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lhe air group for the carrier would seem to be beyond Chile’s means at this time.
Internationally, the Beagle Channel controversy with Argentina remains the ^ost critical issue. Evidently, Great Britain did approach Chile during the year 'Vlth a request to use its territory as a stopover for the resupply of the Falkland Elands. Reportedly, Chile did not conSent. Chile, like Argentina and Brazil, is trying to increase its presence in the Ant- frctic. In January, Chile opened a new air ^ase on the edge of the Bellinghaussen ^ea in the Antarctic.
Colombia: Colombia shares the eco- n°mic problems of many of its sister republics. Throughout the year, the Colom- Utan military has clashed with guerrilla forces. In the fall, ten of 13 cabinet members were changed in an effort to give Uew direction in the government, and jUee Admiral Tito Garcia Motta became be new commander of the navy. The first f'Vo Colombian “Type FS-1500” frigates ^earne operational in 1983; two additional units will become operational in 1984-1985. The four frigates are named Antioquia, Independiente, Almirante Padilla, and Caldas.
Ecuador: Border clashes once again occurred between Ecuador and Peru. Vice Admiral Mario Jaramillo de Castillo became Chief of the Armed Forces Joint Command. His selection should help the prestige of the navy within the country. Three new Esmeraldas-class corvettes had entered service by the end of 1983.
Paraguay: This land-locked nation is having a Roraima-class river gunboat built by Brazil. The Paraguayan unit will be named Itaipau.
Peru: Peru is also beset by guerrillas. During the summer, its forces attacked a Lima power station. As a result of this attack and preceding ones, the president declared a 60-day state of emergency. More and more of the nation’s provinces are being entrusted to the armed forces in an attempt to combat these guerrillas.
The Peruvian Navy plans to modernize
The Colombian Navy will have four Wes/ German-built “FS-1500”-class frigates in service by the end of the year. The lead ship of the class, the Almirante Padilla, is pictured.
part of its surface fleet over the next few years. In the first phase, the cruiser Almirante Grau (the ex-Royal Netherlands Navy De Ruyter) will undergo extensive modernization, including electronics and weapon system updates. This will cost $120 million and be done in Holland, where the ship was built. Also, the seven ex-Dutch Friesland-class and one Holland-class destroyers now serving in the Peruvian Navy will receive modem electronics and, possibly, surface-to-surface missiles. This phase is estimated to cost $600 million. Futhermore, Peru is planning some major improvements at its naval base at Chimbote.
Uruguay: Like a number of Latin American nations, Uruguay was reportedly asked by the British to permit aircraft to stop on their way to the Falk- lands. Again, reportedly, Uruguay told the British that Uruguay would only give permission once Great Britain formally agreed to hold negotiations with Argentina. There were no significant changes to the Uruguayan naval order of battle during 1983.
Dr. Scheina is the historian for the U. S. Coast Guard. He has traveled extensively in Latin America and been published in many Latin and European publications on Latin American topics. His new book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon Latin America, 1810-1982, will be published by the Naval Institute Press in 1985.
Western European and NATO Navies
fiy Norman Friedman
. Current NATO doctrine calls for rela- |lvely early escalation to nuclear warfare ln the event of a successful large-scale Soviet ground attack. Although there are n° official calls for abandonment of this Policy, it seems likely to change in the near future, for two reasons. First, there ls increasing evidence that the Soviets JVlsh to avoid using nuclear weapons, as <>n8 as NATO does not use such weap- °ns- Second, since the Soviets have at east approached—not to say surpassed— Parity in tactical nuclear weapons, NATO ls Unlikely to gain in any directly military Sense from such escalation. There is already considerable pressure, therefore, for NATO to concentrate on strengthening its conventional forces, reserving to nuclear forces the role of deterring Soviet nuclear attack, rather than the wider role of deterring virtually any large-scale Soviet attack.
Such a change in NATO doctrine would also result in a shift from a short- war to a long-war concept. Traditionally, the longer the war. the greater the contribution of sea power. For example, although the loss of the Atlantic sea lines of communication (SLOCs) might be tolerable in a very short war which ended because of the threat of nuclear escalation, the SLOCs would be essential for NATO
resupply in a lengthier conflict.
The two major threats to the Atlantic SLOCs are Soviet submarines and Soviet long-range missile-armed bombers (“Badgers” and “Backfires”). Thus far, NATO navies have concentrated on the former. Some of the newer point defense weapons may suffice to protect a frigate from bomber-launched missiles, but one might speculate that some form of area defense is needed. Ideally, there should be some means of destroying the bombers. To some extent that may be achieved by land-based fighters, but one can only mourn the passing of the British large- deck carrier force, which might have pro-
vided sea-based anti-“Backfire” forces.
The relatively recent development of vertical or short takeoff and landing (V/ STOL) aircraft carriers in the British, Italian, and Spanish navies does not solve this problem, because existing and prospective V/STOL aircraft do not have the requisite combat radius or performance to defeat the threat. It is, however, conceivable that some future surface-launched/ air-targeted missile will solve the problem, in which case the small carriers will be the appropriate platforms for the tar- geting/airbome early warning aircraft. It must be emphasized that this is a distant prospect.
As for the traditional NATO concern of antisubmarine warfare (ASW), at present, emphasis is being placed on extremely capable ships, such as the British “Type-22s” and “Type-23s,” and on a barrier/attrition strategy in which very large numbers of ships are not needed. However, as Soviet submarines become more quiet, such operations may decline in effectiveness, and NATO navies may be forced into a more convoy-oriented strategy. That situation will be reminiscent of that just after World War II, when huge numbers of NATO escorts were planned—and when the U. S. and British navies could derive some comfort from the vast numbers of existing mothballed ships. Those vessels are long gone, together with many of their immediate successors, and the issue of numbers is only beginning to surface. British interest in a scaled-up offshore patrol vessel (OPV) may indicate a possible future direction, and the relatively new technology of the towed sonar array (with helicopter prosecution) may allow a much simpler solution than many would have thought possible a decade ago.
The other means of closing the SLOCs is mining. The Soviets have a long tradition of practicing mine warfare, and reportedly they have a massive stockpile of about 300,000 mines. Thus mine countermeasures figure prominently in many of the West European navies. To some "extent, too, the U. S. Navy has relied on the European navies to provide the mine countermeasures which it lacks.
Current European interest in mine countermeasures is reflected in the “Tripartite” minehunter program, in which Belgium, France, and the Netherlands developed a common design. The joint agreement was signed in May 1975, and called for 15 ships each for France and the Netherlands, and ten (with an option for five more) for Belgium.
The SLOCs are only one of two major NATO concerns. The other is the large Soviet amphibious warfare fleet, which would probably be used on the flanks or the NATO armies, in areas such as the Baltic, Norway, and the exits from the Black Sea. Thus most of the NATO navies have a considerable antiship role, executed by a combination of fast attack craft, submarines, and missile-armed aircraft. For example, the Norwegian submarines and fast torpedo and missile boats are primarily an anti-invasion force, and the Norwegian Air Force F-16s, which have an antishipping mis" sion, must be counted as naval assets-
One other factor must be mentioned' the 200-mile exclusive economic zone
®EZ). Navies are now charged with tasks such as fishery patrol, and must °ften either buy new specialized ships or c°nvert existing combatants for such operations. In at least five cases, Britain, •"ranee, Denmark, Ireland, and Norway, new specialized offshore or coast guard Patrol vessels have been built. As in the Case of U. S. Coast Guard ships, some of these vessels are clearly convertible into austere ASW escorts in wartime. If NATO strategy is indeed shifting toward a conVOy_ASW orientation, then these designs may become the basis for emer- Sency construction.
Finally, all over the Western world, shipbuilding industries are experiencing great difficulties, and that may well encourage governments to order ships for economic rather than purely military reasons. The character of the Canadian frigate program is a case in point. The West German firm Howaldtswerke-Deutsche 'A’crft (HDW), which for many years was •he leading export builder of diesel-elec- Wc submarines, is now in difficulty. Bremer Vulkan, the surface ship builder, had work only through 1983. The state of •he British shipbuilding industry is well ^own. Bright spots are France and Italy, which have been extremely successful ^porters.
Some countries, such as France and •aly, have “Navy Laws” which attempt •° fix programs five to ten years in ad- ''ance. By way of (apparent) contrast, the United States rarely follows its five-year defense plan even into the second year. Fven these “legal” long-range programs aPpear to be subject to considerable polit- •cal change throughout their nominal life- hmes. Thus notes based on, for example, •he French 1984—88 Law, should not be considered too much more definitive than Recounts of the U. S. Five-Year Defense . r°gram. They are hopes rather than real- ltles. That will be particularly the case if, as seems likely, the Western European economies do not recover very robustly 0ver the next year or two.
Belgium: The only current naval programs are the construction of ten “Tripar- tlte ’ minehunters and a new research
ship.
Canada: On 29 June, Canada announced that it had chosen Saint John hipbuilding & Dry Dock Co., Ltd., to Utld its long-awaited Canadian patrol ligate (CPF), which is to begin to retrace the existing escort fleet. It is exacted to be the largest post-World War II anadian defense project, initially em. racing six ships, but ultimately extend- llag to as many as 20. Three of the first six raps are to be subcontracted to Davie hipbuilding of Quebec. Some years ago the CPF program received considerable publicity when it was the first to require steel rather than aluminum superstructure material, a consequence not of the Falk- lands’ experience but of Vietnam War lessons and of disasters such as the collision between the USS Belknap (CG-26) and the USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67). This project also is unusual in that it places virtually full responsibility on the builder rather than on the Canadian Navy.
Much of the detailed planning of the program was designed to support Canadian industry, some of which is badly depressed. Hence, the split between New Brunswick and Quebec firms, even though this division will cost the government an estimated $57 million. The weapon system will be designed by Sperry, which agreed to set up a Canadian subsidiary, Paramax, which will be transferred to Canadian ownership during the course of the project.
The announced names, in order of completion, are Halifax, Vancouver, Ville de Quebec, Toronto, Regina, and Calgary, all provincial capitals. HMCS Halifax is to be laid down in July 1985, launched a year later, and to begin trials in September 1988; the last of the class is
For NATO to protect the SLOCs requires the construction of ASW ships like the West German Navy’s Bremen-c/ass frigates. But the funds for such combatants are not readily available.
to be operational in March 1992.
Just as the earlier Canadian frigates were broadly comparable to the British “Type-12,” Rothesay, and Leander, the new design invites comparison with the new British “Type-22” and “Type-23.” She will be a relatively large ship, at 4,200 tons, and ultimately will tow a sonar array. Sensors have not yet been chosen, but there will be a dedicated long-range air search radar. However, like both British designs, the CPF will have no area air defense weapon. The primary ASW weapon will be a CH- 124A Sea King helicopter capable of prosecuting hull sonar and towed array contacts. Like most other Western ASW ships, the CPF will have a pair of triple lightweight torpedo tubes.
Armed with four Harpoon missiles, the CPF will become the first ship in the Canadian Navy with an antiship capability. The balance of the ship’s battery will
COMBAT FLEETS OF THE WORLD
be a Bofors 57-mm. gun and a Phalanx.
Denmark: The Danish submarine fleet is aging, the three remaining Delfinens having been completed in 1958-59 and 1964; two German “Type-205s” were completed in 1970. Denmark is, therefore, considering the construction of up to six new German-designed submarines, presumably the German/Norwegian “Type-210.”
Finland: The first of four 280-ton, 30-knot Helsinki class fast attack craft was delivered in 1982; three more were ordered in January 1983; another six are planned. They are to be armed with the new 57-mm. Bofors gun and two twin 23-mm. antiaircraft weapons, as well as eight Swedish RBS-15 antiship missiles. Ironically, Finland is barred by treaty from operating torpedo boats.
Finland also is prohibited by treaty from employing influence mines, but recently both Britain and the Soviet Union agreed to ignore this provision; the Finnish Navy is, therefore, now experimenting with such weapons.
The next major naval project will be a new ASW class, for the 1990s.
France: The French Navy is unique in Europe for its concentration on strategic and overseas missions. The former is symbolized by the construction of new ballistic missile submarines, and is one aspect of the heavy nuclear-weapons orientation of French defense policy in general. The latter derives from the assumption of responsibility for former French possessions, particularly in Africa. Because France intends to continue to assist these distant states, it plans to continue operating aircraft carriers for the foreseeable future, and a nuclear-powered carrier will be started during 1985. Against these policy objectives, however, must be set severe fiscal problems, which in the past have forced France to lower its expectations.
Traditionally, too, France has been energetic in its efforts to sell naval systems abroad, and has used these sales to finance the operation of its defense industry. In particular, the last French diesel- electric submarine, the Agosta, was originally conceived as an export-only project. Although the French Navy is not currently buying diesel submarines, it is possible that it will eventually purchase examples of the new export type, the Dubigeon CA-1.
The French five-year defense plan (1984-1988) reflects the traditional orientation toward nuclear forces: it includes a new-generation nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), the first of which is to enter service in 1994. The sixth of the current series, L’Inflexible, is to enter service in 1985. With the exception of the Redoutable, the first to be completed, all of the submarines will be re-equipped with the new M4 missile- The sixth SSBN will be armed with 3 multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle M5 missile. It had originally been hoped that, with six SSBNs in service, three could be maintained continuously on patrol. Also reflecting this concentr3' tion on strategic deterrent forces is the fact that the 16 new Atlantique NG mart' time patrol aircraft were described as m- tended primarily to protect the ballist|C missile submarines (or, rather, their routes of sortie and return to port).
For the first time, a model of the ne^ French carrier was shown publicly. a1' though the project had been announced 3S early as 1981. The Charles de Gaulle is 3 36,000-ton, 28-knot ship capable of op' erating conventional aircraft, primarily 3 navy version of the new fighter-bomber (ACF). Her air group will consist of 35 t0 40 aircraft and ASW helicopters; there are apparently no plans for a French 3ir' borne early warning aircraft. She is replace the Clemenceau. The only visibly unusual feature is that the island is f°r ward of both starboard deck-edge elev3 tors. The new French DRBJ11B phase array radar, which will be on board the antiaircraft version of the GeorgeS Leygues-class “corvette,” will be carried. Replacement of the other fixe wing carrier, the Foch, is planned, t>u
s>gn.
Atl:
lari
antic, and that should imply some en-
W>11 not occur until the 1990s.
Production of “C-70”-type frigates c°ntinues, in both antiair warfare (AAW) and ASW versions. The ASW prototype, r>e Georges Leygues, was delivered in y'9, and the last of at least seven will not be completed until after 1988. Three MW corvettes were authorized under p 1977-82 plan, for completion from •988 onward. They will have the new u“BJ11b rotating phased-array radar, and they will be armed with a single Standard Missile launcher aft, two Sadral ’ghtweight surface-to-air missile (SAM) pinchers, eight MM-40 lightweight Pxocets, a 100-mm. lightweight gun, and a helicopter, intended primarily for antiSurface warfare duties. The new plan .visages three more for delivery in ‘990-1993.
„ ^e Eridan, the first of up to 15 French Tripartite” minehunters (and the proto- vPe of the series), was completed in 9°2. Two more were delivered in 1982, and one in 1983. Four mine disposal sup- P0rt ships and two experimental mine- keepers are included in the 1984—1988 Pr°gram.
. The 1984—1988 plan calls for construc- *°n of eight nuclear attack submarines by he end of the century. That includes the J*k/s, which entered service in 1982. Tree are to be delivered in 1984—1988, and the other four after 1988, the final Pair of which are to be of a “post-Rubis”
West Germany: Until recently the est German Navy was concerned al- jP°st exclusively with operations in the altic and the Eastern portion of the °rth Sea. Now, however, German ships pe also to operate in the Northeastern gement of the navy. That may be lim- jjed by the German economy, which, like ne other European economies, is curtly depressed. Much of the current
"^Gilbert tonnage dates from the 1960s and must now be replaced. The six “Standard” type frigates (Bremen class) essentially replace the six aging Koln-class frigates completed in 1961-1964. Ten “Type- 143 A”-class fast attack boats are replacing the older Zobel class. They differ from the existing “Type-143,” in that the new RAM point defense missile replaces the 76-mm. gun of the earlier type, and mine rails replace the torpedoes. The first ship, the Gepard, was commissioned on 13 December 1982.
Surplus ships are being exported. This year, West Germany transferred two Koln-class frigates to Turkey, as well as a second Rhein-class tender.
As part of the submarine-building agreement with Norway, West Germany agreed to employ Norwegian equipment, including fire control systems, in the 12 replacement submarines it plans to deploy in the 1990s. Of these, six are to be 1,400-ton craft for the Northeastern Atlantic, and six of 1,100 tons for the Baltic. The replacement program is tentatively designated “Type-210,” and may employ a fuel cell or some other high- capacity underwater power source.
Six minesweepers have been converted to operate the new “Troika” drone; the first was Schleswig, completed in 1981. There is also a new minehunter program, “Type-343.”
Greece: The most recent warship acquisitions were two Dutch “Standard” frigates delivered in 1981-1982; they differ from the Dutch ships in that their hangars have been lengthened to accommodate a larger helicopter. These ships are to be fitted with a new point defense gun system.
Ireland: More than a decade ago, the Irish Navy had dwindled to a single elderly “Flower”-class corvette. However, in 1970, tenders were sought for a new coast guard-type ship, and ultimately four units of about 1,000 tons were built which do not operate helicopters. To better patrol its economic exclusion zone, a new design was developed in 1979-1980 based loosely on that of the U. S. Coast Guard Bear class, and a contract for a single ship was signed on 23 April 1982, for completion in May 1984. Two had been planned, but funds were insufficient. This “P31” class displaces about 1,900 tons fully loaded, and is armed with a single Bofors 57-mm. gun. Diesel engines should propel the ship at 19 knots.
Italy: The Italian Navy must deal with both open-ocean (Mediterranean SLOC) and choke point (Sicilian Narrows, Straits of Otranto, and the Corsican and Sardinian straits) conditions. Thus, like the Baltic navies, it has a large coastal component. Also, like the Baltic navies, the Italian Navy is oriented toward antiship warfare almost as much as it is antisubmarine warfare. The Otomat missile (four per ship) is the current standard antiship weapon. The choke points are also natural targets of mine warfare, and four Lerici-class minehunters are under construction, with another six programmed. Two sister ships are under construction for Nigeria, and four others for Malaysia. The seven existing U. S. Adjutant-class minehunters are elderly converted minesweepers.
The Italian Navy went through a major NATO building program in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and many of the ships constructed at that time are now scheduled for replacement. The current open- ocean fleet includes three guided missile helicopter cruisers, four destroyers (two completed in 1971, two in 1963-1964), 13 frigates (of which the four Maestrales and four Lupos entered service in 19771983, but three elderly ships are scheduled for replacement by additional Maestrales), and ten submarines (of which two ex-U. S. Tangs are to be replaced by Sauros in 1987; the latest are four Sauros completed in 1979-1982). Up to 12 new corvettes are planned, and eight older ships are in active service. The four existing fast gunboats have been supplemented by the new Sparviero-class hydrofoils.
Perhaps the most important factor in near-term Italian naval planning is the
The Nerz (P-6124) is the fourth of ten “Type-143A” guided missile patrol boats for the West German Navy. Her fantail will eventually be occupied by a box launcher for 24 General Dynamics RAM point defense missiles.
of
given a high priority. The current force
To meet the expected air threat, the Netherlands Navy modified its Kor- tenaer design to produce the two-ship Jacob Van Heemskerck class—lead ship, right. Another major Dutch naval program is the construction of 15 “Tripartite” minehunters—including the Dordrecht (M-852).
L & L VAN Gl NOE REN
aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi, which was launched on 4 June 1983, and scheduled for completion in 1985. She has a large bow sonar, and was designed primarily to operate 16 Sea King helicopters. However, she has a ski-jump, and presumably will operate V/STOL aircraft. She is also to carry four Otomat antiship missiles, two octuple Albatros point defense missile launchers (each with 16 Aspide ready reloads plus more in a bow magazine), three twin 40-mm. guns, and two triple tubes for lightweight torpedoes. Traditional Italian concentration on antiship warfare shows in magazine space for 50 to 60 Sea Killer missiles, which will be carried by her helicopters.
The carrier will be escorted by two new missile destroyers, the contract for which should be awarded in 1984. They had originally been planned for 19791981, but were delayed because of a shortage of funds. An official sketch shows a Standard Missile launcher aft, and the Albatros/Aspide point defense system forward, with a five-inch gun. This battery is comparable with that of the new Dutch antiaircraft frigates, apart from the addition of the medium caliber gun and an embarked ASW helicopter. Where the Dutch will carry eight Harpoons, the new Italian ships will carry four Otomats each.
The Condore, the last of seven Spar- v/ero-class hydrofoils, was delivered in 1983. She will mark the end of the NATO hydrofoil patrol craft program, which began with the Boeing and Grumman hydrofoil gunboats of the 1960s, and also included the U. S. PHM.
Two LPD-like amphibious warfare ships are to be built to replace the two existing ex-U. S. LSTs. The first ship is to be navy-funded, the second funded by the Interior Ministry for peacetime disaster relief.
Netherlands: The Royal Netherlands Navy has attempted to satisfy a “fleet plan” drawn up in the early 1970s, under which it was to consist of three escort groups, two in the Eastern Atlantic and one in the English Channel; one six-submarine squadron; 21 long-range maritime patrol aircraft; and 31 mine countermeasures ships for the Dutch coast and the North Sea. Each escort group was to consist of one air defense/flag ship, six frigates, and an underway replenishment ship. At this time, the navy included 12 postwar destroyers, six British-type frigates, and six coastal escorts, plus submarines. Two large air defense “frigates,” the Tromps, were already under construction, and replacement of the existing destroyers had the highest priority. The Dutch Government developed a ten-year plan, and was willing to sign contracts over the entire length of the plan, a practice quite unusual in the West.
The Dutch builders hoped that the Kor- tenaer or “Standard” frigates would become a standard for much of NATO. Indeed, the West German “Type-122” frigates which followed are very similar in design. The first Dutch frigate was delivered in October 1978, and the class was completed in 1983. In 1980, two ships, the sixth and seventh, were sold to Greece, and two more ordered to replace them. However, as it was appreciated that air attack was now a much greater danger, both new ships were ordered to a modified air defense design, with a Standard Missile launcher and a Goalkeeper point defense gun aft; both types have NATO Sea Sparrow point defense weapons forward. The new ships have become the Jacob van Heemskerck class, and should be completed in 1985 and
1986- „
At least five frigates of a new “M
class are to be built, to replace the old PCEs in the fishery protection and EEZ role. They were conceived as austere equivalents of the Kortenaers, with much the same armament, but with reduced complements (100 rather than 200 officers and men) on about two-thirds the displacement. Reportedly, one may be an air defense/flag ship. They will lack the long-range air search radars and, presumably, the towed sonar arrays of the larger ships.
Two submarines of the Walrus class (improvements on the Zwaardvis, herseU a modified version of the U. S. Barbel) are now under construction, for comple' tion in 1985 and 1986, and two more may be ordered in 1987.
The first of the Dutch “Tripartite minehunters, the Alkmaar, began sea trials in February 1983. She is the first of a series of 15.
Norway: Although in theory the Roya1 Norwegian Navy should be replacing many of its existing surface combatants, that seems unlikely for the near term- given the status of the economy. However, submarine replacement has been 15 craft dates from the early 1960s. Although they may last 25 years (and f°ur to six are to be extended to 30 or even 35), replacement is about to begin. The Norwegian Government signed a contract with Thyssen Nordseewerk of Emden m build six “Type-6071” submarines, wim an option for two more, on 30 September 1982. The existing Norwegian submarine force is of West German design, and > has long been understood that any futufe program would be a parallel West Gef man-Norwegian one.
Portugal: Portugal’s attempts to ac quire modem frigates with which to carry out its navy’s NATO commitments have continued to meet frustration, primari y for economic reasons. Plans to bui three Dutch “Standard” frigates have
Sweden: Sweden continues to empha- Sl2e submarines and fast attack craft for Coastal operation, having laid up its last destroyer. It has announced additional divestment in ASW in response to recent ^oviet midget-submarine intrusions into jkedish waters. Additional heavy ASW delicopters will be purchased. Perhaps jdore importantly, rules of engagement oave been changed so that submarines etccted in Swedish territorial waters will n°w be destroyed without warning. Norway adopted similar rules about two 7ears ago. In both cases, local acoustic conditions are so difficult that it seems “nlikely that the Soviets will be forced to aoandon their activities.
I E°ur submarines of the new Vastergot- and (A-17)-class are on order as are two l°ckholm (“Spica III”)-class fast attack Craft. The latter are to be armed with a new Swedish-developed RBS-15 antiship
repeatedly fallen through, and in 1983, negotiations were in hand with West German shipbuilders to acquire ships of the s>milar “Type-122” (Bremen) design.
prospects for success are not bright, however.
The Portuguese Navy currently operas seven frigates (three of modified bealey design, four of French Comman- dante Riviere design), ten corvettes, and three Daphne-class submarines. Although no new construction is under contact, there is an ongoing modernization Program. Of the Dealeys, two are to be converted for search and rescue duties and exclusive economic zone (EEZ) pa- tr°l. The four French-designed ships are being modernized, as are the submarines. The corvettes will also be used for EEZ vvork, but the four most capable will operate with the frigates and the submarines 'n the ASW role. There is no mine countermeasures capability, as the four mine- keepers, which were overaged, were all stnpped of their specialized gear during the 1960s.
Spain: The first home-built Spanish carrier, the modified sea control ship Principe de Asturias, was launched in *^ay 1982, and should enter service in teid-igsb. She will operate U. S.-built ^V-8B Flarriers, 12 of which were ordered this year, and SH-60B LAMPS III nelicopters, six of which also have been ordered.
Early in 1983, Spain announced a program to acquire seven new escorts, two which would replace Descubierta- c|ass frigates sold to Egypt. At least two of these ships were to be Oliver Hazard erry-class frigates, intended to escort ‘he new carrier. Three were ordered in “77, and late in 1983, two more were ordered.
missile which is also to be installed on board existing “Spica Il”-class fast attack boats. An air-launched version is planned for the new JAS-39 strike aircraft. A follow-on missile boat program for six Goteborg-class boats has been announced, significant investments are being made in mine countermeasures, patrol boats, and service craft.
United Kingdom: The Royal Navy is still afflicted by the heavy budget cuts announced before the Falklands Conflict. Although some funding has been restored, the frigate force is still running down, and it seems unlikely that new construction will replace ships built in the 1950s and early 1960s as they are retired. Manpower is so limited that the helicop- ter/V/STOL carrier Hermes has begun to be progressively laid up. She will become a harbor training ship, and will be maintained in a “high state of readiness,” and will be stricken on the commissioning of the new Ark Royal. The Hermes, laid down in 1943, was completed (as Britain’s last conventional carrier) in 1959.
Fundamentally, however, the Royal Navy is very limited in funds because the British economy is limited. For many years, British defense funds have been stretched to cover an extremely broad array of missions. In particular, the Thatcher Government is going ahead with the construction of a new class of four strategic submarines, each to carry 16 Trident D-5 missiles. Cuts in the British Army, which is essentially pledged to help defend NATO in West Germany, or in the Royal Air Force, which increasingly has a home defense role, seem unlikely. Further funds are going into the defense of the Falklands. Almost certainly, then, the general-purpose surface fleet will suffer. One might note that just this result ensued when Britain bought its first four strategic submarines in the mid- 1960s.
A “Defence White Paper” issued on 14 December 1982 announced that five new “Type-22” frigates would be ordered at once, with a sixth scheduled for 1983. That will bring the class total to 14: four Batch Is, six Batch IIs, and four Batch Ills. Four were to replace ships lost in the Falklands, and a new logistic landing ship is to be built to replace the bombed-out Sir Galahad. The interim replacements for the Sir Galahad and the badly damaged Sir Tristram are two chartered RO/RO ships with stem ramps, Sir Caradoc, the former Grey Master, and Sir Lamorak, the former Lakespan Ontario. In addition, sufficient ships are to remain to maintain the frigate-destroyer force at 55 through 1984.
The Falklands experience is probably partly responsible for the decision to maintain a substantial surface navy: at present, the Royal Navy is very much an ASW force. It may be recalled that the pre-Falklands policy had been to concentrate on submarines and maritime patrol aircraft for the ASW role.
The Falklands experience is also reflected in new interest in supplying most surface combatants with a single 4.5-inch gun. Ships have been fitted with extemporized close-in weapons, and the Royal Navy is to purchase a standard close-in defensive gun. Phalanx, in a up- gunned version, is a major contender, and it has already been installed in the carriers.
The “Type-42” destroyers are fitted with two twin 30-mm. and two single 20-mm. guns before making South Atlantic deployments. The new Batch II “Type 22s” each have two 40-mm. guns. The large destroyer Glamorgan, which had been hit aft by an Exocet, has 40-mm. guns replacing her Sea Cat point defense missiles. Other ships have been fitted with 20-mm. guns, and U. S.-type Mk-36 chaff launchers have been installed on many frigates and destroyers to augment the Corvus chaff system.
There is some possibility that the existing “Type-42s” will be fitted with lightweight launchers for Sea Wolf point defense missiles and paired lightweight Sea Wolf and Sea Dart radars (Marconi 805 SW and 805 SD), replacing the current after Sea Dart director radar.
The “Type-21” frigates had shown some structural weakness even before they were subjected to very rough weather en route to the Falklands, and they are now emerging from refits with steel reinforcements for their hulls.
Three North Sea oil rig support vessels have been purchased for conversion to Falkland Island Patrol Vessels (FlPVs): Protector (ex-Seaforth Saga), Guardian (ex-Seaforth Champion), and Sentinel (iex-Seaforth Warrior). All displace about 900 to 1,000 tons. They will be armed with two 40-mm. Bofors guns.
The Ark Royal, the last of three V/ STOL carriers, is scheduled for completion late in 1984. With the Invincible and Illustrious already in service, the Royal Navy should be able to maintain two active V/STOL carriers at all times. In an emergency, three might operate. Sufficient helicopterborne Searchwater radars are to be procured to provide each carrier with an organic airborne early warning capability.
The containership Astronomer was converted into the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) Reliant, to operate a flight of ASW helicopters as a “deterrent” in the
South Atlantic, in support of British surface ships in the area. As an RFA, she is basically unarmed, but she employs U. S. Arapaho equipment. In effect, then, she is a minimally air-capable ship.
The delivery of the two main production classes of surface combatants, the “stretched” “Type-42” missile destroyer and the Batch II “Type-22” ASW frigate, continued. The first of the stretched “Type-42s,” HMS Manchester, was delivered in December 1982. Reportedly her extra length, which is all forward, is valuable largely for better seakeeping and a drier missile launcher.
In the frigate, much of the “stretch” is amidships, near the combat information center. Reportedly it provides sufficient space for data processors and displays for the Type-2031 towed sonar array. The prototype ship, HMS Boxer, is to be the first ship of the class to be fitted with an operational Type-2031 system. (An experimental installation exists in the older frigate HMS Lowestoft.) The Batch II ships still carry the Type-2016 hull- mounted sonar of their predecessors. However, it is expected that in mid-life refits, from 1988 on, “Type-22s” will be refitted with a new “Type-2050,” which will also appear in “Type-23s.” Four Batch II (Exocet-armed) Leanders are being equipped with towed sonar arrays, the first having been fitted to HMS Sirius. The others will be the Cleopatra, Phoebe, and Argonaut. Weight compensation includes removal of the Sea Cat forward, as well as the Type-965 air search radar, replacement of ship’s boats by a Searaider and a small crane, the fitting of 20-mm. rather than 40-mm. guns, and the lowering of the four Exocet missiles to the main deck level.
Type-2016 was reportedly the only British ship-mounted sonar able to cope adequately with shallow-water conditions in the Falklands. It is also carried by “stretched” “Type-42” missile destroyers and by five modernized Sea Wolfarmed Leander-class ASW frigates.
Batch II is to be succeeded by a Batch III. In this design, a 4.5-inch gun will be mounted in the bow, and eight (rather than four as at present) antiship missiles (to be of a new type) will be mounted abaft the bridge. The “Type-22” originally displaced 4,400 tons; Batch II, the first of which (HMS Boxer) was delivered this year, displaces 4,800, and Batch III, 4,900. As of this writing, four Batch Ills are on order, for delivery from 1987 onwards. The Batch Ills and last four Batch IIs will be powered by two Spey and two Tyne rather than two Olympus and two Tyne gas turbines.
Construction is also continuing on the new Trafalgar-c\ass nuclear attack submarines, the first of which entered active for effective array operation, and seakeeping for the North Atlantic and, presumably, barrier operations in the GIUK Gap. The ill-fated U. S. FFX was similar in concept. It appears that, partly due to the experience of the Falklands, a much more sophisticated ship has emerged, with a 4.5-inch gun and a battery of 32 vertically-launched Sea Wolf point defense missiles forward. There are also to be two close-in defense guns. A principal feature of the design is a large helicopter hangar, for the “Type-23” has been designed around a requirement to carry the new Anglo-Italian Elt-101 helicopter and a Type-2031 towed hydrophone array. The official model has not yet been chosen. It is understood that Harpoon is a leading missile candidate for the ship, particularly since other versions of the same missile have been bought for maritime aircraft and for British submarines. The new Otomat variant probably will be the alternative. The Royal Navy operates considerable numbers of earlier versions of the Exocet.
“Type-23” is to displace about 3,700 tons, and will be over 400 feet long, with gas turbine propulsion. However, at low speeds the diesels will power the propellers electrically, presumably for quieting- Compared to “Type-22,” “Type-23 appears to have considerably greater range (nominally 7,000 rather than 4,500
Many lessons-learned in the Falklands Conflict are reflected in changes to Royal Navy warships. The “stretched” Manchester (D-95) needed extra length for improved seakeeping; Boxer (F-92) was lengthened (primarily amidships) to accommodate new data processors and displays; and the Sir Lamorak (L-3532) and Sir Caradoc have been chartered as interim amphibious warfare ships.
service last year.
This year, the Royal Navy began two major new ship programs: the “Type- 23” frigate and the “Type-2400” diesel- electric submarine. The frigate was initially conceived as a very low-cost supplement to the expensive “Type-22” ASW frigate, essentially the minimum ship which could tow an array (passive) sonar and support the helicopter required to prosecute contacts she made. The original design, then, emphasized silencing nautical miles at 18 knots), but a reduction, reportedly by a factor of three, tn the permissible number of days before underway replenishment. There is also said to be a very considerable reduction in crew size.
The “Type-2400” submarine program is interesting from many aspects. Britain has not built nonnuclear submarines since the Oberons, which were successful bom in British and in export service. The British units are now reaching replacemen1
of five Peacock-class Hong Kong
?8e! as are the units sold to Australia, j^nada, Brazil, and Chile. Although °razil and Chile have already ordered ~erman-designed submarines, the two Commonwealth countries still represent a ^luable (and valued) market, and the Type-2400” is one candidate for the uPcoming Australian order. The design I^Portedly originated with Vickers stud- les of a possible export (particularly Aus- alian) successor to the Oberons, done at a time when the Royal Navy appeared ^interested in any future nonnuclear ^marine. However, in 1975, the Royal ^avy itself issued a draft staff requirement for a new diesel submarine, and the requirement was made firm in 1980. It ,^as close enough to the Vickers concept °r the two projects to be merged. The P°yal Navy plans to order ten ships, the lrst of which, HMS Upholder, should ^gin trials in 1986. Vickers now estimates that it may be able to build as many as ten more for export.
Like the Dutch Walrus, the “Type- has a hull form similar to that nopted for nuclear submarines. Automa- °n> particularly of the machinery spaces, is to be used to reduce manning vels, from 68 in an Oberon of compara- Qle size to 44 in the “Type-2400.”
The Royal Navy has also received the
patrol craft bought to replace aging “Ton”-class minesweepers. They were a private design by the builder, Hall Russell, Ltd. In theory they are intended primarily to support the marine police against smugglers and, presumably, South China Sea pirates, but they may be the basis for an attractive export design. Displacing about 700 tons, they make about 24 knots and carry one 76-mm. Oto-Melara gun.
At the Royal Navy Equipment Exhibition it was announced that yet another program was in prospect, an inexpensive corvette which might supplement existing frigates. Something scaled up from an offshore patrol vessel rather than down from a frigate was suggested, and it is certainly noteworthy that the two Castle- class OPVs were able to operate very successfully in the South Atlantic. They can also land a helicopter, although they have no hangar space. Moreover, a towed array might provide such a vessel with a very significant submarine detection capability. Such ideas begin to approach the requirements of a mass-production convoy escort, and in recent months, unofficial studies of a corvette variant of the Castle have been circulated.
Production of “Hunt” (or Brecon)- class mine countermeasures vessels is also continuing, with 11 now completed or on order, the last to be completed by the first half of 1985. Reportedly the total may reach 16. The “Hunt” combines minesweeper and minehunter capabilities, and at the end of 1982, a Naval Staff requirement for a cheaper single role minehunter (SRMH) was approved. The design and development contract was let to Vosper Thomycroft in January 1983. The SRMH will have a fiberglass reinforced plastic hull, and will displace about 500 tons. She will employ a Ples- sey-2093 sonar, a successor to the current Type-193. It is a purely coastal design, with a range of 500 nautical miles at ten knots, and a maximum speed of 13 knots, and thus is comparable to the projected U. S. Navy’s new minehunter. Reportedly, the Royal Navy may buy up to 25 of them.
A more austere type of minesweeper is being built for the Royal Naval Reserve (RNR): four of this steel 900-ton “River” class were ordered from Richards of Lowestoft (which designed them) in September 1982, and the total on order is 12. The first, HMS Waveney, was launched in September and should be delivered to the South Wales Division of the Royal Naval Reserve in March 1984.
This year, the lightweight Stingray torpedo was introduced into service. Work continues on the heavy Spearfish, which won a competition with an advanced version of the U. S. Mk-48 for future British orders. It has exceeded 70 knots on trials. Such speeds are required to catch modem submarines: The rule of thumb is that the torpedo must be 50% faster than its target.
From an operational point of view, it seems significant that substantial numbers of British warships are again operating East of Suez.
Dr. Friedman is a theoretical physicist and strategist at the Hudson Institute, Croton-on-Hudson, New York. The author of many books on naval weapons and ship designs, Dr. Friedman is a frequent contributor to the Proceedings and other professional naval magazines.