S to Y), will be found the plans proposed for every boat from the wherries up to, and including the 33-ft. steamers.
FITTINGS.
Boat fittings should follow standard patterns and be interchangeable. As yet the Board has not completed its inquiry into this branch of the subject, but in important directions, it has reached conclusions which are submitted herewith.
OARS.
Oars for double banked boats should be made of ash; for single banked boats of spruce (fir). All oars should be leathered and stamped (indented) with number and initial of boat.
While in command of the U.S.S. Yorktown, the senior member of the Board was enabled to give a determinate trial to spruce or fir oars in that vessel's gig. By this he was convinced, and the Board concurs in this opinion, that in ease of handling, in diminished liability to injury, in lightness, toughness and elasticity, in short, in all the good qualities a long oar should notably possess, the spruce or far is superior to all long oars made of other material. What seems to confirm this judgment is the information lately received from the commanding officer of H.M.S. Blake that "after trial, fir (spruce) has now been adopted for all long oars in the British service."
It will be seen that the Board has reduced the weight of oars, and somewhat shortened the length in double banked boats.
It has considered the question of spoon oars, but does not recommend them for service use. In case the Department accepts the recommendations for spruce, which is earnestly asked, a quantity of this wood should be purchased and kept in store in order that it may be properly seasoned.
BOAT HOOKS.
Boat hook staffs should be made of ash, and they should be tipped with a dull edged single hook made of finished composition.
PAINTERS.
Should be of manila, secured by a running eye to bolt in fore sheets.
MASTS.
Masts should be made of spruce. The mast fittings and step should be of standard pattern.
Mast bands and cleats should be of finished composition; the halyard ring, sheave and blocks, of galvanized iron, save in barges, and whalers employed as gigs, where finished composition should be substituted. The proposed mast-step is a composition pipe.
The Board has had under consideration various devices, hinges and otherwise, for stepping the masts of the larger boats, but has concluded that their complexity of action and their interference with stowage and seating room, out-weigh the claimed advantages.
BOWSPRITS.
Bowsprits are abolished.
GRATINGS.
Gratings are provided in all boats for the floors of the fore and stern sheets and for the stern benches; in special types, such as barges and gig-whalers, they may also be used as floor coverings throughout. In all cases they are to be made of seasoned ash and are to be kept bright—shellac, paint and varnish being objectionable. The stern bench frames are to be well supported by stout stanchions, so constructed that the stern bench gratings will ship and unship easily.
Cushions are un-seamanlike, unsightly and cumbersome; they are difficult to keep in order or to stow, and their use should be rigorously forbidden. In all boats above the dinghy class, except launches, boat cloths of a standard pattern should be substituted for cushions.
FENDERS.
Fenders for steamers and launches should be made of canvas, stuffed with finely picked oakum. These bags will be oblong, about 2 ft. 6 in. in length, 8 in. in width, 4 in. in thickness.
The forward end is secured by a lashing to a staple in the deck or rail, and the after end is hung by a lanyard which allows the fender to take an oblique position, upper edge near the rail, lower edge near the turn of the bilge; this lanyard is covered and its upper end is secured to a staple or belt so as to allow the lanyard to hang fairly up and down when the fender is over the side.
The fenders are rope-edged, and strengthening bands are sewed into the canvas at the points where the lanyards are secured. One fender is allowed each side for every 10 ft. of length of boat and fraction thereof, less than 5 ft. The bow fender should be of the same material and make, worked on a length of small wire, with an eye in each end; its shape, however, should be somewhat like a crescent, very thick in the centre and there reinforced with a closely knitted mat. The tips are secured on either side of the bow to bolts driven in the rail, and at such a distance from the center of the stem that when the fender is needed the parts covered by the mat and nearly all of the cusps can be thrown over the stem head. When not in use it can be carried on board so as to rest upon the deck clear of the gun mount, base. The permanent lashings at the tips act as hinges for the bearing portions.
Fenders for all other boats should be made of leather discs, circular in shape with a holding flap. The lanyard is spliced into the eye of the flap and is secured inboard, abreast of every thwart, with additional fenders abreast of each bow and quarter. No fender should be painted.
ROWLOCKS.
Rowlocks are of two types, box rowlocks for barges and cutters, and swivel rowlocks for the other pulling boats, save launches, which will be fitted with galvanized iron thole pins of the usual pattern.
Box rowlocks are fitted into recesses cut out of the rail; they are made of composition and are slightly enlarged at the junction of the forward side with the bottom.
Shutters, fitted with small composition chain and bolts are intended to be used with these rowlocks.
Swivel rowlocks should be fitted into sockets that are of a good thickness and thoroughly secured to the rail. The swivel should enter the hole easily and move without friction; when these details are not considered, the sockets often work loose, and the rail becomes so damaged as to need unsightly graving pieces.
HANGINGS.
The hangings should be of the standard patterns, and to be so disposed as to facilitate lowering, casting clear, hoisting and securing. To a great degree these form a part of the subject which is to be considered under the head of lowering, hoisting and securing devices, and into which the Board hopes to go later.
It is very well established, however, that the center of the hangings should not be less than lo in. from the forward edge of stem nor 8 in. from the stern molding. Where the hanging bolts or eyes enter the deck of steamers with air tanks, the aperture should be sealed and calked so as to prevent the ingress of water, and where they interfere with tanks, great care must be taken with their disposition, to prevent damage to the tank's buoyancy power.
TANKS.
For the present, air tanks should be made of copper, cylindrical along the sides, and comformable in shape to the bows and sterns fore and aft (except in steamers having water-tight compartments); they should be carried as high as possible, and those amidships need not be boxed. Copper, though slightly heavier than sheet iron, is recommended rather than the latter, owing to its superiority in other respects. The employment of aluminum is recommended to be tried in not less than two boats.
ANCHORS AND CHAINS.
Anchors and chains should be made of iron well galvanized and tested. The chain should be secured at its bitter end by a stout lashing to a well driven and riveted bolt in the timbers.
RUDDERS.
The Board is not yet prepared to recommend definitely rudders or tillers.
The Board reserves until later its decision on this question.
STEERING OAR CRUTCH.
Two steering oar crutches should be carried ready for shipping in every boat; one to be fitted on each quarter as in the whaleboats of the sea fisheries.
STRETCHERS
should be square and set at an angle, and so secured as to remain in place when under a strain.
BREAKERS.
should be of good capacity, and fitted with a leather tip at the edge of the bung-hole in addition to a small metal faucet.
SPARE FITTINGS.
A fair allowance of these, such as shown on plans, should be furnished each boat, marked "spare fittings."
ENSIGN AND JACK STAVES.
As provided in existing regulations.
SIGNAL BAGS.
The design submitted to the Department by Sail-maker Frank Watson, U.S.N., is recommended for adoption.
LETTERING.
All fittings should be marked with the initial of the boat; the insignia of rank and the initial of the ship to be of composition.
BACK BOARD.
To be of standard pattern and material. A tin plate with colored drawings of signal numbers may be secured to its back, but the face should be free from all extraneous decoration.
AWNINGS.
The Board has still under consideration the subject of boat awnings.
PAINTING.
Boats should be painted as required by existing regulations.
STANDARDIZING.
The necessity of standardizing has come to be recognized of such great importance, that the Board cannot fail to recommend its application not only to the fittings, but to the construction detail of service boats.
Of course, when a standard is rigorously guarded, the play of individual abilities or of certain aptitudes which might result in improvements, is apt to be checked. Yet when too much freedom is given, a confusion is sure to result which would hamper, if not destroy, the best system ever devised. Therefore, it is to be hoped that directions will be given for the careful execution of the details set forth in this report, at least, until actual trials in service have demonstrated their value.
In the beginning, the Board also considered the suggestions made so frequently, that at least one pulling boat in each ship of above 1500 tons should be given lines which look for speed as the most important quality. The influence upon discipline and service spirit that success in boat races would surely have, was advanced in favor of this policy, and in some quarters the hope was expressed that the superiority won and held by us for so many years in such competitions was something not to be lightly surrendered. The Board gave due weight to these ideas, freighted, as they were, with patriotic impulses and service pride; but in the end, it could only recognize that its first duty was to submit designs which, with the limitations imposed, would, above all, give the greatest security to the ship and its people.
In the course of investigation, however, it became apparent that with the highest safety and the amplest capacity a fine speed could be associated; then followed the trials of the Philadelphia's cutters which fortified this belief; and so now the Board ventures to express the hope that in the usual man-of-war competitions, which are and should be entirely unlike the contests of pleasure craft, our blue jackets may still find themselves furnished with constructions that will enable their brain and brawn to gain and hold, as they have so often, the van of the racing course.
TRIALS OF STEAMERS.
Under orders of the Department, the members of the Board visited the Navy Yards at Norfolk, Va., at Washington, D.C, and at Portsmouth, N.H., the Naval Station at New London, Conn., and the private establishments of Messrs. Herreshoff at Bristol, R.I., of Messrs. Seabury & Co., at Nyack on the Hudson, and of Mr. Fearon, at Yonkers, N.Y. Trials of boats were made at Norfolk, Washington, and New London, and at the Seabury and Fearon establishments, and reports upon the New London and Fearon boats will be found in the appendices, marked (B and C).
The trial at New London was confined to the white "turn about" steam cutter brought to this country by Commander B.H. McCalla, U.S.N., in the U.S.S. Enterprise. Her dimensions are: Length over all, 32 ft.; length on waterline, 31 ft; breadth, 7 ft.; depth, 3 ft. 8 in. The keel extends aft 20 ft., the after body being without a skag and joining through a moderate angle a well proportioned and nearly square stern. Tanks forward and aft, and longitudinal cylindrical air chambers in the middle body make her a good life boat. Altogether, the general design is such as to produce good seaworthiness and fair capacity, the deficiency in this latter quality being due to the deficient beam and an unnecessary effort for disproportionate high speed. The trial of this boat was ordered mainly to determine her maneuvering qualities, as the condition of the boiler power precluded any speed experiment. A sufficiently high pressure could not be carried, as the boiler tubes were very thin in consequence of frequent re-rollings; the slide valves were so badly set as to give too late an admission of steam; the condenser surface was insufficient. As the mean of five runs, three below the station in relatively rough water, and two above, in a fairly smooth stream, the speed shown was 6.46 knots. A full report upon the other qualities is recorded in the appendix, marked (B), but as a matter of running commentary, the following data relating to her maneuvering powers may be quoted here. Going ahead full speed (about 7 knots), a complete turn to starboard was made in 30 seconds, to port in 31 seconds; the diameter of the turn being 60 feet or about two boat's lengths.
Turning with helm hard up and throttle wide open, the inclination (the pressure lurch) was quick for a few degrees, then steady at the angle reached. To come to a full stop from fast ahead, backing hard, throttle wide open and link thrown over at once, required 11 seconds. When going fast astern, helm amidships, the boat tended to port.
Under special instructions of the Department the Board made careful trials of a steam cutter designed by Mr. Fearon, of Yonkers, N.Y. In the correspondence accompanying the orders was included a copy of a letter, wherein under date of Nov. 16, '91, Mr. Fearon made the following proposition to the Secretary of the Navy:
"If the Department will kindly furnish me with the sized steam launch that would best suit the wants of the Department, I will agree to build said hull, together with the engine, boiler, pumps, condensers and all other necessary fittings to perfectly equip the launch for service. Said boat and equipment to be tested by U.S. Navy officers against the best boats now in use by the Navy Department, as tenders to the ships of war. If she does not prove superior after said tests, I do not expect or wish the Department to accept her, or to be at any expense except the expenses of the officers making said tests. If proved to be superior the Department shall take her at a price that shall be equal to the cost of first-class boats of equal size and horse-power."
At the earliest opportunities the Board made the trials necessary to determine the qualities of the boat. It did not require much examination to show that the design was inferior to those already employed and was unsuitable to service needs, for it illustrated in a high degree a want of seaworthiness, capacity and appearance. The designer claimed that he was not responsible for the hull because the conditions imposed by the Department had compelled him to turn out just such a boat, and that he had been specifically limited to the constructions exhibited in certain drawings sent him by the Department. The futility of this claim is made clear in the correspondence appended; indeed, the very terms of the proposition, as shown in its opening paragraph, prove that his understanding of the Department's position is unwarranted. Mr. Fearon asked for the "sized steam launch," as he put it, "that would best suit the wants of the Department." In compliance with this request the Department, under date of December 15, 1891, informed him that the length of the launch should be 28 ft. "Should you desire," continues this letter, "the Department will furnish you copies of the drawings of the 28 ft. service launch, which would indicate details required by the service." Mr. Fearon, on December 21, 1891, asked for the drawings and for a statement as to the "horse-power usually used," both of which were duly sent. Nothing here justifies any claim that he was limited at all, except in length, to a specific design, or hampered in his treatment of any other dimensions or qualities.
Three full trials, under way, were conducted by the Board. In each trial for speed and power the inferiority of the Fearon boat in important essentials, not only to the "best boats now in use by the Navy Department" but to the average boats furnished ships of war, was apparent. The following brief summary is added because of its relevancy to the recommendation of the Board in the premises.
Course:—Both ways to eliminate wind and tide; distance, 1 ½ knots; mean time of run, 12 minutes; mean revolutions, 320; mean pressure, 165 lbs.; vacuum, 17 in.; mean speed of boat, 7.5 knots; slip of screw, 37.9 per cent.
So far as machinery performances go (for it may be said that both good and bad results were attained) all the data will be found appended; but this, to some degree, may be anticipated by stating that the boiler steamed freely, that the water level was maintained without fluctuation, and that the circulation seemed to be exceptionally good. Though the machinery occupies considerable space fore and aft (13 ft. 3 in.) in proportion to the power developed, still it has the advantage of simplicity in a small number of parts, one piston valve distributing the steam to the various cylinders (quadruple expansion). In addition to this, its details of construction make it easy of access for repairs or overhauling. One notable point which the Board would like to see more thoroughly developed is its keel condenser, for this is of novel design and seems to possess some advantages over the ordinary type. It consists of a nest of 7/8 in. condenser tubes, which are secured to manifolds at the ends and are let into a rectangular recess cut out of the bottom of the boat, so that the sides of the manifolds and of the tubes are flush with the outer skin. The arrangement is efficient, compact and not liable to injury.
Off-setting these good qualities are disadvantages, which, apart from deficient speed and faulty design and construction, militate against the service adoption of the boat. 1. The excessive weight of machinery and boiler for the power developed; 2. The fore and aft space occupied by these; 3. The set of the cranks. These are placed at an angle of 180°, thus making their handling as difficult as with single engines and causing nearly 90 per cent, of the attempts at reversing under full head-way to result in the engine stopping on the centers until the balance wheel is thrown over by hand. Under some conditions, this want of maneuvering power would, in making landings, or wherever reversing became necessary, be dangerous to life and certainly destructive to the boat. 4. Danger of engine disablement due to the employment of only one steam valve. Any derangement of this disables the whole system. 5. Unprofitable increase in size and weight of machinery due to the use of an unnecessary number of cylinders to obtain the benefits of expansion. This also is a direct result of the employment of only one steam valve.
Accepting the self-imposed conditions of Mr. Fearon, and comparing, as he requests, his boat with those in use by the Department at the date specified, November 16, 1891, the Board has to report that the Fearon boat has not fulfilled the requirements promised, and to recommend that it shall not be bought. Every opportunity was extended Mr. Fearon to demonstrate the possibilities of his hull and motive power; the boat was brought to the Navy Yard, N.Y., for boiler tests, and the experience of the engineer experts was freely put at his disposition; at some expense the craft was taken care of during a rigorous winter, and in every trial it was subjected only to the same intelligent and fair scrutiny which would be exercised in any design private or Government, brought officially before the Board.
Some of the details of the 30-ft. "turn about" steamers are here given. Two courses, varying only in length, were selected, both being in the channel way on the south side of Blackwell's Island, East River, N.Y.
A number of runs were made over these under similar conditions of current, wind and tide. In the first trial a propeller of the following character was employed: diameter, 28-in.; pitch, 45-in.; helicoidal area, 311.36 sq. in. The mean results obtained with this screw were as follows:
COURSE, 2 ½ KNOTS.
Time (mean of four runs), 16.02 min.
Revolutions per minute, 334.75
Steam pressure, 195 lbs.
Vacuum, 13. 9 in.
Speed, 7.951 knots.
Slip, 35.6 per cent.
Indicated horse-power
H.P., 11.8598
L.P., 10.2624
Collective horse-power, 22.1222
Wind, 4, NW., tide, last of ebb.
The second trial was made with a propeller of the following character: diameter, 27-in.; pitch, 46-in.; helicoidal area, 363.7 sq. in. The mean results obtained with this screw were as follows;
COURSE, 1 KNOT.
Time (mean of four runs), 6.45 min.
Revolutions per minute, 324
Steam pressure, 198 lbs.
Vacuum, 15 in.
Speed, 8.89 knots.
Slip, 27.44 per cent.
Indicated horse-power:
H.P., 9.6888
L.P., 11.3830
Collective horse-power, 21.0718
Wind, 3, SE., tide, flood.
These figures show that the substitution of a screw 1 in. less in diameter— with 1 in. greater pitch—52 square inches greater area, and with 10 less revolutions per minute (8 per cent, less slip), resulted in nearly one knot higher speed.
MANEUVERING TRIALS.
From ahead fast (speed nearly 8 knots) helm a' starboard, a complete turn was made as the mean of five trials, in 28 seconds, and with the helm a' port, in 29 seconds. From full speed astern a complete turn was made, as the mean of two trials, in 1 min. and 38 seconds. A straight line astern, engines backing full speed could only be made when the helm was slightly a' port. From full speed ahead to "stop" (link thrown over at once) the time occupied as the mean of three trials was 9 seconds, the boat coming to a standstill in 16 feet, or in a little more than one-half her length over-all. During these maneuvering tests the water was smooth and the force of the wind was 3.
Very respectfully,
F. E. Chadwick, Commander, U. S. N.,
F. L. Fernald, Naval Constructor, U. S. N.,
J. D. J. Kelly, Lieutenant Commander, U. S. N.,
A. F. Dixon, P. A. Engineer, U. S. N.
To THE Secretary of the Navy, Washington, D. C.
* Report of the Board on Ships' Boats, Navy Yard, New York, January 25, 1894. This report has not been approved by the Department, and therefore represents the personal opinions only of the members of the Board, now dissolved.