I
During the present war the smaller, sea-faring Allied nations have played their parts nobly on the seven seas of the world. The Netherlands and Norway have lived up to their great naval traditions and Russians, Greeks, Poles, and Belgians have proved themselves intrepid sailors. While Dutch and Norwegian men-of-war have fought well, wherever required, the commanders and sailors of their large merchant marines have proved themselves equally valuable allies and are proving themselves of the highest value to the Allied Cause in the carrying of food, fuel, arms, and ammunition. .
The task of the Dutch Navy was two-fold, guard duty in home waters and the protection of the Dutch East Indies, the latter being considered the more important duty. Dutch naval officers alternated their three years of service at home with three years in the Far East.
At the outbreak of the war the Royal Netherlands Navy comprised a number of smaller but modern ships, distributed as follows: 3 light cruisers, 8 destroyers, and 24 submarines, the remaining tonnage including torpedo boats, mine sweepers, coast-guard vessels, patrol boats, etc. Three more cruisers, 4 destroyers and 6 submarines were under construction.
The finished vessels have fought in home waters, the North Sea, the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and above all in the Far East, where the losses in defense of the East Indies have been the greatest.
Very few of the men-of-war were caught at home by the suddenness of the German invasion. Even unfinished vessels, barely able to navigate, left port and either under their own power or by the help of others, were able to reach English ports for completion.
The principal Dutch naval base was at Den Helder in the northwestern corner of Holland while a few vessels were stationed at Rotterdam and Flushing.
The Commander in Chief was and is Lieutenant Admiral J. T. Furstner, who is likewise Minister of Marine, directing his Navy from his headquarters in London, while Vice-Admiral C. E. L. Helfrich operates the Eastern fleet under the British command of Admiral Somerville at Ceylon. Admiral Helfrich has spent over twenty years in active service in East Indian waters. Lieutenant Admiral Furstner is one of half a dozen Dutch sailors to carry the proud title born by Van Tromp and De Ruyter. His vessels operate under the optional control of the various British Commanders in Chief.
Most of the Dutch men-of-war have been built in the Rotterdam, Amsterdam, or Flushing yards.
The Dutch Navy, similar to ours, has its own air force, distinct from that of the Army. It serves under the coastal command of the Royal Air Force.
At the beginning of the war the Netherlands fleet was at full war-time strength and no new recruiting was declared necessary, as a large number of conscripts and reservists had been called up and retained in service.
The larger part of the Merchant Marine, including the principal vessels of the Netherlands Line, the Rotterdam Lloyd, and the Royal Packet Navigation Company were requisitioned by the Navy the moment the war broke out.
Though suffering cruel losses the Netherlands’ Navy has to date sunk in the Indian waters alone 14 Japanese tankers and supply ships, 3 destroyers and a submarine, in addition to which there have been 12 direct hits on 8 further vessels. In the Mediterranean, some 10-12 Axis vessels have been sunk. A sizable contribution to the Allied cause!
II
In the early morning of the tenth of May, 1940, sleeping Holland was aroused by swarms of airplanes dropping parachute troops on The Hague, Rotterdam, and other important strategical points. The home Navy was busied with patrol duty, in order to attempt to maintain its neutrality in the war between Germany and the British Empire. As we now look back upon it, it seems almost incomprehensible that the Netherlands then still firmly believed Germany would not attack her, any more than she had during 1914-18.
Nevertheless such was the case, perhaps as a consequence of the Dutch refusing to imagine what they could not see, as also of their sure conviction that their government had given no provocation for aggression. It was also a consequence of the cunning measures taken by the German Government for the purpose of misleading its victims.
Shortly before the invasion, Germany made deliveries to Holland of a number of anti-aircraft guns which had been ordered several months previously. Germany likewise offered to make delivery, from her own supply, of another Dutch order of field artillery, so that the Dutch might at once commence training with the new type of cannon. These were received in April, 1940, with a small amount of ammunition. What is more logical than that some of the members of the Netherlands General Staff should thus have believed that no attack was planned? The Germans surely would not deliver cannons with which to have their own planes shot down! In reality the small number of cannons delivered, just before the invasion, could do nothing against the attack of hundreds of planes.
The Netherlands Navy was however prepared for defense against an attack from the sea and when, on the tenth of May, 1940, the invasion came exclusively by land and air, the smaller ships stationed on the Dutch rivers and canals were armed as speedily as possible by seagoing craft of the Northern coast. The fortified base of Den Helder resisted successfully the German attack, the crossing of German troops was hindered on the Zuyder Zee, and seagoing torpedo and motor boats went into action on the river Maas, in front of Rotterdam. In the end the swarms of German dive bombers which attacked the Dutch vessels in these narrow waters were victorious. The 1,500-ton torpedo boat Van Galen succumbed gloriously after 31 dive-bomber attacks. The torpedo boat Z5, which underwent 87 bombing attacks on the Maas, had an equally heroic fight and, after receiving fresh ammunition when her stores were exhausted, made her escape. In the north of Holland, various vessels were sunk, including the Johan Maurits van Nassau.
Admiral Furstner, as Chief of the Naval Staff, was informed by the Army Staff that it was forced to consider capitulation. He ordered all ships afloat to leave Dutch waters for British ports so as to be able from there to continue the struggle. About 35 vessels of sizes varying from a 7,000- ton light cruiser to a 37-ton torpedo boat departed for England. With them went also the unfinished torpedo boat Isaac Sweers,1 towed from its Flushing wharf to England. Three new 1,000-ton submarines, which were almost ready for their trials, also put to sea and arrived in England in good order. All vessels got through the many German magnetic mine fields immediately dropped by planes in Dutch waters.
1 The Isaac Sweers later took part in the action of a British cruiser division in which two Italian cruisers were sunk and was finally sunk during our North African landing operations.
The Dutch Navy’s first task in England was to regroup its vessels and refill their empty ammunition chambers. It may well be proud of having accomplished this in ten days’ time and taken its posts in the Thames Estuary among the vessels prepared to repulse any enemy attempt at an English invasion, which seemed likely, after the rapid course of military events in Belgium and Northern France.
Some of the Dutch Naval Air Force had also escaped and began at once their convoy duty along the southwest coast of England.
From that time on Dutch men-of-war under “Operational Control” of the various British Commanders in Chief have participated in the fighting in British waters. Losses, especially of submarines off the Norwegian coast, and of planes during the attacks on German convoys off both the Norwegian and Netherlands coasts, have been borne with the stoicism of the sailor. The British have given many proofs of their appreciation of the manner in which the Netherlands’ Navy has fought and is fighting in British waters. A Dutch Naval Academy has been opened in England, first for cadets escaped from Holland, and now also for many who escaped from Java.
In other parts of the world, Netherlands men-of-war have been fighting ever since the day their country was so treacherously invaded. In the West Indies and the Caribbean the vessels operated under the British, until the United States entered the war, when the operational control was taken over by the American flag officers commanding the Allied Naval Forces in those waters. Operating there among others, was the Netherlands gunboat Van Kinsbergen. During the latter part of 1940 this vessel accounted for sixty thousand tons of enemy shipping.
Before the Netherlands declared war upon Japan,2 the important part of the Dutch Navy stationed in the Indies did convoy duty in the Far East similarly to the British Navy. A number of Netherlands submarines collaborated with the British from Singapore after the occupation by the Japanese of French Indo-China. The day after declaring war, Netherlands submarines operated in the Gulf of Siam against Japanese transports sinking the first four of them on December 13.
The following day a Netherlands submarine sank, near Malakka, a Japanese supply ship and a tanker, so that in the first week of war, the Dutch were justified in boasting “A ship a day.” On December 17, when the Japanese landed in North Borneo, two planes from the Dutch naval air force scored direct hits on Japanese cruisers and four near-hits on other enemy vessels. In the second week 1 Japanese destroyer, 3 transports, and 1 tanker were sunk by Dutch submarines, while their naval planes attacked in Davao and sank a Japanese tanker.
The first achievements were thus encouraging. As soon, however, as superior Japanese forces arrived, and particularly in the air, heavy Dutch losses could no longer be prevented. At a later date when British-Dutch-American naval co-operation had been effected the Netherlands Navy once more scored successes. This was the case in the Macassar Strait action and the heavy attack two days later by the U. S. destroyers and Dutch vessels on a Japanese transport fleet. The fight in the Bandoeing Strait, where four U. S. destroyers and the Dutch cruisers De Ruyter, Java, and Van Tromp attacked, did much to give time to thoroughly destroy the oil fields and refineries.
2 The Dutch declaration of war was received in Tokyo prior to the British.
When it at last became clear that both Java and the Malay barrier were gravely imperiled, Dutch men-of-war, acting jointly with the U. S. and British cruisers and destroyers, were made full use of. The Netherlands felt it was necessary to do their utmost to challenge the large but extremely vulnerable transport fleet. A night action was planned, in the belief that this would afford greater chance of success against the superior Japanese forces.
As the chances seemed reasonably good, the Dutch insisted upon running the risk, urging that a successful attack might aid in holding the Malay barriers and greatly improve the Allies’ position in the future struggle in the Pacific.
The Dutch hopes unfortunately proved vain. In the Battle of the Java Sea, the Dutch cruisers De Ruyter and Java went down as well as seven of their destroyers. The United States lost the cruiser Houston and the destroyer Pope. The damaged Marblehead had been withdrawn before. The British lost the cruiser Exeter and the destroyers Encounter, Jupiter, and Electra.
Since the loss of the island of Java, Netherlands men-of-war have continued fighting in the East from bases in Australia and Colombo. The Netherlands ships in Australia are under General MacArthur’s command.
After the Battle of Java, where the Netherlands Navy has been described as having “fought itself to death,” Queen Whilhelmina sent it the following message:
I feel compelled to pay tribute, with you all, to the brilliant achievements of the Netherlands’ fleet in the Netherlands East Indies, which, in its attack on overwhelming forces, held high the honor of our flag and inflicted, with our Allies, heavy losses upon the enemy. The spirit of our great past is thus being kept alive. Our Navy has always proved its worth in glorious feats of arms and everywhere compelled respect for our Tricolor. . ..
We know at this time that our losses have been heavy. But I am convinced that I am expressing what is in the hearts of all true patriots when I say: “Our fleet will re-arise stronger than ever.”
The days of the “sea-beggars” are not past.
III
The German fleet invaded Norway during the night of April 8-9, 1940. The Norwegian naval defense was divided into fleet and coast artillery. All seafaring men between the ages of 20 and 44 were subject to call and 6 months’ service. The Navy consisted of four 4,000-ton gunboats, 11 mine layers, 7 destroyers, 21 torpedo boats, 7 coast-guard vessels, 9 submarines, and a number of smaller vessels.
Almost this entire fleet went down fighting gallantly in their attempt to balk the invaders. But its sacrifice cost Germany about one-quarter of her Navy.
Since that disastrous April night, the Norwegian Navy has been practically rebuilt in British yards, the British being fully aware that it was well worth their while to provide Norwegian sailors with fighting ships. Today the Norwegian Navy consists of over 60 principally light vessels, manned by 4,350 officers and men. Among these are 5 destroyers,3 4 gunboats, about 36 mine sweepers and convoy vessels. Some 850 sailors act as gunners on board Norway’s many merchantmen.
Norway boasts that her Navy has today more men-of-war than any other, with the exception of the United States, Great Britain, and Japan. The character and skill of her seamen are the glory of the Norwegian Merchant Marine. They come from every walk of life. As 60 per cent of the people live in the coastal districts, most of them know the sea intimately from childhood.
3 Four of these being from among those handed over to Great Britain by the U. S.
The Norwegian Merchant Marine, despite a loss by torpedoing or capture of about 1,600,000 tons, totals some 4,400,000 tons, the fourth largest in the world in actual size, but by far the largest in proportion to the population, of 1.53 gross tons per capita, as compared to that of 0.36 for Great Britain. Sixty-four per cent of the Norwegian tonnage is in fine, modern motor ships.
When Germany invaded Norway there were about a thousand of her merchant ships scattered all over the world, not counting those in Norwegian or Axis-controlled ports. Not one of them was deceived by the wireless order from Nazi- held Oslo to return home. They proceeded without exception to British or Allied ports. All have been requisitioned by their Government and with their 25,000 men are controlled by the Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission’s London and New York offices. Over half of the oil and gasoline needed by Great Britain is carried by these vessels.
Said the British Minister of Shipping:
Norway’s contribution to the Allied Merchant fleet is of decisive importance, considered either in terms of ships or in the men who man them. The enemy is doing his utmost to destroy our sea lanes The men who man the Norwegian ships stand in the front line of the battle.
Up to date the Norwegian Merchant Marine has lost some 230 ships and 2,400 seamen.
The Navy had no separate air force. The air strength consisted of about 100 old planes. Those not shot down in Norway’s resistance flew over to England, where most of the 300 Norwegian aviators eventually arrived.
The Norwegian Navy operates today throughout the world. It has bases in Great Britain, Canada, Ireland, and Australia. Ever since the summer of 1940 it has had ships on duty in the Caribbean. Other units have been active in the Mediterranean, others again on patrol duty in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, operating from a South African base.
Like the Netherlands, Norway believed childishly in the impossibility of a German invasion. So little did Norway consider German treachery that when the German troop transport Rio de Janeiro was torpedoed on the Norwegian coast by the Polish submarine Orzel, Norwegian ships and planes rushed to the assistance of the sinking German vessel. The little country had always shown her powerful neighbor hospitality. And then, there was the strong and alert British fleet to block the Skagerrak and Kattegat and the western coast between Germany and Norway. As a consequence the invasion came as a thunderbolt and so suddenly it proved too late even to lay protecting mine fields. All that remained was for the tiny and practically helpless Norwegian vessels to clear for action and fight to the finish along the thousands of miles of their coast. This they did.
The naval personnel as well as the Coast Guard had been mobilized for some months prior to the German attack. The fighting started with minor engagements between smaller Norwegian coast guard vessels and submarines which were naturally quickly disposed of by the advancing German battle fleet, not however until the Norwegians had sunk a couple of smaller German vessels, a destroyer, and several supply and troop ships. The real conflict began as it became light on April 9, when the German naval force entered the narrows of the inner portion of the Oslo fiord and the fortresses there opened fire. The German cruiser Blücher went down. The cruiser Emden fared little better and was put out of action, while the cruiser Gneisenau turned turtle in the fiord and in so doing took with her the heads of the proposed administrative staff, designed to “take over” Norway, as well as the Gestapo leaders. The cruiser Königsberg was so badly damaged at the entrance to Bergen that British bombers were able to sink her somewhat later, while the cruiser Karlsruhe was sunk by the guns of the Kristiansand fortress. Two mine sweepers were likewise sent to the bottom. These were humiliating blows for the German Navy!
Oslo was not taken from the sea but by the hundreds of bombing planes which had the capital entirely at their mercy.
Not only did the German ships meet unexpected resistance in the Oslo fiord but all along the coast, at Kristiansand, Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim, and Narvik. These principal coastal towns were attacked simultaneously and their defense, whether in vessels or fortresses, once reduced, large detachments of troops and material were landed.
One of the most gallant fights took place at Narvik by the small, 40-year-old Norwegian gunboat Norge, which at once cleared for action as nine large German destroyers entered the harbor. The Norwegian sailors continued fighting in the blinding snowstorm, until their ship was literally blown to bits, as was its companion the Eidsvold, and most of its crew was gone.
In describing the harbor of Narvik, the Norwegian Commander, Commodore Askim, of the Norge said:
Narvik harbor became a gruesome sight. About thirty-five vessels of various kinds and sizes, some at the docks and some in the harbor, had gone to the bottom. Stacks and masts were sticking out, and the water was covered with ashes, soot and oil. . . . The steamship docks and all the buildings on and near them were a mass of ruins.4
4 This was subsequent to the British bombardment and punishment of the German destroyers.
The Commodore went down with his vessel, was picked up by the Germans, and regained consciousness in a shore hospital. The eventual retaking of Narvik by the British liberated him. The vessel on which he sailed for England was torpedoed, but he was again picked out of the ocean and is today the Norwegian Naval Attaché in Washington.
Some of the Norwegian vessels still afloat along the shores entered the fiords to continue their fight there. Such of the crews as survived and reached shore joined the nearest troops fighting in the valleys and on the mountains. A number of them eventually reached England to there form the nucleus of the naval command and to lead in the continued fight of the Norwegian Navy. They are commanded by Admiral E. Corneliussen.
With the help of Great Britain the Norwegian Government is today doing its utmost to re-develop its Navy in the hard, but the best school, that of war. Men are not only being trained in Halifax, but a temporary naval academy has been established in England and many a young Norwegian midshipman is learning his lessons in actual combat aboard British men-of-war.
Technical personnel as well as seamen are likewise trained in English schools.
Every Norwegian sailor is at the front. It is a Norwegian front as well as a united front of the free nations, for he is fighting under the Norwegian flag and a Government and sailor King of his own choosing.