In recording some observations on the navy ration which the writer had an opportunity of making during last winter, he desires it to be understood at the outset that this paper is not intended to criticize adversely the present navy ration nor those who may be responsible for the same. Neither is it, on the other hand, the intention to look at things through the spectacles of that very engaging list of eatables which is passed around immediately, the moment the word "ration" is pronounced in certain quarters. We propose to look at the navy ration and its administration with unprejudiced eyes, armed only by a few simple but telling experiments. It does not require a great deal of experience to know that there is as yet a long way from a market or even a bill of fare to the inside of a man's stomach. If, therefore, it should suggest itself to the reader of this paper that certain steps on this way might put up with some very desirable improvements, let it be remembered that all such improvements have originated in criticisms prompted by the proper motives and rendered in the right spirit.
A ship's company is generally divided into a number of messes, each consisting of about twenty or more men, with their own cook and mess attendants. The quantity of stores served out to each mess by the paymaster of the ship varies, of course, with the exact number of men in a particular mess. There is on every ship a chief cook and several assistant cooks (?), attending, as well as they know how, to the preparation of the food: the mess attendants, or berth-deck cooks, having charge of the serving out of the food and, also, of the mess gear, its cleanliness, etc.
Long experience and observation having demonstrated the necessity for reorganization of this antiquated system of messing, a most laudable attempt was made quite recently to put into practical operation a "consolidated mess," one which is to include all the enlisted force on board ship with the exception of the chief petty officers.
Thus, the consolidated mess of the U.S.S. Indiana, as described by Lieut. B.C. Decker, U.S. Navy (Proceedings U.S. Naval Institute, No. 83, 1897), consisted of about three hundred and eighty men, a ship's cook of the first class, two cooks of the second class and four of the third class, a commissary yeoman, and a storeroom keeper. Without going into the details of its organization at the present moment, it will suggest itself to everyone having even but little experience with messing large bodies of men, that the proposition, made in this system of messing, to engage a higher quality of cooks and a better class of mess attendants than heretofore, is not the least important of its many good and admirable points. According to all accounts which we were able to gather, under the conditions of this consolidated system of messing the men live not only better, but also cheaper. We shall find later on in this paper that this very general and very favorable conclusion finds some very interesting and firm support in the results of our investigations into the comparative food-values as existing in our unmodified navy ration furnished by the paymaster of the ship as compared to those of a mixed or combined ration, that is, one made up of a part of ship's ration and a part of food bought in the market out of the money obtained from commuted rations. In short, we are in a position to prove that the food-value of our ration increases in direct proportions to the number of ship's rations that are commuted; and this fact we are inclined to consider one of the strongest and most direct arguments in favor of the consolidated system of messing.
In view of our figures as regards the food-values of the ration alone, the most impartial judge would declare in favor of the commutation of all ship's rations; he would have the regular ship's ration,. in its pure and unmodified form, relegated to the function of an emergency or iron ration, to be used only whenever ships are kept at sea and have, from necessity, no communication with any of the markets on shore. The physical condition I of the men under such a system could not do otherwise but greatly improve.
Upon one point, however, the greatest possible stress should be laid in any and every attempt at mess reorganization, namely, the quality of the cooks and mess attendants. The waste, owing to bad management from that source, is very large and most deplorable. The most hungry stomach will refuse to eat things, not so much because they are not eatable, but because they are neither cooked nor served in a manner sufficiently inviting. If one of the objects of cooking is to render the food more pleasing to the eye, more agreeable to the palate, improve its flavor as well as its digestibility, we see, in the first place, that three of the keenest of our special senses demand to be favorably influenced before this one of the special objects of cooking can be said to have been attained. Man may, from a chemico-physiological point of view, be compared to a machine, needing only certain quantities of fuel in order to do a certain amount of work; but he is, to say the least, a machine endowed with special senses and a will of its own. The social position of man in this respect makes, if at all, merely a difference in degree, not in kind. Cooking, furthermore, is to alter the texture of our food-stuffs so as to render them more easy of mastication and subsequent reduction to a fluid state in the stomach; that is, to render them more easy of a perfect digestion and assimilation. The average cook, therefore, besides having to be thoroughly drilled in the special methods of boiling, stewing, roasting, broiling, baking and frying the food, must be taught to pay some attention to the appearances of his products.
Fortunately, any man gifted with the average amount of sense can become a good cook or mess attendant and can easily satisfy all the above requirements, providing he is properly taught, trained, and intelligently and systematically supervised in his work.
The two following tables represent, in food-values, the rations served out to, and of the additional articles of food obtained by purchase and consumed by, a mess of twenty men during a period of fourteen days.
In order to obtain a greater variety of articles of food for their table than that which they receive in the form of rations, and in order to, furthermore, take advantage of the fresh fruits and vegetables which the market offers at different seasons of the year, the men on board ship prefer to have one-fourth of their regular ration commuted; that is, converted into money. With this amount of money thus obtained, and as much more as each man is willing and able to pay into the general mess-fund, the men, simply buy those articles in the open market whichever they prefer. The twenty men under consideration then draw fifteen (¾) rations; their food-value is represented in Table L Table II shows the food-values of the articles obtained by purchase in the open market.
These twenty men obtain in ration-money for a period of fourteen days 14 X $1.50 = $19, and pay out of their own pocket an additional sum of $23.75, making in all $42.75. The cook, also a member of the mess, pays nothing into the fund, and, besides, draws the value of two rations for his services out of it, which amount equals for the fourteen days $8.40, and which sum must, consequently, be deducted from the money spent for food, leaving a mess-fund of $34.35. This brings the money value of the mess shares per man and per day down to 13 cents.
The following Table, III, is intended to show in a condensed form the relations which the different values bear to each other.
The first four items on Table III, being perfectly plain and simple, need no further explanation, but the other four, perhaps, need a word or two more. Item 5 represents the value in food material received daily by each man under the combined system; that is, that quantity which he receives when he draws ¾ of his regular ration and buys the rest of what he eats. Item 6 represents the ration and share in the combined value of food-material consumed by him. Item 7 represents the share obtained by purchase. Item 8 gives the corrected sum in food-material which a man would receive daily at a cost of 30 cents, if he would live on his ship's ration alone. A man's daily expense for food, under the combined system, is 35 ½ cents, or 5 ½ cents more than the value of a ship's ration. If we now compare the food-value contained in the full ration at 30 cents per day, with the food-value of that part of the combined ration which the men obtain by purchase at 13 cents per day, we will find that the latter is quite a little less expensive than an equal share of the ship's ration would be.
If the men, namely, commuted all their ship's rations and bought food at the same ratio as above, they would obtain an amount of food the value of which would be equal to, proteids, 171; fats, 167, and carbohydrates, 450; or about one-fourth better than is the value of the ration for the same amount of money which the ration costs them, or 30 cents a day.
It is but fair to mention that, in this estimate, we have not included the hardtack which, though not eaten by the men, is furnished them in the regular ship's ration. Inasmuch as we wanted to get at the food-value of those substances which were actually consumed by our men, these, however, refusing to take the same, we were naturally obliged to leave it out of our calculation. But even if this was considered a part of what the men had received, it would scarcely invalidate the conclusions reached, since the proteid value and the fat value of the ration, which are the most expensive part of it, would thereby practically remain uninfluenced. When our ration is examined more closely it can easily be seen that it is rich enough in carbohydrates without the hardtack, and the instinct of the men simply made them refuse I it, because there was no need of it.
So far, however, we must admit that our estimates are only approximately true, and a closer investigation becomes extremely desirable. Fortunately, the Germans have furnished us with a method of doing this.
For the purpose of having a more uniform standard for comparison as regards the difference in money-values existing between different diets or rations, and because of the fact that one part of proteid is not exactly equivalent to either one part of fat or carbohydrate, the Germans have created a "nutrient unit" for food-stuffs, based upon the market value of the different articles of food. In accordance with this standard of the price of food-stuffs:
1 part of carbohydrates has the value of 1 nutrient unit
1 part of fat has the value of 3 nutrient units
1 part of proteid has the value of 5 nutrient units.
From this it is easily seen that proteids are the most expensive, while carbohydrate are the least expensive of food-stuffs, and this is true the world over.
Let us now calculate the nutrient units of the several rations which we wish to compare according to this standard, and contrast the results with the money-values for which each may be obtained:
The number of nutrient units contained in the corrected ration to be obtained from the ships' stores per man and per day for 30 cents is 1261. The number of units which the men obtained for themselves at the rate of 13 cents per man and per day amounts to 781. For 30 cents, or the value in money of the regular ration, the men could have obtained an amount of food containing 1802 nutrient units, or about one-third more than they received for the same amount of money in the form of rations from the ship's stores. Expressed in a still more simple manner, one cent will only buy 42 nutrient units in the form of ship's rations, while the same cent would buy 61 nutrient units in the open market.
The question might be asked: Is our ship's ration, in the quantities that are furnished to the men, insufficient in nutritive value, and is this perhaps the reason why these men prefer to have part of it commuted, instead of living on the same exclusively? For although the extra expense connected with the combined system of messing is small, it is still large enough to deserve consideration, and, I am sure, no sailorman, extravagant though he may be in some respects, would incur it if he did not feel that it was a necessary expense and money well invested. In order to answer the above question satisfactorily, we will now have to consult some of the results of the investigations of physiologists with regard to this subject.
We find that, for the purpose of maintaining life in a perfectly normal state, we need certain definite quantities of proteids, fats and carbohydrates mixed in certain proportions. Any human being fed exclusively on a fatty diet must finally perish from the want of nitrogenous food. In the same manner an individual fed exclusively on carbohydrates will inevitably incur the same risk.
After much experimentation and the most painstaking and laborious investigations on the part of both hygienists and physiologists, it is estimated by Voit that a laboring man, working from 9 to lo hours a day and weighing on an average from 70 to 75 kilos, requires 118 grams of proteids, 56 grams of fat and 500 grams of carbohydrates.
The regular ship's ration, exclusive of hardtack, pickles, coffee and tea, gives us a nutritive value corresponding to 142 grams of proteids, 51 grams of fats and 398 grams of carbohydrates, a nutritive value which makes the ration superior as regards proteids, equal in fat-material and also superior in carbohydrates, providing we include the hardtack in the diet, as compared with the diet demanded by Voit for the laboring man of an average weight of 70 to 75 kilos. This estimate of Voit is the most accurate one attainable, and stands in almost perfect agreement with the estimates of all those authorities in scientific physiology and hygiene who have given this subject the most careful attention, excepting perhaps, minor differences as regards fats and carbohydrates.
It is considered that an allowance of 118 grams of proteids is a most generous quantity and that a man—our average man, for instance—can exist on considerably less than that amount. But we find on comparison that the nutritive value of our ration is equal to 142 grams in proteid material, or 24 grams more than is asked in the above generous allowance made by Voit.
The average man of Voit is one weighing from 70 to 75 kilos. Consulting our table of weights, we shall find that our average man only weighs, in round numbers, 65 kilos, or from 5 to 10 kilos less. It is perfectly well known that both the amount of mechanical work performed by a man, and, the amount of heat produced by him, stand in a certain definite relation to the weight of that man, and, consequently, also the amount of food which he consumes. Caeteris paribus, we may assume that our average man of 65 kilos needs less food than Voit's average man of 75 kilos. All the men on whom these observations were made belong to a gunnery class, undergoing instruction in the construction and usages of modem guns, which is, as the men have frequently confessed themselves, light work when compared with that which they would have to do in the average cruising ships, or with that which a laborer performs who is steadily at work for 9 to 10 hours a day. Consequently, our navy ration ought to be not only perfectly sufficient in its food-material, both quantitatively and qualitatively, but must be considered a generous allowance. And this fact also is freely admitted by the men themselves. The answer to my questions in this regard which I most frequently receive from the men is: It is enough, but…and there follows a pause.
Thus, in spite of this generous sufficiency as regards the quantity and quality of our navy ration, we must still admit the existence of a number of good and sufficient reasons on the part of the men for wishing to commute part of their rations.
Referring to Table III, item 5, we shall observe that under the combined system of messing, the daily food-supply per man is, on the average, equal to 181 grams in proteids, no grams in fats, and 495 grams in carbohydrates. This result of our calculation has been attained after making due allowance for all possible loss which might be incurred in the handling of the raw material of the different food-stuffs, and also after deducting the weight in bones and other waste from them. But allowing for the sake of argument, if for nothing else, even an additional loss of, say, 30 per cent., owing either to ignorance of cooks or to habits of wastefulness, we should still have left a diet consisting of 127 grams of proteids, 54 grams of fats, and 347 grams of carbohydrates; a diet more than equal in its proportionate nutritive value for our man of an average weight of 65 kilos and doing light work to that required by Voit for a man of 75 kilos in weight and working steadily for from 9 to 10 hours a day.
The most obvious conclusions that we can come to from the above method of reasoning are that the men do not get what they buy, or, if they get it, they receive it in such a form that they either cannot eat it, or, if they eat it, do not assimilate it. For if these men really got what they bought and properly assimilated it—converted it into flesh and blood—we should necessarily be led to expect a corresponding increase in their average weight, considering that their work was light and the demand for energy small.
Looking at the table of weights of the forty-two men, in which number our twenty men are included and all of which belong to the same gunnery class, practically all living under the same identical conditions and circumstances, we find, during the four months when their weight was taken at stated intervals, that they have made but an average increase of 0.4 kilos or not quite a pound. We can, therefore, only say that these men have merely held their own for a period of four months, and that in spite of their living during all this time as regular and orderly a life as men can live, and under the most favorable conditions not only of work but also as regards environment and climate.
The above-mentioned conclusions will find still greater support when the following calculations will have been considered:
It is well known that food-stuffs, when burned, develop different quantities of heat. Thus, the greatest amount of heat is developed by the fats, while the proteids and the carbohydrates are about equal in this respect. It is generally accepted as a well-established law in physiology, that the calorimetric values of the different articles of food determine also their respective physiological values as nutritive substances of the body.
Thus, one gram of fat produces 9.3, one gram of proteid and one gram of carbohydrate each 4.1 large calories. Whenever fats and carbohydrates are burned or oxidized within the body their calorimetric values are absolutely equal to their physiological values, because both of these substances are completely oxidized to form water and carbon dioxide. The physiological value of the proteids, on the other hand, remains behind the calorimetric value because proteids are not completely burned within the body; the remnant being urea. It has been estimated that the physiological value of the proteids is only from 72 to 78 per cent of their calorimetric value. Practically, one-third of the calorimetric value of proteids is deducted in the calculations for their physiological value in order to cover the loss both in urea and the small portion of nitrogenous substances lost in the faeces. According to Rubner, 100 grams of fat are isodynamic with 225 grams of proteids or 240 grams of carbohydrates respectively.
According to these figures, the amount of energy conveyed to our bodies in the form of food, providing the quantities ingested are known, becomes a matter of easy calculation. This energy may, furthermore, be expressed either in terms of heat-units or calories or in terms of mechanical work, since one large calorie, or that amount of heat which is necessary to raise the temperature of one liter of water by one degree of C°, corresponds to 425 units of mechanical work: in other words, that amount of energy which is sufficient to raise 425 grams in weight to the height of one meter.
The food-stuffs with which we nourish our bodies must, then, first of all, supply the demands for the amounts of energy made upon us. A fully grown adult individual uses up, according to his occupation or the amount of work which he performs, from 2400 to 3000 large calories during twenty-four hours. Consequently, his diet must consist in food-material possessing at least a calorimetric value equal to that amount. More, of course, would be required by a growing body or by one under any great physical exertion.
The calorimetric value of the ration required by Voit for his average man, weighing from 70 to 75 kilos and working from 9 to 10 hours daily, equals 3055 calories. The corrected navy ration (item 8, Table III) amounts to 2696 calories. The combined ration (item 5, Table III) on which our twenty men have presumably subsisted, comes up to 3805 calories. The combined ration, less 30 per cent, which they probably subsisted on, in reality, gives us 2664 calories; and these estimates seem to agree with the actually observed facts as closely as could possibly be expected.
In other words, the demand on the men's energy amounted on an average to 2664 calories, and they took just sufficient food to supply this demand, and the rest, if there was any, was wasted for reasons of poor cooking and of serving the food in an uninviting manner.
To summarize, the following conclusions seem to be justified by the above investigations, namely:
- Consolidate the number of small messes on board ship into one general mess.
- Train your cooks in the art of good and economic cooking and supervise their work on board ship.
- Commute all ships' rations whenever communication with the markets on shore can be established, as recommended in the "consolidated mess system."
- Relegate the present ships' ration to the function of an emergency or "iron ration," to be used only in cases of necessity, or whenever communication with the markets on shore is out of the question for good and sufficient reasons.
- Authorize a war ration.