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at least one of these craft was purchased by Hungary. The obsolescent “M-301”-class river minesweepers are continuing to be put out of service; only six remain in service.
The navy’s amphibious lift capability rests upon a dozen aging “Type- DTM-211” tank landing craft, and about two dozen of the new 32-ton fiberglass-hulled “Type-601” landing craft. The latter were built in 1976-77 and are also offered for export.
Albania: No significant events took place in regard to the Albanian Navy in 1982. The remaining three “Whis- key”-class submarines are based at Vlore, but none of them is apparently operational. The largest surface combatants are still three obsolescent exSoviet 330-ton Kronshtadt-class ASW corvettes, but it is doubtful whether they are maintained in serviceable status. Similarly, six former Chinese “Shanghai-II”-class gunboats may not all be operational. The backbone of the navy’s strength is made up of some 35 relatively modern ex-Chinese “Hu- chuan”-class hydrofoil torpedo boats. The previously listed 12 “P-4”-class torpedo boats are reportedly nonoperational.
The navy's mine countermeasure forces include two ex-Soviet “T-43”- class ocean minesweepers, and perhaps six “T-301” inshore minesweepers. However, it appears doubtful that many of these ships are maintained in fully operational status.
The navies of the six countries surveyed are being affected adversely by the deepening global recession. However, the Volksmarine and the R°" manian and Yugoslav navies seem to be able to proceed with modernization programs which are both modest and carried out primarily or entirely with their own resources.
A graduate of the Yugoslav Naval Academy- Pr- Vego served 12 years in the Yugoslav Navy an^ attained the rank of lieutenant commander before coming to the United States. He has been pm1' lished widely in the Western press on nava matters.
Middle Eastern, North African, and South Asian Navies
By William L. Dowdy 111
While small, fast, missile-armed boats remain the backbone of most navies of the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia, a significant number of larger combatants are being acquired. Nearly half of the navies surveyed in this article have recently obtained or have on order frigate-sized ships. Apparent explanations vary, but versatility (more surface-to-air missiles [SAMs], more antisubmarine warfare [ASW] weapons, more embarked helos), endurance, and prestige seem to be the most salient. If the slump in oil prices continues, this trend toward acquisition of more expensive ships may be short-lived.
The one aircraft carrier in the area, India’s Vikrant, was recommissioned in 1982, after a three-year refit. For the first time, two navies acquired submarines and one ordered them. And more hovercraft appeared in naval inventories.
Meanwhile, the Iraq-Iran War reached new levels of intensity before lapsing again into a stalemate, but there were few naval lessons to be learned. Israel mounted major amphibious landings and numerous naval commando raids during the 1982 war in Lebanon. Egypt regained the Sinai and a naval base at Sharm el-Sheikh. The Gulf Cooperation Council began to look more like a defense alliance, and the United States signed security agreements with Morocco, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia.
Persian Gulf/Arabian Peninsula
Saudi Arabia: As final units built under the U.S.-designed Saudi Naval
Expansion Program (SNEP) were nearing delivery, the first two ol f°l,[ French-built frigates for the Saudi Navy were being launched. The final four o nine “PGG-l”-class missile boats were delivered by Peterson Builders 0 Wisconsin during 1982. Those nine boats, plus four missile corvettes, constitute the principal combatants ordered under SNEP and are the pr>n' cipal combatants now operational 111 the Saudi Navy.
The first French-designed 2,000-tun frigate under construction at the Lor- ient yard of DTCN is scheduled to enter service in 1984. Her three sister ships will be built by CN1M, La Seyne- and should be delivered in 1985-8"- The heavily armed frigates will mount Otomat surface-to-surface missiles (SSMs), Crotale SAMs, torpedo tubes.
ar|d guns (l()0-mm. and 40-mm.) and wili carry a Dauphin helicopter armed w'th ASMs.
Also included in the $3.5 billion ' tench package are two 10,475-ton underway replenishment (UnRep) snips, two dozen Dauphin 11 helos, and extensive training and logistical suPport programs. The first UnRep *hip, based on the design of France's arger Durance-class fleet oilers, was nud down on 13 April 1982 at La Cio- tat in late 1982. The multipurpose replenishment ships not only carry liq- U|d, dry, and refrigerated stores and nntrnunition; they also are fitted with workshops and will carry two nelicopters.
Further strengthening their position as naval contractors for Saudi Arabia, lhe French signed a supplemental agreement on 31 January 1982 to improve and expand the Saudi naval infrastructure and training facilities.
' here have been reports that the Saudis are interested in ordering two 4,000- *°n “F-4000"-class antiair warfare *AAW) frigates from France.
Iraq: The navy which Iraq posSesses after the war with Iran may well
the navy now on order: four Lupo- c'ass frigates, six Wadi-class corVettes, a Stromboli-class replenishment ship, a 6,000-ton capacity float- 'ng dry dock, six “SRN-6”-class hovercraft, a presidential yacht, two Ending craft, and a diving tender.
What part of Iraq’s prewar inventory survives the war remains to be Seen. Press reports early in the conflict suggested that there were substantial combat losses on both sides during the first three to four months °f hostilities. Since then, there has been virtually no mention of naval actions.
On the whole, it would be a quite 'avorable exchange for the Iraqis: small, old. obsolescent, Soviet-built naval vessels superseded by larger, newer. Western-origin ships; a brown- water navy for a green-water navy (not yet quite up to blue-water standards); a head-of-the-Gulf navy for one that can range over the entire Gulf.
The first of the Lupos, under construction at CNR's Ancona yard, was scheduled for launch this month. The first two Wadis were due to have been launched last October. Four of the 650- ton corvettes will be configured for a medium helicopter and hangar. The other two will mount additional weapons on the fantail—four extra Otomat surface-to-surface missiles and a Breda 40-mm. twin mount. The four Wadis configured for helos are being built at CNR’s Muggiano yard, the others at Breda (Venice).
The Iraqi Government has reportedly asked for the earliest possible delivery of the ships on order. With no end to the war in sight, some of the new ships may even see combat.
Iran: The last three Combattante-II fast patrol boats fKhanjar, Neyzeh, and Taharzin) of a 12-boat order were delivered to Iran in 1981. As reported last year, Tabarzin was hijacked in August 1981 off Cadiz by a group of Iranian monarchists who surrendered to the French a few days later in Marseilles after a bizarre episode which took them to Casablanca. The Com- battantes were fitted for Harpoon SSMs, but only nine Harpoons were delivered to the Iranians prior to the U. S. arms embargo, and most—if not all—of these are believed to have been expended. Two of the craft were lost in combat during 1980.
No new naval acquisitions were made during 1982, but in November, the Iranian Government announced that it wished to renew the 1978 con-
The 13 missile combatants built in the United States for Saudi Arabia— PGG Abdul-Aziz is pictured—are operational, and will be the Saudi Navy’s frontline units until the arrival of the French frigates which are under construction.
tract with West Germany for six “Type-209” submarines; the German response is unavailable. One source states that Israel sold the Iranians an undisclosed number of Israeli “sea- to-sea” missiles during 1982, possibly referring to the Gabriel system. Iranian authorities made no publicized claims concerning combat exploits of their naval forces, although such claims were frequently reported in 1982 with respect to Tehran's land and air forces. On at least two occasions, however, Iranian officials implicitly threatened to undertake naval actions. Speaker of Iran’s parliament H. Rafsanjani said in September that “the whole of Europe would be deprived of Gulf oil” if the Iraqis made good their threat to destroy Iran’s Kharg Island oil terminal—an apparent disclosure of Iranian intentions to blockade the Strait of Hormuz in such circumstances. In October. Iran’s Foreign Minister A. A. Velayati in a speech at the United Nations made the threat more specific: “. . .if one day the export of Iranian oil is stopped, then no oil will be exported from the Persian Gulf.”
The Iraqis, on the other hand, issued warnings and also claimed combat successes. Baghdad, on several occasions, warned that the area around Kharg Island in the northeastern sector of the Gulf was a military exclusion zone in which all ships were in danger of being attacked. The Iraqis claimed to have sunk a number of oil tankers and at least nine unspecified Iranian naval vessels: three at Bandar Khomeini in January 1982, two in the Khowr-e-Musa waterway in May, two at the northern end of the Gulf, and two near the island of Khur Mussa in August—location of a recently developed Iranian naval facility.
Kuwait: Kuwait's maritime forces are still nominally a coast guard. Eight missile boats (six “TNC-45s” and two “FPB-57s”) and six hovercraft (“SRN-6” Mk-8s) remain on order, with delivery of all planned by the end of this year. The first “TNC-45,” Werjiya, was launched in May 1982.
With Iraqi ports closed because of the war with Iran. Kuwait’s port fa-
These two 65-foot Swiftships-built patrol boats, Al Jarim and Al Jasrah, are recent additions to Bahrain's navy.
cilities in 1982 continued to handle large volumes of cargo bound for Iraq, despite Iran’s obvious displeasure. In an apparent attempt to secure its sea approaches, Kuwait reportedly installed elements of its army on the islands of Faylakah and Bubiyan.
Bahrain: Bahrain’s coast guard operates many more hulls than its navy, but the navy will have by far the biggest punch with its two “TNC-45” missile boats (each to have four MM- 40 Exocet SSMs) and two “FPB-38” gunboats delivered last March. The “TNC-45s” are scheduled to be delivered (one this year and one in 1984) by Liirssen of West Germany. Bahrain also took delivery of two U. S.- built, 65-foot Swiftship patrol boats in 1982.
The name of one of the “FPB-38s,” Huwar, was the subject of a protest by the Qatari Government last March. The Huwar Islands, just off the coast of Qatar, are claimed by both countries. Qatar also charged that Bahrain had carried out naval exercises within Qatar’s waters. A few days later, however, during a ministerial session of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), the two governments agreed to freeze their dispute over the Huwar Islands.
Bahrain’s multilateral security ties to the GCC in general, and bilateral ties to Saudi Arabia in particular, were strengthened in 1982 as a consequence of an abortive coup attempt in December 1981 which was allegedly linked to Iran. Seventy-three suspects were tried last spring for plotting to overthrow the Bahrain Government.
Qatar: The three Combattante-III missile patrol boats on order from France were launched in June, September, and December 1982. Progress has been made toward deployment of three truck-mounted Exocet coastal defense batteries. An unspecified number and type of additional patrol boats are said to be on order, possibly from West Germany.
United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.): All six Liirssen “TNC-45”-class missile patrol boats are now in service and constitute the Emirates’ most formidable naval assets. The MM-40 Exo- cet-armed boats also mount 76-mm. and 40-mm. guns, and are capable of making more than 40 knots.
The federation’s coast guard has contracted with Watercraft Ltd. (U.K.) for construction of nine Mk-II, 45-foot fast patrol boats. The 26-knot, machine gun-armed craft are being built at Watercraft’s Sussex shipyard and will be shipped as deck cargo to the U.A.E. this year.
Finally, the Emirates’ sea services are augmenting their surveillance capabilities with patrols by two BN-2 Islander maritime patrol aircraft.
Oman: Vosper Thornycroft (U.K ) delivered the first of three 56-meter missile patrol boats to the Sultan's navy in August 1982. The Dhofar, lead unit of the “Province” class, mounts six MM-40 Exocet SSMs, a 76-mm. Oto- Melara gun forward, and a twin 40mm. Breda gun aft. Driven by four Paxman Valenta 18-cylinder diesels, the Dhofar is capable of making 40 knots. The other two “Provinces’ can be expected to join Oman’s navy 111 November of this year and January 1984.
A new Omani contract was revealed in March 1982 for a 2,300-ton landing ship to be built by Brooke Marine. Lowestoft. It will be an improved version of the Al Munassir, now in service and also built by Brooke Marine- The contract package includes spare parts and support services. Brooke Marine also renewed a contract in 198- to convert the yacht/transport Al Said for training and patrol duties.
The acquisition of such larger vessels reflects a requirement for allweather open-ocean capabilities to conduct operations along Oman’s long Arabian Sea coastline. However, such operations—at least in the vicinity ot the border with South Yemen—have been rendered perhaps less critical by virtue of the announced normalization of relations between Oman and South Yemen.
Meanwhile, the United States 's spending $80 million to upgrade the former British air station facilities on Oman’s Masirah Island; an additions $100 million in construction projects may be in the offing. .
South Yemen (People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen; PDRY): A large military headquarters for Soviet forces is under construction in the mountains behind Aden. It is said the headquarters will coordinate activities of all Soviet bloc personnel in South Yemen, as well as provide communications and command facilities for Soviet nava forces operating throughout the Indian Ocean. Coastal defenses in South Yemen are reportedly being upgraded, with the installation of land- based antiship and antiair missiles. Alsu in the Aden area, the Soviets are saic to be developing an amphibious warfare school, perhaps to train forces for insurgency operations in nearby states- According to other sources, the Soviet facilities on the PDRY island ot Socotra are being substantially upgraded. No significant additions were
sile. °f th
interested in acquiring 18 mis- e9uipped fast patrol boats (FPBs)
, , e Cormoran class from the Span- r Puilder Bazan. According to the S**. Saudi Arabia and the United ‘Pes are to provide financial backing r me frigates and FPBs.
I oe off-again, on-again order for two Ppo-class frigates may still be on, financed by an Italian shipbuilding and aKi -n® consortium at highly favor-
abl,
dr;
North Yemen (Yemen Arab Repub- uj; YAR): Two Soviet “Osa-II” mis- 1 e boats were delivered in the spring ° '982. But the government of Pres- er>t AN Abdullah Saleh continues to e Preoccupied with holding the county together in the face of tribalism nd active insurgency by the left-wing ational Democratic Front (NDF). /'Pdand airforces will therefore con- 2* to account for the lion’s share die defense budget and military aid. ( Jordan; Jordan’s port of Aqaba on . e Uulf of Aqaba continues to handle ar§e quantities of supplies and equip- ent for overland shipment to em- o died Iraq. The miniscule Jordanian ea Force is reportedly being aug- ented by three to six 30-meter patrol raft from Greece.
°rth Africa
Apt: Major progress was made in in >' towart* modernizing Egypt’s ag- 8 fleet and diversifying its sources (. suPply. Late in the year, the Egyp- n and Spanish governments were ported to be in the final stages of t eotiating an agreement under which Descubierta-class frigates will be ^ansferred from the Spanish to the -jSyptian Navy this month and in July.
. Egyptians were also understood 0 oe in e interest rates in lieu of the with- b awn Saudi funding, which was the 's of the original order several years 8°. 7 he Egyptian Navy is also rea rtedly negotiating with Italy to buy ew class of 400- to 500-ton corvette 'ch would be designed to Egyptian ^ecifications. The Italian consortium a'S° Prov'^e a nnmber of Spar- '"'Class hydrofoil missile patrol boats. Meanwhile, Egypt has taken deliv- y " °m the People’s Republic of China Wo additional “Romeo”-class sub- ^arines. Apparently, the deal with SjC|jing includes Chinese technical askance in Egypt to refit four of the Vj Romeos” obtained from the So- ^ Union in the 1960s. The other two v,et “Romeos” reportedly are being
cannibalized for that purpose. The net result will be six operational “Romeos” and six "Whiskeys.” The U. S. Navy recently completed a survey of the pressure hulls of the submarines and found them to be safe for operations.
Three of Egypt’s six Ramadan-class missile patrol boats, El Kadessaya, El Yarmouk, and Badr, were accepted respectively in April, May, and June 1982.
Ever keen on extending the life of its aging inventory, the Egyptian Navy has refitted its four “Komar” missile boats with Italian-built CRM 12-cylinder diesels. The United States reportedly has suggested that Egypt’s “Osa-Is” be rearmed with Harpoon SSMs. One “6 October”-class missile boat, which fell overboard while being delivered from England in 1980, has been repaired and is now back in service. In addition, Egypt is building 12 Timsah-class patrol boats at Timsah.
While working to improve its surface and submarine fleets, the Egyptian Navy is making major moves toward the development of an airborne capability. To its six Sea King Mk-47 ASW helicopters (equipped with dipping sonar), the navy is expected to add a squadron of 12 Westland/Sikor- sky SH-61 Commando troop-carrying helos from the United Kingdom. The Egyptian Navy is also looking to acquire some Gazelle and Super Puma helos, and some relatively inexpensive ASW patrol aircraft—perhaps the British Aerospace Coastguarder, a maritime version of the HS-748 equipped with new avionics.
Libya: The fifth of six “Foxtrot” submarines was transferred from the Soviet Union to Libya in February 1982. Other expected deliveries from the Soviets appear to have been slowed, including three “Nanuchka-
Acquisitions such as the Exocet- armed Dhofar, lead ship of three “Province”-class missile boats, strengthen significantly the Omani Navy’s ability to patrol its long Arabian Sea coastline.
II”-class missile corvettes (one delivered in 1981) and two “Koni”-class frigates. The Libyan-Soviet relationship showed signs of strain in 1982. perhaps because of Colonel Qaddafi’s highly visible eccentricities, but more likely because of his country’s faltering economy. Libya’s oil income was expected to be about $10 billion in 1982, compared with $13 billion in 1981 and $24 billion in 1980. Qaddafi’s annual arms bill with Moscow has recently been $3-$4 billion. According to one source, Qaddafi approached Moscow for more time to pay his debts and offered a barter agreement—oil for arms. The Kremlin, desperate for hard currency, apparently refused.
If the delivery status of Soviet-supplied vessels has been in doubt, so the status of French- and ltalian-origin vessels is not. Ten of the French-built Combattante-ll-class missile patrol boats were due to have been completed by the end of 1982, but only five had arrived by the end of the year. The Italians are reportedly building four more 650-ton WWi-class missile corvettes for Libya, with Cantieri Navali Riuniti (CNR) Riva Trigoso, as the contractor. Like the four Wadis now in service with the Libyan Navy, the four new ones will mount Otomat SSMs. The status of seven to 12 more “C-107”-class LCTs and 13 more “SAR-33”-class patrol boats under construction in Turkey is not clear. Two miniature submarines, on order
49
roc<*dinRs / March 1983
them
//s, have been modified to give
first of which was launched m ruary 1982) omit the helo hangar-
unclear is whether Israel will Pr01
Stil'
cure
line-
ing its own submarine production
This “Nanuchka-II” missile corvette, armed with four SS-N-2C missiles and an SA-N-4 missile system, is the third one to join the Algerian Navy.
from Yugoslavia, have not yet “surfaced” in the Libyan inventory.
Tunisia: Three Comhattante-lII
Exocet-armed missile boats remain on order from CMN (Construction Me- caniques de Normandie), with deliveries expected to begin in 1983. The 425-ton boats will be powered by four MTU diesels giving a top speed of 38.5 knots. Two 23-meter fast patrol boats are also said to be on order. The smaller boats may be used to augment efforts against fish poaching by Sicilian fishermen in Tunisian waters.
Though relations were improving between Tunisia and Libya, the Reagan Administration moved to increase foreign military sales (FMS) credits to the country, recommending a rise from $85 million to $140 million in fiscal year 1983. This was consistent with increased aid to the other U. S. friend in the area: Morocco. In the case of Tunisia, Washington's primary interest may be access to Bizerte naval facilities in the event of contingencies in which Libyan or Algerian territory is made available for Soviet use.
Algeria: The Algerian Navy took delivery of its second “Koni”-class frigate in April 1982. The 1,900-ton ship mounts a twin-launch SA-N-4 SAM system, four 76-mm. and four 30-mm. guns, and two 12-barrelled RBUs for ASW. Algeria’s third “Nanuchka-II"- class missile corvette was delivered the following month. Meanwhile, still to be constructed at Algeria’s own facilities at Mers-el-Kebir are four missile boats designed by either Vosper Thornycroft or Brooke Marine. Also pending are orders for two medium landing ships from Brooke Marine. A Soviet “Romeo”-class submarine arrived early in 1982, possibly to provide training for the later transfer of more modern subs.
With about 20 million people (compared to Libya’s three million), Algeria clearly has the potential of becoming one of North Africa’s most consequential military powers. Even though about 10,000 Soviets still work in Algeria—some 3,000 of whom are military advisers—the country is moving in the direction of more genuine neutrality.
Morocco: All four fast patrol boats of the Lazxiga class have been delivered. They displace 420 tons and mount four Exocet SSMs, one 76-mm. gun, and one 40-mm. gun.
The ColonelErrhamani, Morocco’s largest naval vessel, was launched by Bazan of Cartagena, Spain, on 26 February 1982, and was scheduled for delivery in December 1982. The 1,479- ton Descubierta-class frigate carries Exocet SSMs, Aspide SAMs, one 76mm. and two 40-mm. guns, and two types of ASW weapons (one 375-mm. Bofors twin rocket launcher and six Mk-32 torpedo tubes in two triple configurations).
On order are six more “P-92”-type patrol boats. The Moroccans now operate six of the 89-ton, French-built boats.
Most of the Moroccan Navy’s assets are based in Atlantic waters at Tangier, Kenitra, Casablanca, Safi, and Agadir. But there is no indication that the 600-man naval infantry has seen any action in the sporadic seven-year war of independence being waged in the Western Sahara by the Polisario Front. With four amphibious warfare vessels and a limited shore bombardment capability, coastal raids behind guerrilla lines would seem to have been an option, but the Moroccan strategy, at least in recent months, has been basically defensive in nature. Then, too, most Polisario raids have been staged from areas adjacent to the Algerian and Mauritanian borders, we away from the Atlantic coast. Eastern Mediterranean
Israel: According to one report, tne Israeli Navy now intends to procure for its next generation of surface ves
sels a small number of 1,000-to L-
ton corvettes, rather than the 850-to size reported last year. If the Isr^' opt for vessels in the 1,200- to L5< ton range—small frigates—it may we be with ASW in mind. The Libya^ “Foxtrot” submarines are worrisorm- enough. If the Syrians eventually aC^ quire submarines, the subsurface thre will increase. And the Egyptians, wi a dozen diesel boats, may not alway^ be as friendly as they are now. As * mid-term expedient, the first six S°a class boats, long ago redesignated Saa an ASW capability (towed sonar an two tubes for Mk-46 torpedoes)-
The new Israeli corvette/frigate-size
vessels would undoubtedly be mu purpose, probably mounting a mi* Harpoon and Gabriel SSMs and gun .’ along with ASW systems. An on-boa helo is also a good bet for over-t ^ horizon detection, identification. jn fire control. The appearance of range antiship missiles in the terranean, such as the 98-nautical mi e range Otomats in the Libyan Navjj are likely to lead to more embar 'e Israeli helos to augment the ->m squadron of shore-based Westwind Scan maritime reconnaissance aircr
Another plausible explanation ^ the contemplated step-up in sll“‘j i vessel size (in addition to an ad ASW role) is the apparent detrimen ^ effects on seakeeping of the helicoP hangar on the two Saar-Vs (A”-' class). As reported last year, the low-on Aliy ah-class missile boats t
fift't n/Kioh n;oc lonn/'hpn 111 ^ ..i
the expensive U. S. Vulcan Phala close-in weapon system, or persis its own development of a twin 30-m PCM-30 antiaircraft gun system- A being developed for shipboard misS defense is the Barak semiactive-h° ing SAM, scheduled to enter serV in 1985. - js
There is also a report that Isrm-
interested in building submarines-
50
Proceedings / March 1 *
rael presumably would attempt to ma^ a deal with an established submari builder for the design work and Pc^ sibly the first unit or two before opL
A Potentially prickly political prob- 111 was finessed with the occupation
For the Israeli Navy, 1982 was a Year of extensive combat operations !n conjunction with the invasion of ebanon. No reports have been seen concerning any actions at sea between e Israelis and Lebanese or Syrian naval units. But there were numerous rePorts of shore bombardment by Israeli gunboats in June, July, and August 1982 in support of operations ashore all the way up and down the ebanese coast from southern Leba- n°n to Beirut.
Also in the Lebanon war, the Isle's mounted major amphibious andings (north of Tyre and Sidon) for ae first time in the course of envel- °P|ng operations against coastal cits- Putting tanks ashore in at least one ase- One report indicated that as a esult of the demonstrated value of Is- .aeI s modest amphibious capability, Sraeli shipyards will be asked to build I a handful of new landing craft of a ,arger size” than are currently in the jWentory. In addition to the major ‘ rnPhibious landings, numerous naval °uimando raids against the Lebanese °ast were reported.
.‘'be other major development of 1982 uh naval ramifications was the final Se of Israeli withdrawal from the nai in compliance with provisions of e Camp David Accords. As part of e withdrawal operation completed (,n 25 April 1982, the Israelis gave up cir naval base at Sharm el-Sheikh at ® uiouth of the Gulf of Aqaba. The lssile boats based there were rede- ^°yed to the Mediterranean, while the class small patrol boats were jCrjI to join those already at Eilat. Three •|,ahan Navy vessels are patrolling the (.lran Strait as part of the multina- nal Sinai peacekeeping force.
of Tiran Island in the throat of the Gulf of Aqaba by a contingent of Americans from the peacekeeping force. In 1954, King Saud of Saudi Arabia leased the island and adjacent Sanafir Island to President Nasser of Egypt for the purpose of blockading Israel’s access to its port of Eilat. In 1956 and 1967, Israel captured the islands and broke the blockade. During the discussions over the international observer force, the Saudis lodged a claim with Egypt for the return of Tiran Island to which Egypt never replied. Meanwhile, Israel warned the United States and Egypt that it would not withdraw from Tiran if the island were to revert to Saudi control. It was finally decided to treat Tiran in the same way as Sharm el-Sheikh.
Two final matters regarding the Israeli Navy require comment. First, the status of the Israeli-U. S. memorandum of understanding concerning strategic cooperation is still in doubt following Israel's unilateral annexation of the Golan Heights. There have been signs, however, that some aspects of the agreement may be operational. Then-U. S. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Thomas Hayward visited Haifa in May 1982 to watch an Israeli naval exercise and to inspect local facilities. The admiral disclosed that U. S. and Israeli sailors were training together and that the U. S. Navy was keeping an eye on Libyan and Syrian naval activities, implying coordination with the Israeli Navy.
Secondly, one aspect of Israeli naval procurement remains unclear, namely the Flagstaff-11 hydrofoil program. Despite persistent reports of developmental problems with the prototype, Shimrit, delivery of the U. S.- built vessel has proceeded; fitting out of the second class, Livrit, is apparently going ahead at Haifa. The two hydrofoils are expected to undergo two years of evaluation before a final decision is made on whether to order nine or ten more.
Lebanon: After a minor flurry of small patrol craft acquisitions in 198081, Lebanon received no new naval craft in 1982. Early last year (24 January 1982), Lebanese media reported the sinking of two unarmed Lebanese fishing boats and the damaging of five others in an attack by “an Israeli warship and its gunboat escorts,” inside Lebanon’s territorial waters off the port of Tyre. Israel denied the reports.
Syria: Included in a 1981 arms deal with the Soviet Union are four “Nan- uchka-II”-class missile corvettes. Displacing 780 tons, the export version of the design is normally armed with four SS-N-2C “Styx” antiship missiles, an SA-N-4 system forward, and a twin 57-mm. gun aft. These ships have yet to be delivered.
South Asia
India: After prolonged delays and uncertainties, the Indian Government has finally gone ahead with a contract to procure four “Type-1500” submarines from the West German firm Howaldtswerke. Under the agreement, the German shipyard will build the first two boats, with the other pair to be built under license at Mazagon Docks, Bombay. The contract provides for delivery of material supplies for the Bombay construction operations, some transfer of technology, and the training of Indian shipbuilding personnel as well as the submarine crews. The signing of the agreement was reportedly delayed by Indian hesitations over costs, provisions for spare parts, and design specifications.
The "Type-1500” design is a modification and improvement of the German “Type-209” class. The “1500s” will displace about 1,500 tons, with a hull diameter of 6.5 meters and a length of 64.4 meters, dimensions said to give them greater underwater range, and better acoustical characteristics than the standard “209s;” they will also have a greater diving depth. The
Morocco’s four fast patrol boats of the Lazaga class are now in service. They are not likely to see action, however, in the continuing war for independence being waged by the Polisario Front in the Western Sahara.
ocean'
Dr. Dowdy is a Research Associate at I University’s Centre for Foreign Policy — . or. Halifax, Nova Scotia. He is currently c0^
India has received at least three 11-38 “May" naval patrol aircraft (right) from the Soviet Union. These aircraft give a new dimension to the Indian Navy and further ensure that it will remain the dominant regional naval force in South Asian waters.
“1500” design includes the 1KL personnel rescue system, which uses a detaching rescue capsule to accommodate the entire crew in an emergency. India has specified Italian torpedoes for the submarines, presumably the A-184. According to one report, the boats may be fitted with U. S. fire control and electronic countermeasure systems.
Meanwhile, the Indian Navy has taken delivery from the Soviets of the second of three modified “Kashin"- class guided missile destroyers—the Rana. Third of the class. Ranjit. is scheduled for delivery during 1983. Reports persist that three additional “Kashins” have been ordered.
India’s one aircraft carrier, the 19,500-ton Vikrant, was recommissioned on 3 January 1982, exactly three years after she was decommissioned for a major refit. The work, which included the updating of all sensors and weapon systems, is intended to extend the life of the carrier for an additional ten years. The Vikrant will again be decommissioned in mid-1983 to be fitted with a ski-jump and other equipment for Sea Harrier aircraft, eight of which began delivery late in 1982. Removal of her steam catapult at the same time will mean an end to Vikrant's fixed-wing operations. In the meantime, the ship’s squadron of refurbished Alize ASW aircraft is embarked.
Admiral Oscar Dawson, Chief of Staff of the Indian Navy, has publicly supported the idea of additional carriers. Speculation centers on the possibility that a second carrier may be built in an Indian yard in the late 1980s. According to one newspaper report, the Soviets are eager to sell the Indians one of their carrier designs. HMS Hermes was once said to have been under consideration for purchase by the Indian Navy.
India’s coast guard continues to undergo substantial growth. In April 1982, the Customs Marine Organization and its equipment, vessels, and crews were officially merged with the coast guard. The Indian Government recently allotted $125 million to further expand the service by 1984.
Despite a March 1982 visit to India by Soviet Defense Minister Dimitri F. Ustinov and a high-powered delegation of senior Soviet military officers, including Admiral Gorshkov, the Indians seem to be moving toward greater diversification in their arms purchases. Whether the German submarine deal and the purchase of British Sea Harriers represent the beginning of a trend toward acquisition of more Western naval technology after a period of heavy reliance on the Soviets remains to be seen. The ultimate Indian objective probably remains achievement of maximum self-reliance and minimization of foreign acquisitions from whatever source.
Pakistan: Ex-British “County”-class destroyer, HMS London, was transferred to the Pakistani Navy in 1982. Recommissioned the Babur on 24 March, the 19-year-old ship sailed for Pakistan on 9 June to replace a 38- year-old cruiser of the same name (ex- HMS Diadem). The “new” Babur mounts two quad launchers for Seacat SAMs, four 4.5-inch guns (in two twin mounts forward), and two single-mount 20-mm. guns. The 5,440-ton ship can accommodate one embarked helicopter, and has assumed her predecessor’s role as cadet training ship.
Also transferred to the Pakistani Navy in 1982 was one ex-U. S. “Gearing”-class destroyer making a total force of five Gearings. However, the main offensive punch still consists of six French-built submarines (two Agostas and four Daphnes). Most other surface assets are Chinese-origin patrol boats. All but four of the Pakistani light units lack antiship missiles, a substantial disadvantage in today’s naval environment.
Although the U. S. Congress has passed a five-year $3.2 billion military and economic aid package for Pakistan, its navy is unlikely to get much of it, since the sea service is traditionally third in priority behind the land and air forces. One potential spinoff for the navy, however, is an enhanced
airborne early warning capability- T L Pakistani Air Force is reporte y seeking to obtain several E-2C Ha" eye AEW aircraft as part of the U. ■ military aid package. .
Bangladesh: A third ex-British fng' ate was acquired in 1982. HMS L> was transferred to Bangladesh on - March 1982 and renamed the Abu Bo '• The mid-1950s’ “Type-41” friS3.^ mounts four 4.5-inch guns in two tw mounts and one 40-mm. gun. The s£c ond major acquisition of the year ^ the Chinese-built, “Romeo’ 'c ‘lSn
submarine Durjoy, commissioned
10 September. he
Also commissioned in 1982 was new 30-meter patrol boat Shajala. F‘ more of the 160-ton Japanese-built p‘ trol craft are on order. The Bangladesh Navy also operates eight Chinese “Shanghai II”-class gu boats (four of which arrived dur' 1982), two ex-Yugoslav ‘‘KralJe ica”-class patrol boats, two ex-Indu Ajay-class patrol boats, one Brttis built patrol boat (sunk during the I war, but salvaged and recorwy sioned in 1978), five riverine Pat craft, and four auxiliaries.
Sri Lanka: Although currently c° sisting entirely of small patrol boa ‘ the 3,200-man Sri Lankan Navy pects to receive the former USS >l ^ ica (ATA-178) to provide an going patrol capability. The num of Pradeepa-class, 20-meter patrol cf built at the Colombo Dockyard ^ creased to seven during 1982, ar,d same facility expects to deliver 40-mm. boats during 1983. A sd1^ cargo ship, the Lanka Kanthi, has bL^ acquired to provide training serchjp- and is operated by the Ceylon S ping Corporation. On the debit si the last of the “101 ’’-class patrol cx built in Singapore in the 1960s disposed of last year.
t DalhollsiC . Stud|CS'
ing a book. Regional Navies of the India'1 and coediting the volume. The India'1 < <l Perspectives on a Strategic Arena.