An unnamed 36-gun frigate was launched on 28 April 1778 along the bank of the Merrimack River at Salisbury, Massachusetts. Reputedly a fast sailor, she would become a favorite among her officers and crew.1
Nearly 12 weeks earlier, on 6 February, the French had entered the War of Independence allied with the Americans. In honor of this coalition, the Salisbury frigate was named the Alliance on 29 May. She would provide long and important service to the fledgling country.
A French immigrant, Captain Pierre Landais, took the helm as the vessel's commander after her christening.2 Landais had smuggled arms to America as an agent of playwright-entrepreneur-arms merchant Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais and now, through the influence of Samuel Adams was an honorary citizen of Massachusetts.3 The appointment of Landais, who had served in the French Navy, flattered America's new ally, as did the name of the frigate.
The Alliance's first mission was to transport French Army officers and officials, including the Marquis de Lafayette, from Boston back to France. Recruiting a crew to serve under the expatriate officer, however, became difficult, as some American Sailors were anti-French because of the French and Indian War. Fortunately for Landais, HMS Somerset wrecked off the New England coast in November and her rescued seamen, officially prisoners of the Americans, were offered passage back to Europe and the promise of exchange for volunteering as crew for the Alliance. Most accepted, thus allowing the frigate to finally set sail on 11 January 1779.
The maiden passage, however, was not easy, as the British crew plotted a mutiny to reap a reward offered by the Crown for the capture of an intact American warship. With the scheme averted and the ringleaders placed in irons, the frigate captured two prizes before arriving in France. Suffering a near mutiny did not help the captain's reputation, but the former Frenchman was cleared of responsibility.4 While the Alliance was in France, Landais enlisted another crew of varied nationalities; presumably many were French volunteers. The frigate would soon become a potent warship of the Continental Navy, successfully taking a number of prizes.
Conflicting Views
Despite prior instructions to load his frigate with munitions and return to America, Landais was ordered to remain in France by Benjamin Franklin, one of the American commissioners in Paris. Franklin assigned the Alliance to a squadron commanded by Continental Navy Captain John Paul Jones.
Jones had meanwhile obtained command of the French 40-gun Duc de Duras in place of his smaller vessel, the Ranger. The newly acquired frigate became the Bonhomme Richard and the flagship of his American squadron, which included the Alliance, the 30-gun former French privateer Pallas, the 18-gun cutter Cerf, the 12-gun brigantine Vengeance, and two privateers. Landais was second in command of the squadron.
Jones' initial impression of the Frenchman was positive, as he called him "a sensible and well-informed man."5 The head of the Continental Marine Committee, John Adams, held other opinions, foreshadowing the impending adversity between the two captains:
[Landais] is jealous of every Thing. Jealous of every Body . . . he knows not how to treat his officers, nor his passengers, nor any Body else . . . . There is in this man an Inactivity and an Indecisiveness that will ruin him. He is bewildered . . . an embarrassed Mind.6
The tension between Jones and Landais began to rise in mid-June as the squadron sailed in search of the British in the Bay of Biscay. At one point during the cruise, the Bonhomme Richard and Alliance became blinded by a sudden squall and ended up on a collision course. The bow watch of the Bonhomme Richard noticed the potential disaster and frantically shouted to the Alliance to change course. Hearing the cries from the Bonhomme Richard's deck, Landais assumed that some of that ship's former British sailors pressed into service by Jones from French jails had started a mutiny. Rather than ordering a change in course Landais went below to his cabin to arm himself. The Bonhomme Richard's bowsprit tore into the Alliance's rigging and damaged her mizzenmast. Jones, who was in his cabin, relieved Lieutenant Robert Robinson who had command of the ship at the time.
On 25 August 1779 Landais had his first blatant disagreement with Jones. Earlier the senior commander, while leading a raid along the coast of Northern Ireland, lost some crew in small boats in dense fog. Always hunting for enemy vessels, Landais wanted to chase a prize into the same treacherous waters, but Jones, fearing the loss of the Alliance, ordered him to remain with the fleet. Landais vehemently argued that he had the right to follow his own "opinion in chasing when and where he thought proper and in every other matter."7 While Jones placated the Alliance's captain by showing reasonable concern for his vessel and her crew, Landais arrogantly faulted Jones for the loss of the small boats and questioned the commodore's competency. This infuriated Jones. Such insults were usually settled according to the centuries-old code of gentlemanly behavior—a duel—and Landais challenged Jones to a mortal contest with swords. This would give the challenger, who was well-trained in swordsmanship, a distinct advantage.8 Jones was equally outraged, but he subordinated his ego through his sense of duty to complete mission and postponed the duel until they were on land.
Friend or Foe?
On 23 September the American squadron encountered the 44-gun HMS Serapis, her consort the 20-gun Countess of Scarborough, and a convoy of British merchant vessels off Flamborough Head, England. The merchantmen scrambled for the nearest British port as their two escorts set course to challenge the Americans. After an exchange of shots the Countess of Scarborough capitulated to the Pallas. Evening descended and a bright moon rose, illuminating a choppy sea. Jones ordered the prearranged lantern signal aloft to direct the Alliance to join the battle and give the Americans a numerical advantage. Landais, however, kept his course, appearing to ignore Jones. The Serapis opened fire first, blasting the Bonhomme Richard with a thunderous broadside. Her 18-pounder cannon could inflict more damage than the Bonhomme Richard's mostly 12-pounders. The British fire wounded or killed a number of the American ship's gun crews, breached her hull, and badly damaged the vessel's rudder.
Some two hours later, the Alliance finally sailed into the fray, rounding the Bonhomme Richard's stern and the Serapis' bow and then firing a broadside that struck both vessels. The blast did more damage to the American flagship than her opponent. Changing course, the Alliance next fired a grapeshot broadside into the bow of the Bonhomme Richard, wounding many Americans and severing part of her rigging. According to historian-novelist James Fenimore Cooper:
As the Moon had been up for some time, it was impossible not to distinguish between the two vessels. The Bonhomme Richard being all black while the Serapis had yellow sides; and the impression seems to have been . . . that the [Bonhomme Richard] was attacked intentionally.9
Jones ordered the commodore's identity signal lanterns hung on the mainmast in the hope that the Alliance would not fire again. Despite the highly visible lanterns, Landais' frigate descended on the two ships and cut loose another grapeshot broadside into the hapless vessels then grappled together. After the battle Landais would tell a French officer that he intended to help Serapis sink the Bonhomme Richard and then to capture and board the British frigate as the victor of the battle. He later claimed that his broadsides forced the Serapis to strike her colors.10
Captain Richard Pearson of the Serapis, who saw that the Bonhomme Richard was in obvious danger of sinking, called out to Jones to strike his colors. Legend has it Jones replied, "I have not yet begun to fight," but he likely bellowed, "No sir, I have not yet thought of it, but am determined to make you strike."11 With the American and British ships still grappled, the Bonhomme Richard slowly started to sink. Sharp-shooting Marines, however, began firing from her tops onto the deck of the Serapis below, spreading carnage among the vulnerable British crewmen. Pearson finally capitulated, ordering the Union Jack struck and surrendering the Serapis. As the sun rose, the striped American ensign flew from both the Bonhomme Richard and Serapis. On 25 September the fatally wounded Bonhomme Richard sank as the American and British survivors watched from the Serapis' bloodstained deck. When the American squadron reached Holland, arrangements were made to exchange the newly captured British sailors for American prisoners of war.12
Once ashore, Jones brought charges against Landais for incompetent conduct, disobedience, and indiscriminately firing into contesting vessels. Furthermore Jones reported to John Brown, secretary of the American Admiralty Board, that Landais' ship "is in so bad a condition. Epidemical disorders raged among the crew; the officers were always drinking grog. And there was a total want of subordination, and negligence."13 Landais was unrepentant and, at a chance meeting with Jones in an Amsterdam tavern, reminded the commodore that they had agreed to duel once they were on shore. Jones avoided the challenge by proposing that the officers settle differences in a court-martial hearing.
Added Indignity
In mid-November, Jones was given command of the Alliance, and in May 1780 King Louis XVI of France, impressed by his exploits over their common British enemy, honored Jones with the title of Chevalier de l'Ordre du Merite Militaire. Landais, who deeply resented losing his command was further enraged by Jones' title in the court of his former country. He became obsessed with forcing Jones to a duel, pursuing him on the streets of L'Orient, with a sword drawn and ready. Meanwhile, the officers and crew of the Alliance had developed split loyalties, some adamantly for Landais and others for Jones. On 7 June, Benjamin Franklin intervened. He indirectly chided Landais by noting to the officers and crew of the Alliance that "Captain Jones loved close fighting, [but] Captain Landais was skillful at keeping out of harm's way, and that therefore you thought yourselves safer with the latter."14 In turn, Franklin warned Jones that Landais could be dangerous and cause a great deal of trouble.
The Alliance had meanwhile been ordered to sail from L'Orient, transporting war supplies for American troops. While Jones was ashore on 12 June, Landais boarded the Alliance to claim command of his former vessel. On Jones' return, the captain of the Marines who was loyal to Landais, blocked the commodore's entry aboard his ship. Jones concluded that Landais was mad. To avoid a confrontation, he hurried to Paris to obtain written orders from Franklin placing him officially in command of the Alliance, orders that Landais might be more inclined to respect. The ambassador went further arranging to have French naval forces placed at Jones' disposal to prevent the American warship from departing L'Orient so that he might regain command of the vessel.15 Despite his advantageous position, Jones allowed the Alliance to sail to America on 20 June without challenge to avoid unnecessary carnage, the loss of a valuable frigate, and potential damage to the fragile Franco-American friendship if French forces attacked the ship. For the time being Pierre Landais was out of John Paul Jones' life.
Evidence of Insanity
Landais had his own misfortunes, however, as the Alliance's crossing from Brittany to the United States took a bizarre turn. He instituted excessive and unwarranted discipline, lost control of the crew, and made a series of obvious blunders in seamanship that placed his ship in jeopardy. On 11 August, the officers and passengers mutinied and confined Landais to his cabin. First Lieutenant James Arthur Degge assumed temporary command of the frigate and docked at Boston rather than Philadelphia, as scheduled. Arthur Lee, a prominent Virginia patriot and passenger on board the ship, testified before a November court-martial that he thought Landais' actions were evidence of insanity.16
The court found Landais guilty of taking command of the Alliance without Franklin's permission, transporting personal goods in place of government sanctioned stores, and of incompetence in shiphandling during this return voyage. 17He was asked to resign his commission in the Continental Navy but received no further punishment. 18 Ironically, the president of the court-martial board was Captain John Barry, the newly appointed commander of the Alliance. 19
Barry Takes Command
The dignified, 6-foot 4-inch-tall Barry spoke with a commanding voice combining wry humor with an occasional edge of temper. An Irish immigrant, he was popular among his peers and Sailors. As a sign of the Continental Congress' confidence in Barry, the Alliance was ordered to sail from Boston for L'Orient in February 1781 conveying Henry Laurens on an important diplomatic mission to the French Court. On the ship's return, one of her passengers was the Marquis de Lafayette. Barry then recrossed the Atlantic, capturing two British privateers—the 22-gun Mars and 10-gun Minerva.
On 29 May 1781, off the coast of Newfoundland the Alliance's crew spotted two vessels, the 16-gun HMS Atalanta and her escort, the 14-gun brig HMS Trepassy, hulls down over the horizon. The wind was calm and maneuvering was very difficult, but the British vessels slowly took up positions of advantage so that the Alliance could not bring many of her guns to bear on them. The two smaller British ships floated close to the bow and stern of the Alliance to rake her from both ends. Commanding his ship's defense from the quarterdeck, Barry was wounded in the left shoulder by grape shot. He remained on deck for a time, but eventually lost consciousness and was carried below for medical attention.
During the struggle, the Alliance's colors were shot away, and the British assumed that the vessel had struck. But a new flag was raised and the fight continued. Nature intervened as a gust of wind filled the Alliance's sails and the helm responded. The battered frigate gained headway and came about, opening her starboard battery of 12-pounders to her British foes. After three destructive broadsides, the enemy warships surrendered.
The commander of the Atalanta was led to the main cabin where Barry was recovering from his wound. The British captain presented his sword, but Barry returned it with the message: "I return it to you, Sir. You have merited it, and your King ought to give you a better ship."20 The Revolutionary War naval victory was additional evidence of Americans' firm resolve in the closing days of the conflict.
Her Final Fight
The last Continental Navy battle of the Revolution took place on 10 March 1783—nearly 17 months after the British surrender at Yorktown, but 36 days before the Continental Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris. The Alliance was escorting the Duc de Luzerne from Havana with a shipment of silver specie destined for the Continental Congress when three British warships, the frigates Sybylle and Alarm, and sloop Tobago, set upon Barry's ship. The feisty American captain engaged the 28-gun Sybylle, directing his gun crews with telling results. Though the British frigate surrendered, Barry was obliged to abandon his prize because the Alliance was vulnerable to the remaining enemy warships. The precious cargo safely reached port and was used to help establish the First Bank of the United States.
With the arrival of peace, the usefulness of the Alliance was over. Officially put up for sale on 3 June 1785, she was the last Continental Navy vessel to be decommissioned.21 The veteran warship was sold on 1 August 1785 and served in the merchant West Indian trade. Thomas Read, a former captain in the Continental Navy, commanded her on a passage to China. Outward bound in June 1787, Read discovered two uncharted islands and named one Alliance after his vessel. The former warship arrived at Canton that December and returned to Philadelphia with a cargo of tea in September 1788. Records of the old frigate's subsequent career have been lost, but when no longer seaworthy she was abandoned off Petty Island on the Delaware River near Philadelphia.
The remnants of the hulk were destroyed in the course of dredging operations in 1910. During her halcyon days, her decks bore witness to many dramatic battles and several intrigues that colored the Revolutionary War. And then fate made the enduring Alliance the last survivor of a historic American fleet, the Continental Navy.
1. Thomas Crawford, Naval Documents of the American Revolution (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1996), 10: p. 473. (Henceforth NDAR.) The number of guns carried by ships of the period could vary more or less than the ship's nominal rating.
2. Charles Lincoln, editor, Naval Record of the American Revolution 1775-1788. 18 June 1778, Marine Committee letter book, 158. (Washington: Government Printing Office 1906), p. 75. (Henceforth Lincoln. NRAR.)
3. NDAR, 10: pp. 961-2. The name Landais is spelled variously as Lundy, Landai, and Landi in documents of this period. Landais' French 20-gun ship was the Heureux whose name was later changed to the Flamand.
4. Lincoln, NRAR, p. 114.
5. John Paul Jones Papers, Library of Congress, John Paul Jones letter to Benjamin Franklin, 14 May 1779. (Henceforth JPJP).
6. L. H. Butterfield, ed., Autobiography of John Adams (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966), 12 May 1779, 2: p. 368.
7. Evan Thomas, John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American Navy
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003) p. 170.
8. This often cited note about Landais and his wanting to fight Jones with swords is puzzling. According to the dueling code the challenged person, Jones, had the right to select the weapon if he accepted the challenge.
9. James Fenimore Cooper, The History of the Navy of the United States (Philadelphia, PA: Thomas, Cowperthwait & Co., 1841), p. 97.
10. Samuel Eliot Morison, John Paul Jones: A Sailor's Biography (Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1959), p. 235.
11. Don C. Seitz, Paul Jones: His Exploits in English Seas During 1778-1780 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1917), p. 88. Quote from the London Evening Post, 12 October 1779.
12. When all had returned home, the British Admiralty honored the defeated CAPT Pearson for his gallantry.
13. JPJP, John Paul Jones letter to John Brown, 13 March 1781.
14. Wilcox W. B. and Oberg, B. eds. Benjamin Franklin Papers. Franklin to the Officers of the Alliance, 12 June 1780, (Sponsored by the American Philosophical Society and Yale University, 35 volumes) 32: p. 508.
15. NRAR, p. 126.
16. Morison, John Paul Jones. p. 300.
17. NRAR, p. 173.
18. NRAR, p. 170.
19. NRAR, pp. 165, 168.
20. Frost, The Pictorial Book, p. 80.
21. NRAR, p. 209.