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The
area J ™ost arduous naval operating
Rus’^CreasinS, but the Soviets and their e,^r^c their backyard, perhaps much
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L(he U. S. Navy has viewed the Carib-
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area.
"7’ the Soviet Northern Fleet S0vjS 7|e most serious threat of the four Stateet eets to the interests of the United the U and other Western nations. While attem • Navy’s submarine force is now t^e htm8 to adapt to the Arctic environ- naval' s’Snific;ant Soviet maritime and thp °Perations in the region began in YU*1* 15th century. tjc q6 ^oviet Union’s border on the Arc- than 7° *S ^66 nautical miles—more State t lC ent’re coastline of the United Arctic ^'t^10u8h Alaska borders on the yards ' d *13S no significant P°rts or ship- the °n 'ts northern coast. In contrast, c0astUmerous ports on the Soviet Arctic tivit- are vital for trade and military ac- HaVa,S' Murmansk, a major port and sons COmplex of almost 400,000 per- °f ’ls the world’s only metropolis north
C Arctic Circle The headmiarters for
the Northern Fleet is at Severomorsk, just north of Murmansk. There are several shipyards in the area—including Severodvinsk, the world’s largest submarine yard—and numerous naval, air, and military bases.
By 1984, there were reports that the Soviets had completed four large, “underwater” tunnels for strategic missile submarines in the Gremikha area. These tunnels are said to be large enough to accommodate Typhoon-class nuclear- propelled ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), apparently affording them inport protection from nuclear attack. Typhoon-launched SS-N-20 missiles can strike targets in most of the United States from Soviet coastal waters.
Arctic geography permits the Northern Fleet relatively free access to the North Atlantic, compared to the restricted straits through which the Baltic and Black Sea fleets must pass to reach the Atlantic. 1 The ice-covered Arctic also provides the Soviet SSBNs with a protective operating area—a so-called “bastion”— offering relative immunity from Western antisubmarine warfare (ASW) forces.
The Arctic* an interrent 7nnp for fense against U. S. strategic bombers and missiles. The geography of the Arctic forces U. S. bombers to overfly Soviet territory for about 1,000 miles before reaching Moscow, a several-hour flight during which they would be vulnerable to detection and intercept by fighters and antiaircraft missiles. The Arctic also provides some “battle space” for ballistic missile intercepts. (The United States is severely limited in such activities because of Canadian sovereignty.)
The Arctic seas are important to the Soviet economy for a number of reasons:
- The large Arctic fishing grounds
- The northern transit route from Arctic ports to the Far East
- The outlet (via rivers) for Siberian resources.
The Red Banner Northern Fleet is based mainly on the Kola Peninsula and in the White Sea area.2 It is responsible for wartime operations in the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, and provides submarines for Mediterranean Sea operations.
The Northern Fleet has almost 50% of the Soviet Navy’s submarines, including 37 of its 62 modem SSBNs, 26% of the surface warships (frigates and larger), about 27% of the naval aircraft, and 26% of the naval personnel. (The Soviet Pacific Fleet is slightly larger than the Northern Fleet in all categories except submarines.)
The Northern Fleet’s large Bear-D reconnaissance and Bear-F ASW aircraft regularly fly from bases on the Kola Peninsula around North Cape, over the Norwegian Sea, and across the Atlantic, to land at bases in Cuba or Angola.
Satellite images have confirmed reports of a large Soviet SSBN base at Gremikha on the Kola Peninsula (artist’s concept, left) with numerous piers for servicing Typhoons and smaller SSBNs, nuclear weapon storage sites, and areas where hardened shelters have been dug.
133
The Arctic Environment
The Soviet Union’s Arctic coast is inhospitable. The coastal waters are largely icebound during winter except for a 70-miie stretch of the Kola Peninsula, which includes the major ports of Murmansk and Pechenga. The region is subjected to long winter nights; in the Murmansk area, the sun does not rise above the horizon from mid-November until mid-January.
Offshore, the Arctic region encompasses 3.3-million square miles of ocean—an area about the size of the United States—most of which is covered with pack ice. The extent of the ice varies considerably with the season. In winter, it is probably impossible for submarines to transit the Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia. Once in the Arctic, some areas are extremely shallow, although large areas are deeper than 1,000 fathoms. The surface ice projects downward from abou 6 to more than 20 feet; some ice keels of 162 feet have been observed. During recent transits through the Bering Strait, U. S. submarines have traveled 25 feet above the seafloor with only seven feet between the top of the sail structure and the downward projecting ice.
Acoustic conditions vary greatly. At times it is remarkably calm in the Arctic. But when the winds blow, the ice begins to move, and there is an incessan creaking noise. In some areas marine life contributes to the Arctic crescendo. Acoustic effectiveness is also affected by the low salinity in the area, as well as the eddies where warm and cold currents complicate acous tic conditions.
Norman Polniar
ships
for
and merchant ships
As demonstrated by the North trips, these icebreakers could assist ^ viet submarines in Arctic ventures
naval
ementS;
direct ASW operations against U. S-
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strategy
airdefense/early warning functions, and
(June 1941-May 1945). . xercise
3Thc first Western three-submarine Arctic e ^ occurred in 1986, with the U. S. subtnann (SSN-653), Hawkbill (SSN-666), and Arc > .
(SSN-678) participating. Also see "The U. • ^4,
Sailing Under the Ice,’’ Proceedings, Apr' pp. 151-53.
While Northern Fleet submarines operate through much of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean and their adjacent seas, the Arctic has become a major submarine operating area. Long-range Soviet SSBN-launched missiles permit the Soviets to operate these submarines close to the Soviet Union where they can be protected from Western air and surface ASW forces. Of course, under-ice operations essentially prevent submarine detection by ASW surface ships, aircraft, and most likely satellites for the foreseeable future.
This leaves Western ASW activity in the Arctic primarily to submarines—a difficult proposition. “Operating beneath the ice is never routine,” according to a Navy expert on under-ice operations. The acoustic conditions are difficult, and the use of active sonar—a mode of operation not favored by U. S. submariners—is essential. Further, less than 1% of the Arctic ocean floor has been adequately charted. The U. S. Navy’s Mk-48 torpedo has “definite limitations” in these waters and the advanced capability (ADCAP) version of the torpedo “requires improvements for [the] Arctic environment,” said the Navy expert.
For Arctic operation, a nuclear-pro- pelled attack submarine (SSN) must have hardening features, special sonars, the ability to hover, and specially configured diving planes. Fewer than half of the U. S. Navy’s SSNs have these features. The later Los Angeles (SSN-688)-class submarines—from the Chicago (SSN- 721) on—are being fitted for under-ice operations.
Since 1958, when the Nautilus (SSN- 571) became the first ship to reach the North Pole, the U. S. Navy has undertaken more than 40 Arctic submarine missions. The most recent occured earlier this year when the Billflsh (SSN-676), the Sea Devil (SSN-664), and the British submarine Superb conducted the second Western three-submarine exercise in the Arctic.3
The extent of Soviet under-ice operations is not openly discussed. The first acknowledged deep submarine penetration of the Arctic occurred in 1962 when the Leninsky Komsomol, a November- class SSN, surfaced at the geographic North Pole (four years after a U. S. submarine had accomplished that feat). A Soviet statement claimed that the submarine maneuvered under the ice “to detect and destroy ‘enemy’ nuclear subs trying to approach Soviet shores.”
More impressive in some respects have been Soviet surface ship operations in the Arctic. Several Arctic explorers have attempted to sail to the vicinity of the North Pole, but the first surface ship to accomplish this feat was the Soviet nuclear- propelled icebreaker Arktika (since renamed Leonid Brezhnev), which reached the top of the world on 17 August 1977. Her sister ship Sibir reached the North Pole in May 1987. (The U. S. Coast Guard icebreaker Westwind [WAGB-281] came within 375 nautical miles of the North Pole in 1979.)
The large, 23,460-ton Soviet Arktika- class icebreakers have carried guns on their sea trials and have significant electronic equipment and a helicopter capability. Thus, they could serve in a military role during their Arctic penetrations. There are three Arktika-class icebreakers in service and at least one other is under construction.
In addition, the Soviets have a large number of conventional icebreakers and the older, nuclear-propelled Lenin, all of
which work in the Arctic. These permit virtually year-round operation erchant ships in So
coastal waters.
could land-based aircraft, the w,n juC. ground effect craft now in series pr° ^ tion, and possibly the large fleet of S° air cushion vehicle landing craft- In addition to supporting SSBN °P ^ tions in the bastion area, these ships craft could provide a variety of other itary capabilities, including: minelay to inhibit U. S. submarine moveine^
British submarines; underwater nications relay; possibly some
conceivably at some future date a c0l^e ponent of a Soviet antiballistic rnis- system. . ns are
When these military operation- ^ coupled with the large volume of 5° commercial maritime activities in region, it becomes clear that the A Ocean is of major significance f°r Soviet Union.
'In addition to the geographic/political restric* passage through the Danish Straits and the elles, the Soviet Black Sea Fleet is also cons0f by the provisions of the Montreux Conven 1936. . vari-
2The Order of Red Banner has been awarde ^\c& ous Soviet units and activities for exemplary in wartime. The award was made to the Sovte em Fleet for participation in the Great Patno