Unknown to most Marines, civil affairs officers are a small but vital part of the Corps. Providing an essential link between military operations and civilian populations (such as these Marine civil affairs officers handing out water to Iraqi farm children), Marine Corps civil affairs deserves a higher profile and increased funding.
Civil affairs (CA) is a vital part of Marine Corps operational doctrine, serving as the interface between military operations and civilians during combat and peacetime. Its primary objectives include minimizing the impact of civilians on military operations; limiting expenditure of U.S. resources and keeping them from being diverted from combat actions; helping initiate reconstruction of civilian infrastructures; and gaining the cooperation and goodwill of civilians. In peacetime, CA enhances the Marine Corps' profile by assisting in disaster relief, refugee management, and stabilization during civil unrest throughout the world. Despite this mandate, current support for civil affairs is inadequate. As instability and conflict spread, expanding the size and depth of support for CA can facilitate restabilization of the world order and keep foreign problems from finding their way to our shores.
What Is Civil Affairs?
The Department of Defense defines civil affairs as "those phases of the activities of a commander which embrace the relationship between military forces and civil authorities and people in a country or area when military forces are present. . . usually involving performance by the military forces of certain function or the exercise of certain authority normally the responsibility of the local government . . . and the form of administration by which an occupying power exercises executive, legislative, and judicial authority over an occupied territory."
The U.S. Army is the executive agency for civil affairs and psychological operations for all U.S. military forces. It has been the leader in activities and training since World War II and dominates CA, with one active-duty unit, the 96th CA Battalion, in Fort Bragg, North Carolina, and 5,000 additional personnel in reserve units. Their focus is on nation building with a strategic long-term view.1 The Army encourages personnel to stay in civil affairs units for many years, allowing extraordinary specialization and a high level of expertise. Army CA is well funded and expanding, with a second active-duty battalion in development. Whole Army CA battalions may be assigned single roles as a group, such as the 422nd, located in Baghdad attempting to restore infrastructure including electricity, public recreation areas, and schools.
In contrast, CA activities in the Marine Corps are expeditionary. The traditional emphasis is short term, with scalable, task-oriented teams supporting specific independent operations. Civil affairs operates as an asset to the Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) commander in enhancing battlefield capabilities while diminishing enemy and noncombatant interference.2 This includes interaction among U.S. government agencies, U.S. military forces, foreign civil and military authorities, and local populations. CA operations also attempt to minimize or eliminate friction and misunderstandings between civilian and military forces.3
In the Marine Corps, there are two civil affairs units, both reserve: the 3rd Civil Affairs Group, based at Camp Pendleton, California, in support of the I and III Marine Expeditionary Forces, and the 4th, in Washington, D.C, in support of the II Marine Expeditionary Force. Their combined tables of organization provide for fewer than 300 personnel. There is a unique ratio of officer and enlisted personnel, configured on the predicted mix of skills necessary to accomplish the mission. Some typical civilian professions include law enforcement, law, finance, engineering, business, and health care. The 3rd is the most deployed reserve unit in the Marine Corps. Former Commandant General James Jones noted that "civil affairs is a military occupation specialty in great demand . . . No Marine commander should go off on a mission in the world without taking a civil affairs officer."4
Marine Corps civil affairs conducts two main missions: civil-military operations and supporting civil administration, under which fall many subsidiary missions. The unit attempts to prevent or inhibit indigenous civilians from hindering U.S. combat operations while obtaining the support of the local population. It might also assist in ensuring the proper treatment of civilians and their property in accordance with international law. In addition, the unit can advise the tactical commander how to avoid unnecessary damage to civilian property and useful nonmilitary resources. There is a provision for CA to lawfully obtain civilian assets in support of military operations to reduce the burden on the military supply system and reestablish civilian governing capability.
CA can provide invaluable support and assistance to the intelligence section, identifying important civilians, vital infrastructure, and relevant demographic information. Where refugees are involved, CA bridges the huge gap between the military and the host nations, United Nations agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and the U.S. Department of State. Public health teams can help protect the health of military forces by preventing the spread of indigenous diseases and epidemics from civilians to military, particularly when refugees are present.
One of the most visible recent civil affairs issues was the pilfering of the Iraqi National Museum. From the initial allegations regarding the complete destruction of the collection to the now more accurate reports of the loss of a fraction of the collection, CA was in the limelight as it worked with agencies to ensure the complete return of the collection. In addition, CA has been integral in implementing the program for the return of looted items, including amnesty and a public affairs campaign to have items returned "for the good of the state." CA personnel also have taken essential and high-profile roles in the reconstitution of local law enforcement, critical for the revitalization of Iraq.
Operational Employment
In the planning stages, civil affairs personnel enhance contingency operations by bringing to light the risks associated with proposed plans. They recognize political implications, facilitate interagency activities, consider longterm effects, ensure legitimacy and credibility of forces, anticipate and control psychological effects, develop multiple options through consequence management, and balance security and synchronization between military and nonmilitary agencies.
Civil affairs is a maneuver element that effects Marine Corps operations on several levels. It acts as a force multiplier by reducing burdens on military personnel and freeing tactical resources. When coordinating in-country resources to provide logistical support for military operations, CA personnel identify and employ useful civilian assets or personnel. By working with the civilian force, they can assist with rapid procurement of supplies and materiel that otherwise would require military personnel and vehicles to move through the supply chain.
Refugees are a significant factor in combat operations. Civilians will move either to an area they believe to be safe or to an area where they believe they will be protected. In either case, this movement of people and things will impede the field commander. Civil affairs personnel are trained to identify alternate routes of travel, work with civilian forces to channel the people in these areas, and in some cases prevent the occurrence of refugees.
An economy heavily damaged by war threatens the success of military operations. To alleviate this condition, CA personnel assist in reestablishing civilian infrastructure, including transportation, public utilities, communications systems, and public health and sanitation facilities. Civil administration might be required to resolve problems that threaten military operations. The CA team has the personnel to conduct population and resource control activities to reduce the threat of terrorism, enemy special operations forces, and dissidents.
Civil affairs units also provide a sustainable link between the U.S. military and military forces/civilian agencies of other nations. In combined theaters, allies need to maintain the political cohesion of the coalition as a prerequisite for military effectiveness.
In combat operations, CA also plays an important role in counter-insurgency. Regarding the relationship between military activities and civilian populations, Sir Robert Thompson said: "The peoples' trust is primary. It will come hard because they are fearful and suspicious. Protection is the most important thing you can bring them. After that comes health. And after that, many things—land, prosperity, education and privacy to name a few."6 Most CA activities involve direct contact with the local populace, typically in their native environment. This provides opportunity for intelligence gathering, identifying the intent of friendly forces, and augmenting counterinsurgency operations.
In noncombat operations, CA primarily is concerned with humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HA/DR). Both Army and Marine Corps units bring the logistical and engineering assets of the U.S. military to support countries devastated by disaster. HA/DR activities not only support the U.S. political agenda in these countries, but also provide invaluable training opportunities for the CA community. While the Marine Corps is not in the business of nation building, HA/DR missions provide an opportunity to practice essential tactical, engineering, and medical skills in a relatively safe environment.
A unique opportunity within civil affairs is to coordinate and enhance medical, dental, and engineering civic action programs in a sponsoring nation. These are done in coordination with naval medical and dental personnel from the Marine Expeditionary Force or its major subordinate commands, with Marine Corps combat engineers as well as Seabees. The knowledge gained in these peacetime missions prepares personnel for operations in uncontrolled or even chaotic environments, as well as opportunities to see and treat diseases not routinely experienced in the developed world.
Civil Affairs In the Future
As the U.S. military continues to reform and restructure, the role of CA will expand. It is predicted that much of the conflict in the near future will be in the urban environment. The effect of the civilian setting will be the single most important factor in determining the outcome of a conflict. Managing civilians will be essential—and unavoidable—regardless of the political position of the commander. A highly trained, mobile CA force is vital for mission success. In addition, it is imperative that CA units be staffed with adequate numbers of personnel to meet the increasing demands of these missions.
For example, an outbreak of a significant disease—Visceral Leishmaniasis—was identified recently in Iraq. The local health authorities could not manage the disease as it spread by sandflies, which posed a potential hazard to coalition forces. The military attempted to intervene, including using the CA public health component. The limited medical assets of the CA and a shortfall in disease specialists led to significant gaps in addressing this issue.
On a more general note, once combat operations stopped, there was a large influx of U.S. civilians who were to participate in the reconstruction effort. They had little coordination with the military, and in particular with civil affairs, which led to a less-than-stellar start. This resulted in not only delayed mission accomplishment, but also resulted in bad press.7
Increased use of CA personnel in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance will pay a double benefit. The opportunity to hone skills in a safe environment is invaluable. By constructing roads, building schools, and conducting medical civic action projects, the commander and his command will have the opportunity to study and evaluate their operational readiness.
Growing Missions, Shrinking Resources
The number of missions requiring the assistance of civil affairs is burgeoning but the number of CA staff is not expanding and cannot meet demand. With approximately 125 CA staff serving 65,000 Marine Corps personnel, there is a support ratio of approximately 2 CA personnel per 1,000 Marines on the ground. In a war scenario with 1 million refugees, the support ratio deteriorates to a mind-boggling 1 CA Marine per 10,000 troops, clearly an overwhelming challenge for any supporting organization. This might lead to mission failure and loss of support to the MAGTF commanders.
Civil affairs needs better funding and larger staffing. In Iraq, the short-term mission has become protracted because of the nature of the battlefield and the paucity of personnel. Among the needs are an expanded table of organization; a dedicated inspector and instructor staff that can devote attention to a high-intensity workload; an active-duty Marine Corps point of contact for day-to-day issues; improved Navy support for attached members, particularly during times of rapid deployment; and standardized training programs to ensure proficiency and competence. In the Marine Corps world of generalists, this is a unique field that requires additional training and specialization to create professionals. We propose the incorporation of the CA military occupational specialty. Increasing staff will permit better mission control, keeping pace with operational tempo, and allowing for better service to the Marine expeditionary forces.
During the deployment of the Marine Corps to Operation Iraqi Freedom, the triannual reassignment of personnel in the reserve resulted in the replacement of well-trained and experienced CA staff with new and inexperienced officers. This lack of expertise, combined with the assignment of officers to the Marine expeditionary unit (MEU) staff who did not have experience with civil affairs and its staff, diminished the effect CA might have had. In the future, extended rotations in civil affairs and a CA cadre assigned to all MEU staffs as they prepare for deployment would allow us to train as we fight.
Currently, the 3rd Civil Affairs Group assigns a MEU liaison officer to work with the MEU staff as they prepare for deployment. Because there is no formal structure, however, this officer might not be fully integrated into the MEU staff, and the MEU staff might not be attentive to his contributions. Without early planning and integration, adding CA assets after an area is secure is problematic: new staff have to integrate into the fabric of various units while conducting the commander's intent. This gap can lead to embarrassing actions by line troops that the media overplay, and can even contribute to misrepresenting our troops as the "ugly Americans." Integrating CA into operational planning can prevent missed opportunities and even embarrassment.
Our allies have similar units, and there is a need to cooperate and integrate when we encounter them in the field. Any duplication of effort or interference can markedly reduce effectiveness. Exchange programs with these CA elements of allied nations not only will enhance cooperation during real-world missions, but also will provide education to improve our own specific capabilities.
Conclusion
The Marine Corps needs more CA personnel to support its expanding mission in an arena of decreasing world stability. Military operations are more effective when they include CA support, which also enhances the transition to peacetime. It is essential that the Marine Corps and Navy continue to employ and train personnel to that mission, as well as provide training to unit commanders in the mission, capabilities, and employment roles of the CA teams. Without proper employment of the units, the training and commitment of the CA personnel is for naught. The number of personnel, funding, and support should be increased to better meet demands and performance capabilities. We recommend a higher profile and greater—as well as a more efficient-use of civil affairs units in combat and noncombat operations.
1 U.S. Army Civil Affairs Manual, FM 41-10, 2001.
2 "Marine Corps Civil Affairs and the Three Block War," Marine Corps Gazette, March 2003, pp. 33-36.
3 U.S. Marine Corps MAGTF Civil Affairs, FMFM 7-34.
4 Address by Gen. James Jones, USMC, WEST 2001, San Diego.
5 Address by Gen. James Jones, USMC.
6 Gen. Victor Krulak, USMC, First to Fight (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1999), p. 180.
7 Joseph Galloway, "U.S. Civilians Are Weak Link in Iraq Reconstruction Effort," Knight-Ridder Press, 16 July 2003.
Lieutenant Commander Spira was the medical officer for the 3rd Civil Affairs Group at Camp Pendleton, California, Fleet Marine Force. He is a physician trained in tropical diseases and emergency medicine. Captain Woodward is the senior Medical Department representative in the 3rd Civil Affairs Group. He has been intimately involved in the development of a training program for civil affairs officers approved by the Marine Corps as a secondary military occupational specialty. He is a medical epidemiologist in a civilian career. Colonel Beckhart was assigned as a civil affairs officer during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia. He has served as commanding officer and executive officer, 3rd Civil Affairs Group. He is assigned to the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force.