The littorals continue to be the subject of much thought-provoking discussion regarding worldwide social trends, global economics, and military operations in general. This subject naturally extends to irregular warfare, of which special operations are a key component. Both internal and external to U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), the term “littoral special operations” has been used in recent years without a clear articulation of the environment and its implications to special operations, resulting in confusion and misinterpretation. With that in mind, we need a clear understanding of littoral special operations while conveying how Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC) sees itself contributing well-trained personnel for action in this arena.
As an organization, MARSOC believes the littorals are a complex operating environment with significant implications for the conduct of special operations due to their physical and cultural terrain. Further, training to execute special operations there will hone skills for use in any clime and place, ensuring MARSOC forces are relevant across the globe and advancing the proficiency of all special operations forces. Although capabilities currently exist to operate in the littorals, there is room to improve and excel.
Both SOCOM and the Marine Corps increasingly value MARSOC as an integrator between conventional and special operations forces, a role that increases the importance of the littorals for the command.1 As conventional forces—especially naval expeditionary forces—develop concepts for operating in and moving through the littorals, they expect special operations forces (SOF) to prepare the space prior to their arrival. The littorals represent the nexus of water and land and will be where conventional forces first link into and exploit special operations networks. MARSOC, as a special operations force with robust command, control, and intelligence capacity that is capable of synchronizing the actions of distributed forces, will be expected to excel in this terrain and facilitate the introduction of expeditionary forces. Finally, due to the complexity of this environment, training to special operations standards in the littorals will go a long way in ensuring MARSOC Marines develop the agility, versatility, and adaptability required as deployments shift away from steady-state operations in Afghanistan.
More than Just Land and Sea
To determine where to enhance capabilities, however, the operating environment should be adequately understood. Coming to a common understanding of what constitutes the littorals is not as easy as one might expect, though. Much depends on perspective. The surface Navy, for instance, tends to think of the littorals, unsurprisingly, in terms of water space that can be affected by shore-based defenses and constraints to navigation. The Joint definition of the littorals suggests that they comprise two segments of a battlespace: seaward—the area from the open ocean to the shore, which must be controlled to support operations ashore—and landward—the area inland from the shore that can be supported and defended directly from the sea.2 This definition is useful, but somewhat incomplete as it does not account for the much discussed and very challenging urbanization and human properties of the littorals.3 Building on the Joint definition, from the MARSOC perspective the littorals consist of a complex environment where not only do sea and land meet but, as a result of the natural interactions of human migration and trade inherent with proximity to the seas, so too do cultures.
In addition to the human complexity in this area, physical attributes add to the challenges. In the urban littorals, water and land interact to form naturally complex terrain such as swamps, barrier islands, inland waters, and river estuaries, but humans have also profoundly impacted the terrain. Waterways are altered, if not completely reengineered, to accommodate shipping, sanitation, and flood control. Structures, like buildings and port facilities, rise directly from the water’s edge. Industry, including massively complex systems and their associated hazardous materials, interact with coastal structures to further complicate the physical terrain. While these features may be an everyday reality to the average American living in our own urban littorals along the Eastern Seaboard and Pacific Coast, they present significant challenges to military operations.
Additionally, many urban centers on the coast develop around protected waters that are often formed by some type of river estuary, which can be a complex maze of water that supports entire transportation and social networks operating on a logic all their own, such as the Mekong Delta or the bayous along the Gulf of Mexico. Such terrain can create challenges for the unprepared, especially when the local population has learned over generations to thrive on the very geography most would find challenging.
People Matter
Living in an area where land and sea meet often means heterogeneous populations interact in complex networks. While this may be intrinsic to urban areas in general, the convergence of domestic and international transportation networks, subsequent commercial interactions, and the resulting cross-pollination of cultures heightens the cultural dynamics of urban centers along the coast in ways typically not seen further inland. This effect is not limited to the urban centers, though. As a simple map study might suggest, even the littoral hinterlands tend to have access via overland and waterborne routes to the littoral urban centers and their wealth of diversity. In other words, the cultural aspects associated with global trade and generations of interaction tend to stretch further along the coast than they do inland. This feature has implications for the placement of intelligence-collection assets and cultural preparation for operators.
In broad terms, a littoral population tends to be more connected to the world than inland ones. Littoral urban centers are culturally less homogeneous than those inland, as cities and towns receive and integrate diverse ethnic groups at various intervals, resulting in an assortment of relatively segregated communities operating within the larger urban center. This creates complicated patchworks of subcultures stemming from a history of communications with other people. While this means that those living in the littorals likely have had more contact with outside ideas, it does not necessarily mean they are more accepting of those differences. Exposure to Western values, for instance, may foster more resentment in certain segments of the population, which due to their close proximity and interaction with more accepting population segments creates unstable environments. Such unavoidable contact with people and practices very different from one’s own can either increase cosmopolitan attitudes for some or, alternatively, cause others to become more insular and at times harbor resentment.
Implications for Special Operations
It stands to reason that particular characteristics associated with both physical and cultural terrain in the littorals might have an effect on how special operations are conducted there. As opposed to such operations conducted farther out to sea, special operations in the littorals—due to its landward component—will likely mean more persistent interaction with people where they live—on the land. This will require an emphasis on land-based operations proximate to coastal areas, including operations in coastal waters, but more as a means than an end. While operations on the water are indeed important and unavoidable in this environment, littoral special operations will likely be land- and populous-centric.
This is not to downplay the knowledge of the sea and maritime operations that is required. Access and mobility are critical for a littoral force. SOF operating in the littorals should have the ability to move from the open ocean, penetrate coastal waters into inland waterways, and easily move onto potentially heavily urbanized terrain to conduct persistent operations in maritime environments. This means that in many situations, littoral special operations would include small boats on coastal, inland, and riverine waters. This requirement could certainly be met with organic assets, similar to those operated by Naval Special Warfare Special Boat Teams, but might also make use of partner force assets.
Long-term, foreign internal defense, security force assistance, and similar partner-enabling special operations missions would likely involve organizations specific to the littorals. Port authorities, customs officials, coast guards, and riverine forces all operate in this zone and have unique skill sets. These experts have much to offer U.S. special operations forces and reinforce true partnerships that contribute heavily to mission accomplishment. Understanding, preparing for, and tailoring engagement for specific partners has been, and will continue to be, a hallmark of special operations and therefore requires a force with expertise in operating with them. Pre-deployment training should include events with similar American forces to prepare special operators to work with potential partners. Conducting these persistent special operations in the littorals will not only support our partners in combating terrorism and promoting regional stability but also help our SOF understand the environment should a crisis require more direct action or the introduction of conventional forces.
Countering Networks
Dealing with the various cultures of the urban littorals is a bit more nuanced. Special operations conducted in these areas must account for a variety of cultures in complex environments where global commerce and dense human networks mix in potentially unstable sociopolitical situations. These areas invite international criminal and terrorist organizations to operate behind the curtains of the cluttered urban littorals. This cover arises not only from the multitude of people and actions here but also from the cultural character of the space. As opposed to more homogeneous cultures inland, the littorals tend to be more diverse, meaning strangers are less conspicuous and outsiders can operate more freely. This can be advantageous to both SOF and nefarious actors. The resulting depth of human networks means SOF require specific training and a high degree of skill in counter-network operations capable of exploiting the nexus of transportation and global commerce networks.
Fortunately, over the last decade SOF has expanded and improved such efforts. In Afghanistan MARSOC has gained valuable experience in these types of missions and applied the robust command-and-control capabilities of the Marine Special Operations Company to develop a strong fusion between intelligence and operations. This strength, along with an ability to synchronize actions with forces distributed across large distances and varied terrain, is ripe for exploitation in the littorals. With that said, as with any transition, capabilities need to adjust for the future operating environment.
Preparing for Future Missions
Over the course of the next several years, MARSOC, as it transitions operations from Afghanistan, will begin to regionalize its battalions to Northwest Africa, the Persian Gulf, and Southeast Asia. Several urban littoral areas have driven capability development within the command to build on operations and intelligence integration and counter-network operation strengths and apply them to future missions in the littorals. MARSOC will continue to emphasize the analysis of these networks and develop the means to sort and exploit the vast amount of information flowing through these hubs of global trade and human interaction.
Currently, pre-deployment training at MARSOC incorporates regional-specific subjects, such as language and culture along with other baseline skills associated with all SOF. In the future, regional-specific training might also include subjects applicable to the urbanized littorals—like social sciences to better understand general trends and phenomena in complex societies. Similarly, the study of global trade and transport networks by SOF personnel will aid in operations and intelligence analysis in these environments. Although such training and education adds to pre-deployment requirements of special operators, knowledge in these subjects has a wide range of utility for multiple areas of the world and situations meaning they can be accomplished prior to receipt of a specific mission. Once specific mission requirements are known, these subjects can provide a solid framework for country-specific problem sets and application of language and cultural-specific knowledge.
Conducting more special operations in the littorals will also require greater emphasis on water-insertion techniques, dive training, and small-boat operations than has occurred in recent years for operations in landlocked Afghanistan. While steady-state operations from forward operating bases and combat outposts have been the norm in recent years, access to operating areas in the future might not be as permissive as they are in Afghanistan. To ensure access, MARSOC has recently renewed emphasis on collective training for airborne and dive insertion techniques in littoral environments.
A special operation force must also address mobility challenges in the littorals, ranging from the near shore to busy ports to riverine environments. Currently, MARSOC has a limited small-boat capability, thereby restricting what training it can perform on its own in this vital area. The assets and specialists required for littoral mobility, however, do exist within the larger SOF enterprise. As training packages adjust away from Afghanistan scenarios, MARSOC will optimize use of internal assets and work with Naval Special Warfare to increase small-boat training opportunities to reflect a renewed emphasis on maritime environments.
Preparation for littoral special operations is not complete without confronting the challenges associated with the urban littorals. Urban terrain is nothing new to SOF, and there are robust insertion and close-quarters battle training packages in place to prepare operators. While close-quarters battle is a key component of success here, there is more to urban special operations than shooting and moving in close spaces. To that end, detailed training on the infrastructure of modern cities such as mass transit systems, power and information grids, and subterranean confined spaces (tunnels) would be useful in allowing SOF to execute missions in this very complex terrain. Further, SOF operating in the urban littorals would benefit from training on port and harbor operations to be better prepared for missions ranging from direct action raids to more persistent partner enabling of forces, such as port authorities and coast guards. The intent of such training would be to better understand the terrain, the multitude of networks in play, and the challenges to security.
Clearly, the complexities of these areas require specific training and emphasis for 21st-century SOF to be successful. Let there be no mistake, tackling the littorals should be a Joint effort, as no one service or SOF component has the market cornered in this operating environment. The terrain and societies of the modern littorals will benefit from the varied and nuanced approaches of different SOF components. Naval Special Warfare brings a wealth of maritime SOF expertise, and Army Special Forces excel in persistent engagement with partner forces. In the same way, MARSOC will bring robust command and control, focusing on the integration of intelligence and operations to synchronize distributed actions of operators with the expeditionary mindset and naval ethos inherent to their heritage as Marines.
As the mission in Afghanistan nears completion, MARSOC will be fine-tuning its capabilities to be better prepared for this arena. Through a shared understanding of the environment, integration of capabilities, and the talent and professionalism of our operators, MARSOC and the rest of the SOF enterprise will continue to meet the challenges of an increasingly dynamic security environment and excel in future special operations in the littorals.
1. Remarks by ADM William McRaven, USN, during USSOCOM–USMC Wargame, Tampa, Florida, April 2013.
2. Department of Defense, Joint Publication P 1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 12 April 2001, as amended through April 2010.
3. See David Kilcullen, Out of the Mountains: The Coming of Age of the Urban Guerilla (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).