"Those oaken giants of the ancient race that ruled all seas."
The bearing and example of British naval development and progress, has, especially during our formative period, exerted toward our public sea service a naturally marked influence. The common tongue, the unrivalled supremacy of the Royal navy, the absence of existing naval traditions, the example afforded by the presence of the King's ships in our ports during colonial days, the interchange of social amenities and the fact that many of our young men had taken service in those ships, notably Nicholas Biddle, who had served as a brother midshipman with Nelson, rendered it but natural that this influence should be felt and respected. It is on account of this intimate relation to our service that these notes, necessarily meager in an article of this length, concerning the origin of certain customs, names and manners, may prove to be of interest.
Nomenclature.—As early as A. D. 700 the Saxons employed vessels called hulks; the term barges dates from about moo. These, as well as all vessels of the early days, were steered by a wide-bladed oar worked over the starboard, "steer-board," quarter and were fitted with fore, aft and top castles. By the year 1250 we hear of ratlines, polyves (pulleys) sheeves, swivels, stays, backstays, hawsers, cables, sheets, yard ropes, bowlines, sundry lines and many other well-known words. The terms lighters, hock boats—identified by some with the modern word "hooker"—helm, ship's junk, blocks and tacks were used before 1400. About this time ships had capstans and rigging, and were calfacted, or caulked, with tow and tallow. In 1515 the Harry Grace a Dieu carried foer, mayne, mayne mizzen, and bonaventure masts. The term frigate was common in the days of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and Raleigh speaks of the overloop, " orlop," of "striking top masts," and of bilges; at this time ships were ordered to "follow the motions of the flagship," and to "make the best of their way." Under King James I, we read of flush decks, tyres of guns, quarter and half decks, and by this time it may be said that fully two-thirds of the fittings of a modern sailing ship were known by the names they bear to-day.
Construction.—Although during the crusades the size of many vessels sailing in the Mediterranean was sufficient for the carrying of 800 to 1000 persons, it was not until the 15th century that ships of that size appeared in the stormy waters around England. Galleons, galleys and cogs made their appearance in order about this time. In 1450 the shield row, used to give protection to the men about the deck, began to give place to a solid bulwark pierced with circular holes for the archers; these became larger when required for the use of guns, and in 1670 were abandoned for square ports, allowing greater angle of fire.
The early single square sail gave way to three, and, by stages, to three masts with three square sails on each, royals not coming into common use until the beginning of the 19th century. The use of guns on covered decks lower than the upper began early in the 16th century; for many years to come, however, the great guns were almost a secondary consideration in the conduct of sea fights; a single discharge from each gun was customary, the brunt of the conflict being born by hand-to-hand fighting. Up to the 17th century the unit of measurement was the tun cask of wine; the tons or "burthen" of a ship being the number of tuns she was able to carry. This system continued until Charles II's time, when it gave place to the following rule: length x beam x depth of hold, divided by mo. This was changed during the reign of George III to length x beam x half beam, divided by 94.
During the 17th century the high stern castles had become lower, resolving themselves into the poop with one small cabin and deck above. Below this was the quarter deck, running only to the mizzen and being literally one-fourth of the ship's length; below this was the main, later the spar deck, extending to the foremast, and beyond this was the forecastle, on which in early times was raised the topgallant forecastle. The sides becoming higher and higher to keep out the sea, light fore and aft rail gangways appeared, to facilitate passage between the ends of the ship, and soon the space between was covered with spars and gratings, thus forming the "spar" deck. About this time permanent hammock nettings above the rails took the place of the old canvas screens formerly used to protect the fighting men in the waist.
Hammocks themselves were first used in 1599, and in 1629 we find them only issued to ships on foreign stations. Two men shared each hammock, one man being constantly on watch.
The customary protection for vessel's bottoms in early times was the application of a compost of tar and hair held against the ship's side by light planks; outside this was often coated a. mixture of tallow, soap or brimstone. For over one hundred years vessels' bottoms were "filled" with broad-headed nails hammered close together, paid over with tallow and resin. Lead sheathing was first used, by the Spanish navy, in 1514. The English merchant marine used it extensively after 1560, but it was not until 1610 that it was employed on government ships. The first use of copper for this purpose occurred in 1761, when the bottom of the Alarm was so treated. Galvanic action with the pintles of the rudder delayed its general adoption for many years. It was finally ordered for all ships in 1783, but later Howe and Nelson complained bitterly of the slowness of their uncoppered ships.
Lightning conductors were first recommended by Lord Anson and issued soon after his death in 1762. They were, however, only ordered to be set up on the approach of a storm and were not permanent fixtures, in consequence of which much loss of property occurred. The first chain cables were ordered for use in 1811; before that date hemp hawsers were employed, the standard sizes being 22, 20, and 8 inches. Iron water tanks took the place of the old wooden water casks, and pig iron ballast of sand and gravel, during the 20's of the 19th century. Up to the time of the Commonwealth the pinnace and the skiff were the only boats habitually carried. The "long boat" appeared at this time but v.as never hoisted in. When under weigh it was towed astern. There were no davits as we know them until after 1811, tackles on the main and foremast shrouds being used for hoisting in and out boats and heavy weights.
Personnel.—A recent publication of the British Naval Records Society states: "Every one who has paid any attention to the subject, knows how curiously ignorant we are as to the social life or social status of our forefathers in the Navy; we do not know where or how they lived, messed or dressed." Not only is this true of the British service, but also surprisingly so of our much more youthful navy.
Many of the titles of officers who served in the early ships sound oddly to-day. Edward the Confessor's ship in 1206 was commanded by a "rector," a term which lasted until late in the 13th century, when the word "master" began to be used. The master was attended by a gromet, a groom or boy. The batsuen, "boatswain" or husband, and the "cog swain," master of a cog or cock boat, were of great antiquity. The "armorer" had charge of the men's fighting gear and armor, and the "fletcher" made and repaired arrows. The title of "admiral" was originally a French one and pertained to the army; it was first used by the English about 1300; before that time the commander-in-chief was variously known as "leader and governor," "leader and constable" and "justice." Chaplains and surgeons appeared in the fleet about this time. The clerk or burser, later "purser," the "captain" and the "carpenter" came shortly after; the carpenter's title is said to have been originally confined solely to woodworkers afloat and those who had to do with ship work, their brethren ashore being called "smiths." The gunner in early times was a person of considerable importance, he lived aft while the other warrant officers lived forward, he had charge of the gun-room and, somewhat later, had jurisdiction over the midshipmen. He was assisted by the armorer and the gunsmith, both warranted. In the i6th century we hear of the schoolmaster, who messed in the gun-room and was also a warrant officer. The "swabber" at this time was an important personage; he was what we would call a petty officer, was responsible for the cleanliness of the ship above the water line, both within and without, and was answerable for the personal cleanliness of the crew. In his efforts to keep the ship sweet he was directed to "burn pitch and such other wholesome perfumes between decks." The "trumpeter" was a warrant officer who was to assist in affrighting the enemy by his "noises," he disappeared about the middle of the i8th century. At this time we first hear of the master at arms; originally he was, as the name implies, an instructor in small arms, thus taking over the duties of the corporal, a 17th century functionary whose office had become obsolete. With the master at arms came the ropemaker, a subordinate warrant officer directly under the boatswain. Yeomen, having charge of storerooms, were first met with about 1750.
In 1580 lieutenants first appeared at sea and they are known to have served in the actions against the Armada, but the grade almost died out, later being again established in 1650. At first the single lieutenant was but an aid to the captain, later taking over the details of the ship's internal economy; then followed a period when two lieutenants were carried, the second being given charge of gunnery and musketry. As more lieutenants were added they became, naturally, divisional officers. Until quite modern times the details of navigating were left to the master's grade. The early pursers were not paymasters, as we know them, until well into the last century. Pay for officers and men was distributed very infrequently and was, by a complicated system of tickets, disbursed by clerks from the navy office. The purser's duties were those of an official and private storekeeper. He transacted the government business by ship's money or bills of exchange, issued ship's stores and slops, and was allowed to sell articles carried by himself. He was also to muster the crew every ten days.
The earliest midshipmen were so designated in 1643, they were but "ship's boys," retainers of the captain, and often also served in the capacity of servants. A class of volunteer boys, a sort of naval apprentices, were called "naval cadets" for a few years subsequent to 1844. The title of sub-lieutenant was created by Lord St. Vincent in 1802; in 1830 it had nearly died out, but in 1864 it was substituted for that of mate and became, as now, a grade between lieutenant and midshipman.
The term "petty officer" appeared first in 1808. In early times the purser, gunner, carpenter, boatswain and cook were called "standing officers," or "warrant officers of higher rank." These officers had charge of a vessel when she was laid up, as until recently were all ships during the winter. The standing officers received their warrants from the Admiralty; and the surgeon and master, who were called inferior officers, from the navy office. All were, however, classified as "civilian officers." By the regulations of 1808 masters, surgeons, and pursers were to be called "warrant officers of ward-room rank," thus being separated from gunners, boatswains and carpenters. In 1843 these officers, and the naval instructor, who appeared in 1837, were "transmuted" into commissioned, from warrant, officers.
The first appearance of a permanent corps of sea officers was in 1417, but comprised only a few subordinate ranks. It was not until after the Armada that following the sea became a profession with higher officers. About this time the amateur officers and court favorites were very gradually replaced by trained "tarpawling" seamen, although for almost 150 years such professional seamen as Drake, Hawkins, Penn and Frobisher were to be found in the same service with gentlemen captains and army officers, as Grenville, Effingham, Seymour, Blake, Monk and Torrington.
Up to 1667 all higher officers, admirals, captains, lieutenants and others, were discharged whenever a vessel was placed out of commission, only a few subordinate officers remaining on board as ship keepers. In 1674 the Admiralty ordered that certain officers should, while unemployed, receive half pay. This really marks the establishment of a permanent naval force.
While in times of war commissioned promotion was always sufficiently active—for example, Nelson received his post rank 9 years after his entry as a midshipman and in his 21st year—it is interesting to note that it has not always been so. After 1815 the average age of all officers became much advanced. Many captains remained over 20 years in the grade. One officer was a commander for 47 years, a lieutenant is known to have remained in the grade for 6o years, a master for 61 and a purser for 64. In 1841, 200 commanders and 1450 lieutenants had received no promotion for 26 years or more. This resulted in the employment of officers of advanced age. Admiral Bowles was 79 when he took command at the Nore and many flag officers were afloat at 73. During the 6o's steps were taken which remedied this situation.
Of the early seamen who simply navigated their vessels for the convenience of the soldiers, the fighting force on board, we know but little. Early in the 16th century this method of manning and fighting a ship began to be modified. The Great Harry in 1512 carried 349 soldiers (musketeers), 301 mariners, and 50 gunners. As she mounted 70 guns, it is to be supposed that she manned but one battery at a time. In 1558 the Victory carried but 100 soldiers and 268 sailors, and before the end of the century the soldiers disappeared entirely, to be only occasionally seen again except as marines.
Men were hired for the week, month or particular service until long after the Armada. We know that the enlisted men of the 16th century were not all that could be desired. The crew of the Mary Rose, a vessel lost in 1540, were described as "a sort of knaves who so maligned and disdayned one the other, that refusing to doe that which they should doe, they were careless to doe that which they oughte to doe, and so, contending in spite, perished in frowardness." At the end of the century they were spoken of as "a loose rabble," "vagrant and lewd," and "a ragged regiment of common rogues."
Impressment, from "imprest" money paid at the time of enlistment, dates from the year 1355 and continued in force until the peace, 1817. At all times, however, men were taken on voluntary enlistment. This method of manning the fleet has not always been the inhuman and iniquitous procedure of which we are told. In past times it has often been an absolutely essential evil. There was also a land "press" used by the army. The character of men obtained in this manner until the latter part of the 18th century was very good. At that time, however, the number of men needed for the navy was much greater than could be obtained by the two existing methods. To stimulate enlistment large bounties were offered and the various shires and cities were given a quota to furnish: the result was the gathering together in the fleet of a large number of highly unsuitable men. Jailbirds, vagrants, weaklings and offenders about to be sentenced for crime were sent to the ships in great numbers and in a short time worked infinite injury. The harsh discipline and the notorious mutinies of the last years of the century were in great measure due to this.
In 1849 good-conduct medals were first given and in 1852 a system of continuous service was established. Before and during the days of the Commonwealth there was little dissatisfaction as regards pay, but from that time until the beginning of the 19th century there was much cause for complaint. The men and the government were systematically cheated out of their wages in many ways and much corruption existed. The men were often compelled to lose their pay by being transferred to another vessel, the purser of the first ship drawing the pay on a forged ticket. Until the 19th century men were only paid at the end of the vessel's commission and this was often abnormally long. In 1811 the Centurion had been II years in the West Indies; the Rattlesnake, 14, and had come home with but one man of her old crew; the Fox had, at this time, been out for 15, and the Albatross for 12 years. The crews of these vessels had practically no money during these periods, and upon arrival home were given pay tickets which, by an iniquitous practice of selling and discounting, usually netted them comparatively small amounts. The mutiny at Spithead in 1797 was responsible for the correction of many of the irregularities of the service; among them the question of payment of wages was put on a better basis, which has since, of course, had all unsatisfactory features corrected. It was not until the middle of the last century that men were paid regularly on shipboard. At present weekly payments are made.
Marines were first organized October 28, 1664; one regiment, previously known as "The Duke of York and Albany's maritime regiment of foot" was raised. It was disbanded in February, 1689. In 1690 two regiments were again raised, only to be disbanded in 1699. At the beginning of the 18th century, under Queen Anne, marines were finally permanently established.
Uniform.—Regarding officers, until the year 1739 "every man dressed as seemed good in his eyes." Throughout the Middle Ages soldiers customarily wore some distinctive mark or badge even at such times as they served afloat, but this could hardly be called a uniform. Before Anson's time officers frequently purchased soldier's coats at army stations and trimmed them in a manner to suit their individual taste, red faced with black, gray faced with red, being often seen. In the Kent 70, in 1745, all the officers wore gray trimmed with silver and scarlet "Such foppery, however, at that time, was not infrequently combined with checkered shirts and petticoat trousers."
In 1747 Lord Anson, then of the Admiralty, in response to a rather general request that a uniform be established, "agreeable to the practice of other nations," appointed a Board which finally recommended that the color should be blue with red trimmings. The King, however, disapproved this and chose blue and white, by reason, it is said, of the favorable impression made upon him by the Dutchess of Bedford, whom he saw at this time riding through the park in a habit of those colors. This first adoption of a uniform for line ranks was announced to the naval service by an order dated April 13, 1748. Many small changes in cut, color and the wearing of lace and ornaments followed. In 1774 white trousers appeared instead of blue, and the higher ranks were distinguished by various groupings of buttons.
In 1787 the low collar, with which we are familiar in our Revolutionary portraits, became the standing stock, such as was worn during the war of 1812. The early hat was a low-crowned three-cornered affair; later this was raised in height, as was the French custom; by 1790 it had become cocked on but two sides, was made very high and was worn "athwartships." In 1825 the present shape was adopted and ordered to be worn "fore and aft." Epaulettes were made uniform in 1795, although in France and Spain they had been worn for many years. They were at first simply gold tassels. Only the higher officers wore two; a more or less elaborate arrangement existed regulating the shoulder and the style of epaulette in the case of junior officers. In 1812 they were made uniform for lieutenants and lower officers. The early epaulettes were held in place by straps of considerable size, in which we see the origin of our shoulder straps. It was not until 1805 that a distinctive uniform was adopted for medical officers, and in 1807 followed that for pursers and masters. In 1823 long trousers were allowed, and a few years later knee breeches were discarded. In 1843 officers of the executive branch wore coats double-breasted, and officers of the civilian branch, single-breasted. The regulation frock coat was adopted in 1847, a ship jacket followed, and in 1879 the present blouse was adopted.
British seamen possessed what might be called a uniform long before their officers did. From early times it had been customary for the Admiralty to supply clothing and to retail it to the men, much as "slop" clothing is now sold to merchant sailors. In 1660 we note that red caps, yarn stockings, blue or white shirts, flat-heeled shoes and canvas suits were carried in stock. In 1706 gray jackets, striped waistcoats, red breeches and red caps became the ordinary dress and remained so until about 1750. The dress of a seaman during the latter part of the t8th century was: "a little low cocked hat, a pea jacket, a pair of petticoat trousers, not unlike a Scotch kilt, tight stockings and shoes with buckles." The hat was usually made of canvas and tarred, which gave the wearer the name of "tarpaulin." About 1800 the waistcoats, shirts and trousers were commonly of red, the jackets of blue baize or yellow nankeen with a canvass petticoat falling to the knee. This combination was seen until about 1820. From that time until 1857 the usual dress was a blue jacket, white trousers, and a tarpaulin hat. Checkered or striped shirts were often worn. In 1857 the men's uniform, quite as at present, was prescribed. The blue jacket and the tarpaulin hat were finally abolished in 1891. A cap ribbon, showing the name of the vessel to which the wearer belonged, was worn in some ships before 1780. The black neckerchief first appeared, as a badge of mourning, after the death of Nelson. The three lines of white tape on the broad collar are said to have been first used to commemorate the three victories of Nelson: Copenhagen, the Nile and Trafalgar. Commanding officers before 1850 were allowed a good deal of latitude in prescribing uniforms for their ships. In 1840 the captain of the Vernon had his starboard watch wear blue jerseys, and the port, red. The Blazer's crew in 1845 wore blue and white striped jerseys. The captain of the Harlequin dressed his gig's crew as harlequins. The Caledonia's wore Scotch caps, and one captain, who was serving on the Greek coast, had his crew dress in petticoat trousers. Pigtails, a French custom, never were very common in the British service. The practice originated after the fall of Napoleon and ceased about 1826.
Laws and Punishments.—The early English sea laws were based on the so-called "Laws of Oleron," a code founded in the republic of Rhodes, on ancient sea customs, and acknowledged by all the European sea coast south of the Baltic. It was probably introduced into England by Richard I. Among many other punishments this severe code prescribed: "whoever shall commit murder on board ship shall be tied to the corpse and thrown into the sea." If committed on land, he was tied to the body and buried with it. For stabbing or cutting another "so that blood shall flow, "he was to lose a hand. A man convicted of theft was punished by having boiling pitch poured over his head and. shoulders and "a shower of feathers shaken over to mark him." All seamen were forbidden to undress themselves, unless in port for "wintering," probably so ordered that they should always be ready for duty. The penalty for disobedience was to be hoisted to the yard arm and ducked by "letting go" three times. For the first offence of drunkenness cold water was poured down the offender's sleeves. A lookout who had slept four times on watch was lashed to the bowsprit with a knife in one hand so that he might either die of starvation or cut himself down and drown. Swearing was punished by three knocks on the forehead by the boatswain's whistle; smoking anywhere but on the upper deck, "and that sparingly," by the bilboes. At a later date a thief was dragged ashore lashed to a grating, and then turned adrift.
Flogging, tongue-scraping, gagging, keel-hauling and tying up with weights about the neck were common as early as the 16th century. In 1645 the ship court martial was instituted and written records submitted. It may be interesting to note the following historical entry from a ship's log made in 1675 "a scolding woman was well washt to-day."
Naval law received its first codification under the Commonwealth. The first regular articles of war were issued in 1652 and were a modification of the Earl of Warwick's fleet instructions. Out of 39 articles 13 prescribed death and 12 more allowed the sentence to be imposed. In 1749 they were amended and many paragraphs were then first written which are almost word for word the same as those in force to-day in our own service as well as that of the British. In 1757 Admiral Bing was executed in compliance with the provisions of the following article, the wording of which is quite familiar: "Every person in the fleet who through cowardice, negligence or disaffection shall in time of action withdraw or keep back, or not come into fight, or engagement, or shall not do his utmost to take or destroy every ship it shall be his duty to engage; and to assist all and every of his Majestie's ships or of his allies, which it shall be his duty to assist and relieve; every person so offending and being convicted thereof by sentence of Court Martial shall suffer death." In 1788 the following article appeared which bears a strong resemblance to one of our own: "Every officer or other person in the fleet who shall knowingly make or sign a false muster or muster book, and upon proof of any such offence being made before a court martial, shall be cashiered and rendered incapable of further employment."
The first printed instructions relating to the conduct of the fleet, published about 1650, contains the following article: "When fish is to be had, the captain is to employ some of the company in fishing, and the fish which shall be caught shall be distributed daily to such persons as are sick or upon recovery, and if there be any surplus the same shall be distributed by turns amongst the messes of the officers and seamen, without favor or partiality, and gratis, without any deduction on that account." Contrast this with the following, paragraph 16, "Acts for the government of the Navy of the United States," adopted March 2, 1799: "All ships furnished with fishing tackle, being in such places where fishing is to be had, the captain is to employ some of the company in fishing. The fish to be daily distributed to such persons as are sick, or upon recovery, provided the surgeon recommends it, and the surplus, by turns, amongst the messes of the officers and seamen, gratis, without any deduction of their allowance of provisions on that account."
As late as 1854 there were no cells in British naval vessels. Flogging, an ancient form of punishment, was very common at that time. In many ships all hands were piped to witness punishment every few days, while in others, usually better ships, but few, in many instances only four or five, would be so punished during an entire cruise. Flogging was finally abolished in 1879.
Victualling.—The chief article of naval diet was, for many years, dried (stock) fish. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth all food for the navy was supplied by contractors, a method which was soon after abandoned and a victualling department established under the Admiralty. At that time the seaman's daily allowance was: one gallon of beer, 1 1/2 pounds of bread or biscuit, 1/2 pounds of fresh or salt meat, with pound of butter and 1/2 pound of cheese six times per month. The component parts of the men's ration constantly changed but, on paper at least, it was always fairly generous. During the time of the Commonwealth the quality of food improved, a reflection of the times, for almost all branches of the service improved markedly under Cromwell. It was followed, however, by a long period of abuse and mismanagement, during which the men fared badly and their food became wretched. Up to the early part of the 17th century beer, one gallon a day per man, was the only article of beverage taken to sea by either men-of-war or merchant vessels, no water being carried except a small amount for cooking purposes. The poor quality of beer issued was a frequent cause for complaint. Raleigh says that old fish and oil casks were used for this purpose. Finally brew houses were established at the principal naval stations. The use of beer afloat was not done away with until about 1835. Rum was first issued, one-half pint daily, early in the 18th century, after experiments with French wines and brandy. In 1740 Admiral Vernon issued orders that the ration of rum should be served out diluted with one-half its volume of water, which custom has continued ever since.
Vernon was called by his men "Old Grog," from the fact that he was accustomed to wear an old grogram coat in bad weather; the name of the mixture is in this way associated with him. In 1824 the spirit ration was reduced to one-fourth pint on account of much drunkenness, and tea and cocoa added. This allowed the stopping of the two "banyan days" each week, when no meat was issued. At the same time "burgoo," an unpalatable mixture of oatmeal, molasses and water, served often for breakfast, was discontinued. In 1850 the spirit ration was again reduced one-half and a small money gratuity allowed. In 1881 the issue to commanding officers was cancelled, and also to boys under 20.
Tobacco was first supplied in 1798. In 1839 it was ordered sold to enlisted men for the standard price of one shilling a pound; this price never varies and is that paid by the men to-day. The term "salt junk" was used two hundred years ago; "junk" being the bulrush of which ropes were formerly made, and hence meat which was tough and ropy. Meat was "preserved" as early as 1812, but at first its use was confined as "medical comforts" and issued in the sick bay.
Hygiene and Medical Affairs.—From a modern standpoint hygiene and sanitation, in past times in the British navy, were systematically neglected, resulting in a fearful mortality and many embarrassments for the government. Very high death rates prevailed on the average vessel until comparatively recent times. Sir Walter Raleigh stated that in twenty years 10,000 men died of scorbutic affections. Immediately after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, the Lord High Admiral (Howard) wrote, "sickness and mortality began wonderfullie to growe arrongste us . . . . the Elizabeth . . . . hath had a great infection in her from the beginning soe out of 500 men which she carried out, before she had been in Plymouth three weeks there were ded of them 200 and above, soe I was driven to set the rest ashore and to take out the ballast and to make fires in her of swet broom, three or four daies together . . . . and got new men, very tall and hable as ever I saw, and put them into her, and now, the infection is broken out in greater extremity than ever before and they die and sicken faster than ever." At a somewhat later date Monson states that "where we had one man dyed by shott in the navy, we had ten dyed by bad provisions." In 1656 the Sterling Castle 64, less than three months out on a new cruise, had 160 men sick with dysentery. Admiral Hosier, cruising in the West Indies about 1700, with seven ships, buried his ship's companies three times over. A chaplain writing in the year 1675 gives the following data:
Feb. 7. Buried two out of our shipp, "little better than starved to death."
Mar. 22. I buried Francis Forrest, as 'tis said eaten to death with lyce.
May 1. I buried Henry Johnson out of the gunn-roome port.
May 12. I buried Mr. Richard Cooling in a coffin.
May 30. We sent to shoare 32 sick men, pittiful creatures.
These entries are simply samples of the chaplain's diary, which states that between the first and the last date 22 men died. This makes the mortality for this ship 165 per moo per annum, and yet this was not an exceptionally unhealthy vessel. It is probable also that not all the deaths on board were recorded.
From 1776 to 1780, 155,000 men were raised; of this number 1250 were killed in action, 18,500 died of sickness and 42,000 ran. The combined French and Spanish fleet which Nelson chased across the Atlantic just prior to the battle of Trafalgar, landed moo sick in the West Indies and also buried that number of men during its stay there of 40 days. In 1779 Nelson's ship lost 140 men of a crew of zoo, chiefly by dysentery. While some commanders managed to keep their ships healthy, they were the exceptions; the vast majority suffered fearfully. Drake was known to have been a very careful man in these matters. It is on record that he habitually bled his entire ship's company before crossing the line and going into the tropics. Captain Cook, during a voyage of over two years, lost but four men; this is an enviable record and probably the most creditable to be found.
The reason for this terrible mortality is to be found chiefly in the very unsanitary condition of the old wooden ships. The holds contained ballast in the form of gravel, sand and even earth, this was removed at very infrequent intervals and became, naturally, a chief source of infection. The French actually buried the bodies of many of their dead in this ballast, and at least one authentic instance of this practice is known to have occurred in the British service. Leaky ships, from the constant removal of bilge water, were traditionally known as the more healthy ships. Water was a very common source of disease. It was stored in casks and rapidly became foul, if not so when hoisted in. Iron tanks were not known until after 1820. The wooden decks of these old vessels, especially the lower ones, were almost constantly wet and soggy, due to daily flooding and scrubbing, in an otherwise laudable effort to excel in cleanliness. The poor and often insufficient food caused, as we have seen, much trouble. The cooking facilities were wretched for many years. But one cooked meal was prepared each day up to 1600. It is probable that the heavy nitrogenous character of the old ration resulted in a form of ptomaine poisoning to which the great number of cases of scurvy was due. The infectious nature of certain diseases was for a long time unappreciated. In November, 1625, Wimbleton, the commander of an ill-fated expedition to Cadiz, on an outbreak of plague (?), actually transferred the sick, designating a certain number to each ship in the fleet, in order that no one ship should become shorthanded.
As early as 1655 a patent had been granted for a method of salt water distillation, but it was not until 1772 that a still was ordered for all British ships. These supplied but a small proportion of the fresh water consumed at sea. Some commanding officers had learned that beneficial results followed the use of boiled water, and in 1756 the captain of the Sterling Castle is known to have kept his sick list down in this manner. Lemon juice as an antiscorbutic was first carried to sea by Captain Lancaster, in an expedition sailing from England for the East Indies in January, 1600. Three ounces were given daily to each man. When Cape Town was reached Captain Lancaster's ship, the Dragon, alone was free from scurvy, and his ship's crew hoisted out the boats of the entire squadron and landed the sick, 105 of whom died there.
Hospital ships were used at various times for the relief of the wounded after battle. In 1608 the Good Will was so employed in the Mediterranean, but the commander-in-chief, needing another vessel, the sick were hastily landed in Spain and the vessel converted into a fighting ship. In 1727 the British owned one of these vessels, its size being equal to that of a 40-gun ship; in 1760 there were three of the size of a 50-gun ship. In 1793 the Dolphin was used as a hospital ship in Hood's fleet off Toulon, as in 1794 the Pharon was used at the battle of "the first of June." In 1854 a hospital ship was attached to the British contingent at the Crimea. In 1653 ships were allowed "medical comforts" to the value of 5 pounds per 100 men per six months, men invalided ashore received full pay until recovery, and civil hospitals were ordered to accommodate those sick who should be sent to them. The first hospital for disabled seamen was given by Queen Mary, who devoted for the purpose the unfinished palace at Greenwich and a considerable sum of money. For its maintenance 6 pence per month was deducted from the pay of all seamen, naval and merchant. This hospital is in existence to-day. The "Chatham chest" was an institution founded by Drake and Hawkins in 1590 for the purpose of giving disabled seamen pensions. It was maintained for years by the contribution of a small portion of the men's wages and by a certain amount of prize money. After several periods of mismanagement it was finally done away with in 1803, government pensions having taken its place.
Customs.—One of the most ancient British naval customs was the salute demanded by the King's ships of all vessels met in "His Majestie's seas," which extended from Cape Finisterre through the "narroe seas." All other ships were expected to "take in" their flags and to strike their topsails. The wars with the Dutch were, in great part, caused by the enforcing of this demand. The more recent custom, which has not entirely died out, of lowering a sail, letting fly sheets or backing a top-sail as a mark of respect, is a direct decendant of this 17th century demand. "Salutes with guns are as old as the guns themselves," and great expenditures were borne by the State on this account throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Salutes of courtesy were given on all occasions: often as the commanding officer left his ship, when his wife came on board, when ships met at sea and on their return to port. Dressing ships with flags and manning the rail and yards was practiced during the reign of Elizabeth.
The order of precedence laid down for officers boarding or leaving a vessel of war, or a boat, was in force over 150 years ago. The starboard side of the quarter deck and the starboard gangway have been the "dress" side of the ship for fully as long. Shortly after the mutiny at the Nore, however, the port side was so regarded, the starboard having been considered violated by the mutineers. During the time of Lord St. Vincent all officers were required to be present at colors in the morning and in the evening. At that time all officers on deck acknowledged the salute of one "saluting the quarterdeck." The present answers to hails after dark in use in our navy are almost identical with those used by the British, except they do not use the words "passing" and "halloo." This custom has changed but slightly during the past one hundred years.
The British regulations of 1808 prescribe the parading of the marine guard for passing ships. The custom of having daily prayers comes from the days of Cromwell and the Commonwealth, at which time Blake instituted the practice of singing hymns or psalms at the changing or "setting" of the watch, at eight p. m. The use of the broad arrow as a mark for government property dates from the reign of Elizabeth, and cordage and canvas have been marked by a colored thread, a "thief strand," woven into the material, for many years.
The custom of drinking to "sweethearts and wives" was in vogue as early as 1650, and captain's tables were known at that time to have afforded such delicacies as "ribbs" of beef, plum pudding, "roosted hens," "raysings," almonds, blue figs, "minct" pies, woodcock pies, English pippins, and "punch galore." Dinner for captains was, at the beginning of the last century, customarily served between 3 and 4 p. m. Supper in the gun-room and ward-room was served at 6.30; after that the seniors from the ward-room often came into the junior officer's quarters to play cards, sending the youngsters out, the signal for which was a fork stuck into a beam overhead. "Orgies were of almost nightly occurrence." As early as 1600 it was customary to allow the trumpeters, with all who would tailing on, to play at each officer's door and all over the ship, much as we now sometimes sec done at midnight of New Year's eve.
Quarters.—Probably up to 1600 all officers ate in their own rooms or, in default of them, in such place as they wished. From that time on, small messes were formed by certain groups of officers, but it was not until 1750 that we hear of a "ward-room"; at that time it was described as "a place where the lieutenants mess and sleep." In 1761 marine officers were ordered to mess with the captain. At certain times also "the lieutenant" and the chaplain messed in the cabin. Before the beginning of the 17th century we find no mention of rooms for any except the captain. After that date canvas partitions were often rigged for this purpose and, at times, wooden bulkheads were used. The rooms made in the latter way were spoken of as "sluttish dens that breed sickness, cover stealths, and in fight are dangerous to the men with their splinters." The term "stateroom" was used in 1675. Until recently guns were carried along the decks throughout the officers quarters, and it was customary, as long as wooden ships remained, to remove the more or less temporary bulkheads in and around officer's quarters and thus open the deck before action. These bulkheads were sometimes simply hinged and triced up; at other times a temporary canvas screen was rigged. During the Nelson period this was the common practice, the ships being almost constantly cleared for action.
Ordnance.—Powder-burning guns first appeared in England in 1338. They were small breech-loading affairs throwing usually a stone projectile, which material was so used until 1625. By 1515 guns were roughly calibrated and threw shot weighing 74 (with 30 pounds of powder), 6o, 42, 32, 26, 18, II, 6, 2, and .5 pounds. Comparatively little change in ordnance took place for many years. Even at the outbreak of war with Russia in 1854 the 68-pounder smooth bore, using 16 pounds of powder, was the heaviest gun afloat. During the time of the Stuarts, fewer sizes were employed, the 58-, 32-, and 24-pounders, with the 5-pound "sacker" and 22-pound "falconet," were the standard patterns. In 1743 the following guns were in use: 42-, 32-, 24-, 18-, 12-, 9-, 6-, 4-, 3-, and .5-pounders. The 42-pounder was shortly after considered too heavy, and the 32, the heaviest gun used during the Napoleonic wars, with the 18- and 12-pounder, constituted the ordinary armament for large vessels. After 1806, 24's largely took the place of the 32's. About 1830 a 48- and a 68-pounder were introduced. Carronades came into use during the year 1779; they were issued as 68-, 24-, 18-, and 12-pounders, and took their name from the town of Carron in Scotland, where they were first cast.
Up to 1856 almost all guns were of the muzzle-loading, smooth-bore pattern. Shrapnel was named for Lieutenant-General Henry Shrapnel, who invented it in 1792. It was adopted in 1803. Shell guns were the invention of Col. Paixhans, a French officer, in 1827. At the end of the Napoleonic wars the flint lock was the regulation small arm. In the late 30's a percussion- cap musket called the "Brown Bess" appeared. A primitive rifle was adopted in 1842. The caliber of small arms was, up to about 186o, .70 to .79.
Painting.—An interesting fact concerning "war color" paint is to be found in the statement that the early British vessels, about A. D. 8o, in order to escape notice, were said to have been painted a light blue color. Up to and including the time of the Commonwealth, ship's hulls were painted black, with much gilt and colored ornamentation at the bow and stern; this reached its highest pitch about r680. From shortly after this time until 1801 blue upper works, canary yellow sides and a wide black strake at the water line was the customary method of painting. The inside of the upper works, and sometimes the gun decks, were painted a blood-red color. Lord Nelson required his vessels to paint the exterior black, with a yellow stripe along each tier of gun-ports. This was known as the "Nelson mode" and became practically universal for all men-of-war, was extensively copied by merchant vessels and is even to be seen to-day. The inner sides of the port-holes remained red for many years. During and after the 30's the yellow stripe was usually changed to white. The interior of ships during Nelson's time, as before, was customarily painted green, buff or light brown; this later became white, whitewash being used forward and paint aft. Mast hoops were ordinarily black, but Nelson at Trafalgar ordered his ships to whitewash theirs that they might distinguish each other in the smoke of battle.
Women on Shipboard.--Lord Exmouth, after the bombardment of Algiers in July, 1816, stated in his report that "even British women served at the same guns as their husbands, and, during a contest of many hours, never shrank from danger but animated al, around them." In probably no considerable action during the one hundred years previous to this date was not this also true.
Officer's wives were allowed to be carried in men-of-war until the Admiralty issued an order against it in 1830. It was evaded, however, especially by commanding officers, in many ways. Often the family of one captain would take passage as the guests of another captain in the same fleet, instances of which were seen as late as 1869. Mrs. Nelson went to England from the West Indies with her husband in the Boreas in 1787. Codrington had his family on board the flag-ship Asia until just before the battle of Navarino, in 1827.