Training means the acquisition of skill in automatically and correctly performing a standard task such as:
- Operating a typewriter
- Spelling words correctly
- Stripping and assembling a machine gun
- Close order drill
- Preparation of field orders in accordance with a standard form
- Correct methods of presenting instruction; and a host of other tasks upon which the smooth operation of the Army and Navy depends.
Education means the mental and moral development of the individual to the point where he can and will meet new or unusual problems by:
- Assembling the necessary facts and theories in the case
- Analyzing the facts and placing them in their true order of importance
- Arriving at a logical decision
- Carrying his decision into effect.
When the average person begins the study of any new subject, he rapidly acquires a certain amount of information and skill, sometimes without any great effort. In order for him to acquire a higher order of skill in the subject, or the ability to meet new and unusual situations, it is necessary for him to put forth long and sustained effort. After the initial degree of skill is acquired the student finds that for a time no further improvement is noted and an actual retrogression may set in. When we plot “skill acquired” against “effort expended” we get a learning curve with a very distinct plateau. Students frequently get discouraged at this point and lose interest or drop the subject. Both teacher and pupil should realize that the learning plateau is a normal obstacle and can be crossed by putting forth the necessary effort, which depends upon the student’s natural ability and his basic training in that subject. The teacher must stimulate the interest of the student at this period in order to get him to put forth the required effort. With increased knowledge of any subject comes increasing interest and greater ease of learning. When this stage of education is reached the student becomes his own best teacher.
The first objective of military and naval education must be the acquisition of a sufficient degree of skill, on the part of every individual, to enable him to perform his routine duty with reasonable skill and the minimum of effort. Then every leader must be educated to meet new and un usual situations as they arise to confront him and his men.
In order to avoid wastage of human material and excess cost by the government, the opportunity for education made available to leaders and prospective leaders should be in accordance with that individual’s natural ability, aptitude, and probable usefulness.
In civil life teachers are usually appointed because they have established a reputation for knowledge of a particular subject, or because they have passed an examination in the subject. The service schoolmaster may know a great deal or nothing about the subject he is required to teach. Whatever his preparation he must make a good showing before the class, for in no phase of military life is failure so quickly detected as in the classroom. Due to the constant recurrence and great importance of this duty, every officer and non-commissioned officer must prepare himself to discharge his duty with credit to himself.
Suppose you are designated to teach a subject about which you know little. What can you do to prepare yourself? Let us answer this question by making a tabulation of the proper sequence of our actions in this case.
- If you know a man who is an authority on that subject consult him. If no such man is available to you, secure several authoritative books on the subject. (Do not follow one book blindly.)
- Determine the important parts of the subject and where they affect you and the class.
- Study the whole subject to get a good grasp of the high points.
- Decide what subject matter you will cover in your teaching, then learn the details.
- Follow standard practice in your teaching technique.
Good teaching requires that the student apperceive the subject through as many senses as possible. “Tell him about it, show it to him, make him use it,” is not a bad motto to follow in deciding upon your instruction material. Suitable material for instruction purposes can be obtained by requisition, swapping, begging, or native ingenuity.
Service students usually take enough interest in a subject to make a passing grade. The ambitious instructor attempts to create and maintain a far higher standard of interest. This is a problem in applied psychology that each instructor must work out for himself.
The service instructor must know his subject in a large way as well as the details and principles he teaches his classes. Lacking that knowledge upon appointment, he must acquire it for the occasion, no matter how much energy is required- Having mastered the subject himself he is in a position to help his more able students do original study in the subject; by assisting them with references, consulting with them on the progress of their work, and checking their conclusions. In service schools original work on the part of students is frequently limited to monographs- The instructor (in military as well as civilian schools) all too frequently uses the student to do pick and shovel work for himself, rather than leading the student to do critical original work, which is the mark of the really able teacher.
When the instructor appears before any class he should know exactly what instruction he wishes to give and how he intends to do it. His own appearance and actions should be such as to keep the attention of the class on the subject and not draw it to himself by some eccentricity of dress or manner. He must exhibit a confidence in what he says and be enthusiastic about his subject, otherwise he can expect only the minimum response from his students.
It is evident that there is neither time nor human energy available to the military student to learn all the facts or master all the theories dealing with all the numerous subjects he must study; hence the instructor must choose the topics assigned for classroom discussion. Only those facts that are of paramount importance need be learned, but the student must know when and how he can obtain other facts when needed. Rather than spend too much time in memorizing facts; the principles, laws, and theories should be studied and understood. For instance, you are holding a class in individual gas protection for non-commissioned officers. It is necessary that each student know how to adjust his mask, how to inject it, how to wear it, how to make certain emergency repairs, what its limitations and capabilities are, and how to conduct gas mask drill. Therefore, point °ut these things and show him how they are_ done. Eliminate all extraneous material, such as cost of mask, weight of rubber and other components, methods of test, and a host of other things that various other people need to know. Select acts and theories for class presentation for study) according to the needs of the Uidividuals concerned.
The student must connect the subject and item under study with what he already knows, and the most effective way to do this is by analogy. Hence the teacher should show the object (if an item of material), or write the topic on the blackboard in large letters. He should explain how it works, what it is for, what its possibilities and limitations are, and give other pertinent facts according to the needs of the student. His explanations and descriptions may be illustrated by cross- sectional models, by sketches, by large-size drawings, by animated movie cartoons, by animated models operating at slow speed, and by appropriate anecdotes, illustrative stories or parables. No matter an how technical the machine, nor how deep and involved the principle or theory, the good teacher explains the subject in the best possible words and illustrates it with analogies that the student is sure to appreciate and understand. The application of the illustrative example to the particular point which it is desired to explain must be made in unmistakable fashion.
Every teacher needs to be well supplied with pertinent examples as well as other illustrative material as an aid to his instruction.
Repetition is the test of good teaching. Repetition and drill are absolutely necessary in order to fix new facts and theories in the mind of students. Repetition should be accomplished by changing the viewpoint and the words used from time to time, as well as the examples, parables, and illustrative problems. New facts and theories escape easily when first learned so that the important points to be fixed in the student’s mind must be repeated over a period of time.
In our own experience we find not less than ten repetitions necessary in order to fix any new fact or theory in the mind of the brightest students. Probably twenty repetitions will be necessary for the average student before he knows the fact or theory well enough to use it as a tool for further study. Students of less mental capacity need even more repetitions. The good teacher needs patience, and patience spelled with capital letters. He also needs variety in his presentation so that students do not become tired of hearing the same words over and over.
When the facts or theories being presented are closely allied to those already mastered by the student, only two or three repetitions may be necessary.
In order to make the best use of the limited time available, a large class should be divided into sections based upon the mental ability of the students or their prior knowledge of the subject. A lecture should always close with a survey and summary of the important facts and theories covered. Conferences and reviews should follow a lecture on every subject. Conference problems should be worked out in the greatest detail to show the student how the subject matter should be applied. Type problems should then be given the student for solution. In this sequence we get the necessary repetition in an interesting and progressive manner while increasing the students’ interest in the subject.
As indicated in the preceding paragraph, student practice is an essential in the study of any subject. Theoretical knowledge is of little value unless we are able to apply it. Hence problems and exercises for student practice need to be furnished by the teacher in any subject. Such problems must be graded in difficulty to meet the ability of the individual. If the student finds the problems too difficult or too easy, he is likely to lose interest in the subject at this stage. So the good teacher supplies students with problems and exercises as individuals and offers help, comment, and criticism on an individual basis. This procedure, of course, means much more work for the teacher than to assign the same problem to all members of the class. But the application of the tutorial method to instruction when using problems for student practice is far and away the most effective way of teaching. In this way odious comparisons between individuals are eliminated; each student is put on his mettle and acquires skill in the subject as rapidly as he is able, without being held back by less able individuals. Student practice is frequently best presented in the form of supervised study periods of considerable length.
Examinations are (or should be) given to:
- Determine the degree of qualification of the student.
- Point out to the teacher where his instruction has not been satisfactory.
One or more study and conference periods should be scheduled following the examination, so that students who have deficiencies may have additional instruction, while qualified students should be permitted to do further study on important problems of the subject.
Every teacher needs to make a thorough study of applied psychology and physiology, as these subjects pertain to the learning and teaching process. He needs to know many of the “tricks of the trade in presenting instruction, selecting illustrations and illustrative examples, Preparing problems, classroom management, and the supervision of study.
Regardless of the subject or the school, qualified students should be encouraged to study the subject according to their own ideas and to undertake the solution of original problems in which they may have a particular interest. Every teacher should strive to qualify the largest possible number of his students to do satisfactory original work in the subject under study. In this phase of instruction (or study) the student should learn to:
- Collect the pertinent facts and theories.
- Analyze and test the validity and value each item.
- Arrive at a decision.
- Decide upon a logical course of action; or deduce the lesson to be learned.
Teaching should aim to qualify the student, in the shortest possible time, proceed with his own education according to his own needs and capacity.
If a nation wishes to gain its end in this world, it cannot be done with the pen, unless the pen is sustained by the sword.—William I of Prussia.