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important in a period of fiscal austcr'
The most important current exafflp ^ , matts ^mcd om in 'N". .
the NATO Frigate (NFR-90)
cfof
Perhaps the most dramatic NATO naval development of 1987 was the extensive out-of-area deployment in the Persian Gulf, not only by U. S. and British naval forces (which had been there for some time), but also by the Belgian, Dutch, French, and Italian navies, all of which sent mine countermeasures forces in the fall. This was the first-ever out-ofarea combatant deployment by the Belgian Navy. The minesweeper deployments were made after several NATO governments had publicly refused to support the U. S. Navy in the Gulf. The Dutch announced that they were willing to send sweepers immediately after a meeting of the Western European Union to consider the Gulf mine problem. Of the seven Union members, Belgium. Britain, France, and Italy ultimately sent sweepers—the Italians after an Iranian attack on one of their cargo ships. West Germany did not, but sent ships to the Mediterranean to relieve U. S. forces for Persian Gulf duty. Luxembourg has no
Iranian mines sewn in the Persian Gulf in 1987 prompted several Western navies to deploy mine countermeasures ships there to clear paths for the oil tankers. The French minesweeper Garigliano (above) stands at the ready in the Gulf.
navy. The Union, which predates NATO and has been fairly moribund of late, is sometimes proposed as the basis of an all-European defense community that would make up for the eventual withdrawal of U. S. forces from Europe.
The European forces consisted of: two Belgian sweepers with a support ship (coordinated with British ships); four British sweepers with their support ship, which supplement the Armilla Patrol, consisting of three frigates or destroyers and a replenishment ship; three Italian frigates, three minehunters, and two supply ships; two Dutch minehunters (working with British ships); and three French minesweepers, and a tender with a French carrier battle group operating outside of the Gulf.
The Gulf operations did not represent a break with the previous NATO disinclination to engage in the sort of out-of-area operations that the United States has urged. Indeed, the NATO navies never came under a joint—much less a U. S.— command. Rather, the operations represented a much older tradition. In the past, the owner of a ship registered in a particular country has been able to call on that country’s navy for protection, an important privilege in a dangerous maritime world. Conversely, as the maritime world became safer, this became less important.
and flag-of-convenience fleets grew rap idly. One result has been that NATO formally controls a shrinking shipp*^ pool, although some argue that NM corporations still control large numbe of merchant ships that would becoifle available in wartime. .
For example, the British merchant declined from 659 ships (about 11 mill'®, gross registered tons) in May 1985 to 5 ships (about eight million tons) in l' vember 1986. At the same time, the nu"^ ber of British seafarers declined, fro' 34,500 in September 1985 to 29,12' a the end of 1986. This decline drastica ; reduced the pool of potential ward naval seamen, already considers : smaller than the Royal Navy itsell- In November 1985, a British mil>ta^ report showed only 177 break-bu freighters and 70 roll-on/roll-olf (r° ships to be available. These figures typical of NATO as a whole, and Parag the loss of smallcraft, such as lEh>nr trawlers, which in the past have been e marked for such essential roles as " time mine countermeasures. It has ne been possible for any Western navy maintain sufficient auxiliary forces peacetime; the Western merchant a fishing fleets always have been essen j cushions against wartime requirenien Other developments may make mat . worse. Financial support for the Eng Channel tunnel was finally secured in 1987. The “Chunnel,” to open i° 1990s, should put much of the cro Channel fleet out of business. T1 ships, many of them ro/ro, were >ue fied as emergency transports and amp ^ ious support ships. Soon they may longer exist. e„-
Iranian actions in the Persian Gun ^ couraged some shipowners to reflag- . it is conceivable that the NATO mem fleets will find their flags more popu J an increasingly chaotic Third World- As weapon systems become more pensive, it is likely that many of the t , complex ones will be built and lmagfC jointly. Such systems generally cost m than those developed by a single na * ^ but they are attractive because none o ^ participants pays more than a fractm . the total development cost. Aim® ° their terms are often hard to negot .s they are very difficult to cancel, wm
• usterM
amp'e!
the great prize is development fundiiV
new antiaircraft warfare (AAW) sys- f0 Tentative operational requirements
ha^Se system. In October, Britain, which s'gni 6en 3 stron" supporter, deferred
tem.
(i. a new local area missile system (Mrd ) anc* a new multifunction radar nQh*) were formulated in 1985-86, but Program resulted. One candidate for ^ NATO Frigate’s AAW system is a l^AT pr°ject established in 1987, the AAW, which is to replace the a]Sou Sea Sparrow but presumably will its f 3rrn l^e new slnP- France advocates Wh a^ily a’r m'sstie systems (FAMS), airf 'nclu<ies naval point-defense and pr. c|u-defense missiles. Last summer, NppCC threatened to withdraw from the enco ^ Pro8ram’ reportedly in part to fen°Ura8e interest in its projected air de- uncj lnS the eight-nation memorandum of PhaCrstanding for the project definition edlyC ^'chers and OTO Melara reporting |. aSree<f on a joint study of a new mum-caliber gun for the NFR-90.
9q e original participants in the NFR- pra Program were Britain, Canada, Ce’ West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and the United States. However, neither Britain nor France signed the memorandum of understanding by the 21 October deadline. It is unlikely that France will remain in the program. The British position is more ambiguous: the hesitation to sign was reportedly owing to Treasury opposition, over the heads of the Ministry of Defence and of much of British industry, which hopes to benefit from the program. Treasury’s opposition may be traceable to unhappy experiences with earlier multinational programs, which escalated in cost and were impossible to cancel. Reportedly, the Ministry of Defence is also considering a domestic hull design armed with the winning NATO Frigate’s AAW system.
As of January 1988, the other participants in the U. S. NATO AAW project were Britain, Canada, West Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain. Meanwhile, France, Italy, Spain, and Britain have signed a memorandum of understanding to develop France’s FAMS, which is considered a possible successor to the
NATO AAW. FAMS would use Seawolf missile technology.
A very successful multinational program, the Tripartite minehunter, continues, with units now operating in the Persian Gulf. Reportedly, Kuwait is negotiating to buy the deployed Dutch- built Tripartite minehunters. Other successful multinational programs include the Anglo-Italian EH-101 helicopter, scheduled to replace the Lynx for antisubmarine warfare (ASW) and which has been adopted by Canada, and the U. S.- German-Danish rolling airframe missile (RAM) close-in defense missile.
Many defense budget cuts were ordered even before the U. S. stock market crash of September-October. Most NATO nations agreed to steady budget increases in the early 1980s, but such increases could not be sustained indefinitely. Now budgets are often barely (if at all) keeping pace with inflation. Some nations such as West Germany might increase their budgets to stimulate the world economy, but it is more likely that others will have to accept further reduc-
the
More evidence of tight finance was
in the
and
West Indies and the South Atlantic,
,ed-
late
into
are
,ds-
means that training suffers when ships confined to port for extended pen0' The problem extends to naval oftice The Royal Naval College at DartmoU ^ which provides initial training, has ha cut its curriculum by 75%, from months (1970) to 12 weeks. The resuh^ that courses such as naval history h been eliminated in favor of a minim education in the requisite technology-
budg®1' the
of inflation in consumer goods
ause ____ been
3 twice the ra' It waS
later announced that military research ‘
civilian
that more could be spent on
tions, particularly if increased unemployment drives up the budget share devoted to welfare and unemployment payments. Western European countries have generous welfare programs.
At the Reagan-Gorbachev summit in Washington in December, the United States and Soviet Union agreed to abolish medium-range strategic weapons, which many in NATO consider an essential guarantee of deterrence. Without these weapons, much more depends on NATO conventional firepower, which to most governments will mean ground troops and their associated tactical air forces. Therefore, naval spending is likely to suffer, at least on the continent. It may be, however, that Britain will increase naval forces to prevent the Soviets from leaping from a continental success to the occupation of Britain. In addition, the weapon treaty should make British and French strategic weapons more important, and encourage continued maintenance of British and French strategic nuclear submarines.
Great Britain: With Margaret Thatcher’s electoral victory, the future of the British Trident strategic submarine program seems assured; the second of four was ordered in 1987. The opposition Labour Party had promised to cancel the Trident in favor of a more conventional defense posture. Trident critics suggest that the high cost of the submarine will force deep cuts in other Royal Navy elements. British defense analysts argue that as defense costs rise, Britain will have to eliminate some major areas of defense; the British surface navy is often cited.
In October, the British Government formally revised a 1982 commitment to order three frigates per year, i.e., to maintain a 50-frigate/destroyer fleet. The government claimed that existing ships’ lives would be extended and their maintenance cycles changed so that the 50-ship fleet could be maintained at a lower construction rate. On the basis of 1985-87 orders, the rate appears to be about four every two years, although it was announced that four Type-23 frigates would be ordered in 1987. Moreover, by early 1987, lists of new commissionings and decommissionings showed that the Royal Navy would soon be reduced to 47 active frigates and destroyers, the government having softened its figure of 50 ships to “about 50.”
The new frigate maintenance policy will extend the average ship’s life from 18 to 22 years, with major refits at six- year intervals (to last 40, 70, and 30 weeks, respectively). This will apply to all Type-22 frigates, the eight newest
Type-42-class missile destroyers, and to all subsequent ships. Existing Leander- class and Type-21 frigates will adhere to the earlier policy of a major refit after nine years, and will be downgraded to the Standby Squadron after about 18 years in service. The new policy has been described as a closer approach to the view that a ship is essentially a weapon platform, therefore it is less expensive to update the weapons and sensors than to scrap a durable hull. The corollary would seem to be that new ships will be substantially larger than their predecessors to allow for modernization. The Type-21 and -42 designs, which have little room for modernization, exemplify the opposite approach—cutting size to cut first cost. If the recent trend of ordering two ships per year persists, even the new policy will amount to no more than 44 fully operational frigates/destroyers.
In 1987, HMS Fife, the last County- class guided-missile destroyer, was sold to Chile, joining three sisters. Chile also bought up remaining stocks of the Sea- slug missiles that arm the class. (The Fife had no Seaslug missile battery). The newer missile destroyer Bristol replaced HMS Fife as midshipmen’s sea training ship in September. She had recently been refitted for flagship duties.
Meanwhile, the five Leander-class frigates armed with the Seawolf point- defense missile are rotating through 35- week refits at Rosyth, to last through 1989, and Type-42 destroyers are being modernized (72-week refit; two are in dockyard hands). In March 1988, if ships undergoing lengthy refits are not counted as active, the fleet will be reduced to 44 destroyers and frigates, only two more than the fleet proposed in 1981 by former Defence Secretary John Nott. At that time the Royal Navy had 59 active destroyers and frigates. Nott would have eliminated the three V/STOL (vertical/ short takeoff and landing) carriers and the two specialized amphibious assault ships, all of which remain. In March 1987, Armed Forces Minister John Stanley stated that the Royal Navy had 51 destroyers and frigates, of which 46 were preparing for service, on trials, or operational. Nine ships had been withdrawn from service since 1984, and five accepted by the navy.
To make matters worse, the elderly Wasp light helicopter, which the Royal Navy uses to deliver ASW torpedoes at long range, is to be withdrawn from service in March or April 1988, leaving seven frigates (two Rothesays and three Leanders) without an ability to engage submarines at maximum (direct-path) sonar range. Two other Leanders will have the long-range Ikara missiles, the British equivalent to the U. S. antisubma- fine rocket (ASROC). Of these ships, one Leander and the two Rothesays are ex' pected to be stricken by the end of the fiscal year (March 1988), and three of the remaining Leanders should go by the en of fiscal year 1988-89. The Wasp lS being replaced by the Lynx helicopter but not every ship can accommodate the larger aircraft.
one-third cut in fiscal year 1987-88 tue allowances, from about 1.4 million to about 900,000 metric tons. An even sharper cut—by about half—was te jected as crippling. Ships on non-opera tional missions were to have their sen time cut from five days per week to three- so that commitments such as the Arum Patrol in the Persian Gulf, patrols
NATO operations could be maintain1 Such reductions generally have come in the fiscal year to make up for over spending. The 1988 cuts also include striking the immobile harbor train111? frigates Falmouth and LondondetO' which had been scheduled to remain the 1990s.
The Royal Navy is suffering seve' manpower shortages. In 1983, when t proposed Nott cuts in operational ship were rescinded, the navy had to opera eight more frigates without regainl|U 10,000 men cut in the 1981 review. To this, it cut shore training establishment^ conducting most training at sea, afl maintaining 70% (compared to abo 35% in 1982) of its personnel at sea. T a
The British 1987-88 defense
announced in May 1987, just before election, showed a 5% decline in te terms compared to the 1986-87 budg ^ That may undervalue the decline bec- the rate of inflation in defense has estimated to be as much as
iand
1UVV1 UllllUWllVVU U1H» J » — ,
development funds would be reduce
sumably export-oriented) research. j It was revealed in 1987 that the • ,
British-U. S. Trident agreement ca for a shared Anglo-U. S. missile ser^iy ing pool, so that Britain does not actu
aval reactors, much quieter (through ' Use of natural circulation), and 2® resistant to shock. Reported output A .7/ sbaft horsepower, the Cr'vative of the PWR-2 is to power rines'pXt c*ass British attack subma- or SSN-20 class), which is to
(jWn any of the missiles on board its Tri- rjCnt sut>marines. Rather, British subma- ^,.es turn in missiles for maintenance at ^ a8 s Bay, Georgia, and pick up refur- 'shed ones (which might or might not evVC served on board U. S. ships). How- the warheads are British and in- Sta^d in Britain.
w |ls begs the question of what Britain do if the United States withdrew f Irident from service. Britain manu- . Ured its own Polaris missiles to re- p^. outdated U. S.-supplied ones. The 35 pflS facilitY at Coulport manufactures °laris missiles per year to replace all sting British missiles and provide ares. Coulport will not be retooled to nufacture Trident missiles, although it 'Vo nh°ld as many as one submarine’s iis ” m'ss‘'es 'n an emergency. By Pensing with testing, servicing, and e.St assembly facilities, the British Gov- Pq n'Cnt hopes to save 767 million British ratnds’ almost $1.4 billion at current es(es exchange. By October 1987, the ^•aiated cost of the entire British Trial,, Pr°gram was 9.25 billion pounds, or 7‘ $16.5 billion.
Was ® Prototype Trident PWR-2 reactor 0C( ^ebvered to Dounreay, Scotland, in pw7r- Unlike the previous British Por ~ naval reactor, it does not incor- fe ® ® Ibe U. S. S5W technology trans- Sla[e *n the 1960s. Thus, the United tr0] fs wdl no longer have a right to con- tecL 0re'gn access to British naval reactor Perrn°*°^' ^r’ta'n had to request U. S. •Par' ISS'0n t0 °fler Trafalgar-class sub- torslnes’ which use U. S.-derived reacts ’to Canada. The PWR-2 is said to be ish ^ twice as powerful as previous Brit-
s°mi !tior( is
enter service in the 1990s. Reportedly, they will be larger than the existing Trafalgars for better silencing, and they may have new armament, such as vertical launching tubes for antiship missiles.
HMS Cornwall, the first of four Type- 22 Batch-3 frigates, was completed in July 1987. Unlike earlier Type-22s, the Batch 3s are armed with a 4.5-inch gun and Harpoon antiship missiles. The first of the new Type-23 frigates, HMS Norfolk, was launched on 10 July 1987. Four ships are on order, and long-lead items for the next four have been ordered for ships probably to be ordered in mid- 1988. There were reports that the second ship had been offered to Pakistan as part of a deal to sell more Type-23s, presumably with weapons and sensors adapted to Pakistani requirements. In April 1987, the British Government, faced with continuing problems in the development of the Type-23’s Ferranti CACS-4 computer-aided combat system, sought alternatives. Ferranti’s order was confirmed, but HMS Norfolk will be completed without her computer system.
Long-term British plans reportedly call for as many as 24 Type-23 frigates, the construction of which would be spread over two decades. Some of the later units might serve as air-defense ships to replace existing Type-42 destroyers.
In May 1987, the Royal Navy announced a program to update existing Sea Dart area air-defense missile systems on board its carriers and Type-42 missile destroyers. The Type-909 guidance radar will be improved (perhaps replaced by a lighter unit) and the continuous-rod warhead replaced by a blast-fragmentation type better suited to rapidly passing targets. A planned upgrade (to Sea Dart Mk-2), which would have included a new radar, was canceled as part of the 1981 defense cuts.
The new Spearfish heavy torpedo, which the Royal Navy chose in prefer-
The Canadian military began trials in 1987 for a new personnel policy that employs women in some combat duties on board naval auxiliaries and frigates as well as in fighter and tactical helicopter squadrons.
ence to the U. S. Mk-48 advanced capability (ADCAP), began its sea trials on board the nuclear submarine Courageous at the AUTEC range off Bermuda; the first warshot was delivered in September.
HMS Argus, the helicopter training ship and former Contender Bezant, was completed in spring 1987 and will enter service early in 1988. Her conversion yard, Harland & Wolff, suggested that she may be the prototype of future inexpensive aircraft carriers.
The British Government is considering proposals for next-generation amphibious ships, including very austere helicopter carriers. The Royal Navy has not had a dedicated helicopter carrier for some time, but for many years it has used general-purpose carriers as temporary amphibious assault ships. In November, the V/STOL carrier HMS Illustrious embarked 12 Sea King troop-carrying helicopters and four Sea King ASW helicopters, as well as 540 officers and men of 49 Commando, Royal Marines. The administrative staff had to be embarked on a chartered ferry, and the artillery on a third ship. Five British naval auxiliaries (landing ships) and 11 chartered merchant ships (only one of which was British) participated in Exercise Purple Warrior, the largest British amphibious exercise since the Falklands conflict.
Britain sent four Hunt-class minesweepers to the Persian Gulf, supported by exercise minelayer and tender HMS Abdiel. Current British long-term mine countermeasures plans reportedly call for 50-60 ships to be built over the next 15 years, and conversion of as many as 40 offshore oilfield supply vessels, which have replaced the trawlers earmarked in the past. However, money has not been available to purchase the equipment required for emergency conversion. Previously scheduled for scrapping in March 1988, HMS Abdiel was extended in December 1987. She is the only specialized British minelayer; in wartime, mines would be laid by adapted ro/ro ferries. Four (second through fifth) of the new class of single-role minehunters were ordered from Vosper Thomycroft on 23 July 1987.
Canada: For the first time since 1971, the Canadian Government reviewed its defense policies in 1987; on 5 June it issued a White Paper describing the new
°c«*d
lnss / March 1988
39
Women
uxiliary
policies. The review was needed in part to redress the previous Liberal administration’s neglect, justified by depreciating the Soviet threat. Critics have suggested that Canada can retreat into a neutralist or perhaps isolationist posture, linked (if at all) only to the United States in the defense of North America. The White Paper emphasizes the need to defend Western Europe, without which “what remained of the West would face a bleak future.” The concentration in Europe justifies the presence of Canadian troops in NATO nations and the Canadian naval emphasis on oceanic ASW. In a broader sense, the White Paper rehearses counter-arguments to likely calls for Canada’s withdrawal from European entanglements. Before World War II, Canada showed little interest in military forces (except during World War I), and her policy was in some ways an exaggerated form of U. S. isolationism. Thus, increased Canadian involvement in NATO, particularly in Europe, may indicate that U. S. neoisolationist sentiment is limited. On the other hand. Premier Brian Mulrooney now finds himself at the short end of public opinion polls. The main opposition party in the next election, which is scheduled for 1989, may be the neutralist, isolationist New Democrats.
The 1987 Canadian Defence White Paper calls for 12 new City-class ASW frigates, which are scheduled to enter service starting in 1989. The second batch of six may be built with accommodations for women.
The White Paper appears to accord first priority to naval modernization (or reconstruction), the army coming next. The air force recently purchased F/A-18 strike fighters, so another major investment could be two decades away. The cost of modernization will inevitably be large given the neglect of the recent past, and some fear that it will be too large. The review places a new emphasis on the Arctic—long a sore point in that Canada finds it difficult to enforce her sovereignty—and on the Pacific.
Perhaps the two most striking features of the new policy are a pledge to buy 1012 nuclear submarines that could operate under the Arctic ice, and a decision to abandon Canada’s commitment to supply about 5,000 troops and two squadrons of CF-5 fighters (the CAST, or Canadian Air-Sea Transportable Brigade) to Northern Norway. Instead, half as many troops will be added to Canadian forces in Central Europe, increasing their number from 7,200 to 10,000.
The government argues that the CAST is impracticable. It is not designed to undertake an opposed landing and requires a political decision before the troops can deploy. Nor can Canada supply them once they are in Norway. The plan is to keep the CAST troops in Canada as a central reserve.
The nuclear submarine issue is controversial; they are extremely expensive. The Canadian Government is considering the French Rubis type or a version of the British Trafalgar. Although the U. S. Government has opposed the purchase of nuclear submarines, which would probably preclude any other major defense modernization, in November the United
States gave permission for the British t® offer the Trafalgar, with its U. S. -derive nuclear plant. There have also been re ports of Canadian interest in purchasing U. S. Los Angeles (SSN-726)-class submarines.
Until mid-1987, the Canadian subma fine program was to replace Canada > three diesel-electric craft with similar bu more advanced types—as many as boats. Potential builders were offers? hybrids, in which a small reactor wou be plugged into a conventional plant extended under-ice endurance. The by brid might represent a fall-back positi°n should the nuclear boats prove to be t°° expensive.
There have been suggestions that Can ada is interested in nuclear submarin partly because it is uncomfortable 'vl the fact that U. S. submarines can opera J- more easily than its own in Canadi northern waters. Similarly, proposals ^ Arctic underwater surveillance are s°n’^ times described as directed at U. Swell as Soviet intrusions. ,
The Canadian Department of Nati°na Defense has proposed a fixed, botton1^ mounted sound surveillance system the Canadian Arctic, supplemented Pe haps by towed-array ships similar in 0 line to the U. S. T-AGOS ocean survey lance ships. In contrast to the U. S. ship*' they would do most of their signal pr cessing on board. a,
Other new ASW acquisitions are least six more P-3 Orions (to supple®11;. the 18 in service) and 35-50 ASW h® ^ copters, to replace 35 aging Sea Kin? The existing 15 S-2F Trackers, boug*d operate from the long-defunct Canad' carrier, will be modernized. ^
Reserve forces are to be doubled 0 ^ the next 15 years, the Navy Reserve r ceiving 12, and later 30, minor craft for its wartime roles—naval con of shipping and coast defense, indu ^ mine countermeasures. The latter w® ^ reverse two decades of neglect. R®? qq forces are also to increase, from 86, to about 90,000.
Canada is adopting a new person policy, reportedly at the behest of en’s rights groups, in which women be allowed to assume some c011.' j. duties. Trials began in fall 1987, >nC j ing operations with ASW, fight"*" tactical helicopter squadrons, were assigned to Canadian a ships, and then to frigates. There is SP jn ulation that extra space being allocate^ the second group of City-class ft1? will be allocated to women. js
Despite these new ideas, defense t j are relatively scarce in Canada’s trou cj- economy; the defense budget was sc
an air-defense version of the projected r h ^ ^r'§ate f°r l^e *ast e'?ht ships, 'cr than modify the existing design. °y November, the Canadian Depart- ent of National Defense was consider- 8 lengthening the second batch of City- ass ships by ten meters (32.8 feet) to lif°V*de extra volume, perhaps for a mid- s, e refit- It may, for example, allow the lau^'t0 carry 28 rather than 16 vertically
The proposals for undersea sur- ance reportedly include—for the first
r°ns (i2
ships) in the Atlantic and one
(four
ships) in the Pacific; seven maritime
air
and
f'r;
^ed to decline by 0.3% in real terms in lscal year 1987-88. However, the gov- Crnnicnt has promised 2% per year real growth over the next 15 years, barring ec°nomic problems. Even this will not c°ver all the projected programs; these are to be reviewed every September to Pennine funding for the next five years. It was reported in September that Can. vvas in the final stages of negotiations Wlth St. John Shipbuilding for six more Patrol frigates; six City-class frigates are a feady on order. Plans originally called 0r a total of 20, with a third batch of ^8ht air-defense ships. However, the hite Paper describes a fleet of 16 sur- ace ships, comprising 12 new frigates aj1d four modernized Tribal (Iroquois)- c ass destroyers. There will also be 30 ttinor vessels, including mine countermeasures craft and towed-array surveil- nce ships. The City-class ships are pri- "lariiy intended for ASW, with a new ar|adian towed-array sonar (CANTASS) ar|d EH-101 helicopters. Should plans be °dified to favor construction of the j(P n air-defense ships, Canada may opt
shinChCd ^ea Sparrows, to provide the
Ps with a greater measure of self-
(il°tcction and partly make up for the loss
lhe projected area air-defense ships.
n 1987, the Canadian Government
tyt more on Pacific ASW, responding
arePorts of increasing Soviet submarine
r IVlty near Vancouver and the Puget aourj — b
veill
(j|"c arrays and T-AGOS-like ships on Canadian West Coast. In the past, ada has maintained surveillance sys- 0nly in the Atlantic. The current fCc disposition is: two destroyer squad- squadrons (14 P-3s) in the Atlantic fr °ne (four P-3s) in the Pacific. All the ckers and the three Canadian subma- operate in the Atlantic.
Pro ance: The French Parliament ap- in a CC^- 3 *987-91 defense funding plan apn *^**7, reflecting the 1987 budget Se?r°Ved in November 1986. It super- preCS 1984-88 plan adopted by the Th°us soc'alist government.
PUcI 6 naV^ 's t0 rece*ve a large share of ear funding, which will pay for the
first of a new generation of nuclear- powered ballistic-missile submarines (SSBNs) to be operational in 1994. Others will follow every 30 months. In addition, the first five strategic submarines will be modernized to the standard of the Inflexible, the latest unit. Their M4 missiles will be improved and full-scale development of the new M5, which will have increased range, greater accuracy, and penetration aids, is now scheduled. The M5 will be equipped with about 12 multiple independent re-entry vehicle (MIRV) warheads, and is to have a range of more than 6,000 kilometers (3,240 nautical miles). It should appear on board the third submarine of the new class, in 1999.
New SSBN facilities opened at Cherbourg that are capable of building 16,000-ton submarines. The next-generation submarine, carrying 16 M4 missiles, reportedly will displace 14,200 tons submerged, and the crew will be reduced from the 138 in current boats to 100. It will be 138 meters long (about 452 feet), but later boats may be 170 meters long (558 feet) and displace 17,000 tons.
The nuclear-powered carrier Richelieu remains in the program, but the planned second unit is deferred to the next program. Meanwhile, the conventional carrier Foch is to be modernized for service through at least the year 2001. The Richelieu should enter service in 1996, which is too late for the surviving French A-7 Crusaders and Super Etendard aircraft, but perhaps too soon for the new French Rafale fighter. Fifty aircraft will be required, and some speculate that France may have to buy the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18. Even so, Dassault displayed a model of a navalized Rafale at the June 1987 Paris Air Show.
Meanwhile, all 63 Super Etendard carrier attack aircraft are to be modernized with new avionics and attack systems, and 50 are being fitted to carry the ASMP
The French Navy commissioned the new underway replenishment ship Marne in 1987, and was told that it will get another sister in 1989, after which the builder, La Seyne, will close.
standoff nuclear attack missile.
The program also includes procurement of 27 Atlantique-2 maritime patrol aircraft, ten of which will be delivered during the program period. Total production will comprise two prototypes and 40 production aircraft. There is some question as to whether foreign operators of the Atlantique will buy the new version or shift to some variant of the Lockheed P-3 Orion. Lockheed has used this argument to keep the P-3 production line open rather than compete production of the P-3 or of some alternative U. S. maritime patrol aircraft.
In late 1987, the French Navy was authorized to order in 1988 the first ship of a new light frigate class to replace the D’Estienne D’Orves Type-A-69-class frigates. France is expected to order three frigates by 1991, and ultimately have a class of 10. The 2,500-ton ships will be armed with 100-mm. guns and Exocet missiles, and carry an NH-90 helicopter.
France relies heavily on defense exports to support its arms industry. Since the crash of oil prices, much of this market has slumped. In 1987, the French Navy derived a small benefit from the slump: it is to receive a cut-rate, 17,000- ton underway replenishment ship laid down at La Seyne in 1985. It represented, in effect, government-ordered speculation to maintain jobs, yet no export order materialized. La Seyne has received no further orders; the Ministry for Industry will pay completion costs to extend jobs in the yard. After the ship has been completed, the yard will close.
Italy’s 5,000-ton, 21-knot amphibious warfare ship, the San Giorgio, delivered in October 1987, was paid for in part with disaster relief funds.
which abou'
high
Cut5
pay for personnel, whose costs are in Germany’s prosperous economy-
jects
Italy: The most important Italian naval development of 1987 was permission to fly fixed-wing aircraft from the carrier Giusseppe Garibaldi, the first such ship in Italian service. Since 1923, Italian law has allocated all airplanes to the air force, much as British law allocated all aircraft (including naval types) to the Royal Air Force between 1918 and 1939. The Italian Navy must now choose between the two available V/STOLs—the British Sea Harrier and the McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier-II. It may also be the launch customer for the proposed enhanced Harrier with the air-to-air radar. The current requirement is reportedly for about 12 aircraft plus two trainers, sufficient for the one carrier. However, the structure of the Italian Navy, which operates in two major formations, suggests a requirement for two or three carriers.
The first of four Italian Minerva-class, 1,300-ton corvettes was completed in February 1987, and the Sfinge, the fourth, was launched on 13 May. The navy ordered four more in January 1987. The class replaces the old Albatros and De Cristoforo classes, and will be used primarily for offshore patrol, fishery protection, and training. They fill the exclusive economic zone surveillance role that has received considerable attention in recent years. However, they can also be fitted with more offensive combat systems; the “attack” version carries four Otomat antiship weapons, as well as six lightweight ASW torpedoes and an octuple launcher for the Aspide point-defense missile. Gun armament in this version is one 76-mm. OTO Melara gun forward and one twin 40-mm. gun aft. An alternative helicopter version can accommodate an Agusta-Bell AB-212 or similar light craft.
The first of two 7,600-ton amphibious transport docks (LPDs), the San Giorgio, was launched on 25 February 1987 and delivered in October. Her sister, the San Marco, was launched on 10 October. These ships are unusual in that they are being paid for partly out of disaster-relief funds; they replace two tank landing ships (LSTs).
Two Italian frigates held joint exercises in July with the Argentine frigates Al- mirante Brown and Rosales, and the submarine San Juan, in Argentine waters. Italy also has military industrial ties to Brazil, including joint development and production of the AMX attack bomber.
Spain: The Spanish Government is still negotiating the status of U. S. bases, including the large naval base at Rota. The government has pledged to remove at least some of the U. S. presence, and it appears that the U. S. Air Force F-16s
Falcon fighters based at Torrejon, near Madrid, will have to be withdrawn. Should negotiations fail, Rota may be closed as a U. S. naval base.
Spanish ships participated in August for the first time in a major NATO exercise, Ocean Safari ’87, with French ships. Neither Spain nor France is part of the integrated NATO military command structure. In October, Spain announced that, although not part of the unified NATO command, it would contribute ships to the NATO Mediterranean commands to compensate for the withdrawal of U. S. ships to the Persian Gulf.
Spain announced in February 1987 that it was shifting its fleet command center from Ferrol to Rota, where the combat group, including the new V/STOL carrier Principe de Asturias, will be based. The carrier began sea trials in November; she is to be handed over to the navy in May 1988. Of her prospective air group of about 20 aircraft, McDonnell Douglas delivered the first three Harrier-11 (EAV- 8B) V/STOL jets to the Spanish Navy in October, the aircraft flying non-stop from
One of 12 McDonnell Douglas EAV-8B Harrier-IIs ordered by Spain is refueled by a KC-10 tanker during its October 1987 trans-Atlantic delivery flight.
St. Louis, Missouri, to Rota, refueled en route by a U. S. Air Force KC-lOA- Twelve are on order, to replace existing AV-8A Matadors. In September, the first of three Spanish Sea King airborne early warning helicopters began tests.
The third Santa Maria (U. S. Ol‘ver Hazard Perry [FFG-7])-class frigate, the Numancia, was launched in February 1987, and it was announced that the fourth ship would be named the America- The second ship of the class, the Vic10' ria, began trials in June.
Spain is reportedly about to choose the design of a new minehunter to replace current U. S.-built craft, which bega" modernization in 1984. Twelve ships a1® planned for one-for-one replacement, at1 they will function as patrol vessels in peacetime. The Italian Lerici is report" edly favored, possibly in the lengthen6 U. S. version.
Portugal: The first of three ME^O 200 Vasco da Gama-class frigates is to he laid down in August 1988 and deliver® by the end of 1990. Germany’s Blohm Voss will build the lead ship; the others will be built by Germany’s HDW and f° low at six-month intervals. Finance^ under a complex arrangement involving several NATO nations, the 2,900-t°jj ships will be armed with Harpoon aa Sea Sparrow missiles, 100-mm. and 2 mm. guns, Mk-32 torpedoes, and carry two helicopters. .
West Germany: The German fi&t year 1988 defense budget grew by 1-h in real terms, in line with overall spen ing goals. That is $987.8 million (ab°‘'
4%) short of requirements, amounts to an annual growth of - $500 million through the year 200 ^ More than half this figure is required are to be distributed over major pro)1
'•tHKE-DEUTSCHE WERFT
|'-6%) an(j infrastructure (4.8%), and a °ney will not be available to build up ''’munition supplies. The latter is partic- ()far,y serious, because with the decline nuclear weapons in Central Europe, Ventional forces and conventional In init'°ns become more important.
|L u|y. the Defense Ministry announced tr communications, logistics, and nsporr ()|- three services would be 1 led, perhaps as in the Canadian miliary services.
pu 'SCa' year 1988 funds will reportedly tr- ctlase two frigates and perhaps ten tL e countermeasures vessels. Overall, shC navy is unlikely to find its usual 20% 1,arc °f the budget sufficient. In May bn i ,t*le new Type-211 submarine (to be cutt J°lntly w'tb Norway) was on the tj tlng block, as was German participa- ^ n in the NATO frigate, which the Ger- (jun.Navy designates FI24. Instead, prog Cjl0n °f the FI22 type might continue. safeatC 'he Type-211 program was Hew German Navy is now testing a anc aux'bary (low-speed), long-endur- Cei|C Pr°pulsion system based on a fuel
rath^eSt Germany bought Lockheed P-3C Pat ^'an French Atlantique-2 maritime sevr° a'rcraft. The frigate Augsburg, the fcj"* of eight Bremen frigates, was temb °Wn ^ April an(l launched 17 Sep- /4( .er- The last ship of the class, the 5nd .ec^’ was laid down on 5 June 1987
time aUnched on 15 °ctober- These short stru- °n tbe sbP refiect modular conip. C*10n> work on the hulls having begun earlier.
affelrrilt'n8 German defense growth may pj ,Ct 'ts participation in the European snter Aircraft (EFA) project. The EFA
competes with the French Rafale, which has been tentatively chosen as the next French carrier fighter. If the EFA dies, the Rafale might gain international partners. Conversely, if the EFA succeeds, France might be unable to fund the Rafale and might turn, as has been suggested, to some form of partnership with the United States; for example, in developing an advanced version of the F/A-18 Hornet.
The decision to deploy naval forces to the Mediterranean was a substantial change for Germany, which only recently expanded its area of naval operations from the Baltic into the North Sea. The destroyer Moelders, the frigate Neider- sachsen, and the support ship Freiburg, were deployed to the Mediterranean.
Denmark: The Danish Government proposed in April 1987 an increase of about 3.5% in the 1988 defense budget, and another 1.0% each year of the five- year program. This would allow Denmark to maintain another 2,500 conscripts (for a total of 12,500) and to increase the time of service, although that remains short—typically nine months.
With funds short, the two frigates have been reduced to standby status. There is also some political opposition to maintaining “offensive” naval weapons such as submarines, although Denmark is buying three subs from Norway (funds were not available for new construction). The only major new naval construction is the series of Flex-300 multipurpose coastal craft. However, two new fishery-protection ships are planned, the first to begin trials about 1989. They will be twice as large as the current ships of the squadron— about 330 feet long and 46 feet in beam, displace 3,500 tons, and will have one
In June 1987, the first of West Germany’s 12 HDW Type-206 diesel-electric submarines began a one-year modernization program. All refits, begun at 75-day intervals, should be completed by 1992.
76-mm. OTO Melara gun, depth charges, and a large helicopter pad. Four 3,000- brake-horsepower diesels will be coupled to a single shaft, providing a speed of about 22 knots. They would most likely serve as frigates in wartime. The first of the new Flex-300 corvettes, the Flyvefis- ken, was commissioned in October. All 16 should be in service by 1991.
Belgium: The government decided to cut its fiscal year 1988 defense budget by about $2.9 billion (0.8%) rather than increase it by about 3% as planned. The bulk of the budget will, as usual, go to air and ground forces. By the end of 1987, Belgium was scheduled to decide whether to join the EFA program, the General Dynamics Agile Falcon program (a much-improved F-16), or to become a partner in the French Rafale.
Netherlands: The Dutch Government decided in May 1987 to eliminate funds earmarked to offset inflation in the 1988 defense budget. As a result, real growth will fall from 2% to 1%, a cut already enforced in other Dutch departments. In 1977, when the NATO nations agreed to target 3% annual real growth for a decade, the Dutch Government could offer only 2%, but it compensated by promising to maintain that rate of growth through 1990. Dutch planners assumed that the growth rate would continue through 1996. Any calculation of the rate of growth is further complicated by changes in the ratio of spending among three services—traditionally half for the army and a quarter each for the air force and navy. Matters worsened in September, when the 1988 budget, which allowed only 0.5% real growth, was announced. The 2% figure remains an official goal for future years.
In 1987, it was decided that the submarine Walrus, badly damaged by fire while under construction, will be completed as a fully operational submarine, at a cost of about $112.5 million and a two-year delay. The fire was probably caused by a short circuit in temporary dock lighting. All systems installed in the upper deck and battery compartment amidships will have to be replaced. An older submarine will be retained in service for two years, at a cost of about $4 million. The Zeeleuw, the second of the class of four, was launched on 20 June 1987. She should begin sea trials at the end of 1988.
The Netherlands and Norway are con-
Launched in June 1987, the Zeeleuw, the Netherlands’ second Walrus-class submarine, beat the lead boat into the water. The Walrus sustained $112.5 million worth of fire damage and will be delayed two years.
sidering construction of a new class of coastal minesweepers, based on a civilian surface-effect hull developed in Norway. Ten Dutch ships would replace 11 “Western Union” units.
Dutch Marines would have to be transported by ships supplied by other navies in wartime, most likely by the Royal Navy, with which the Royal Netherlands Navy is closely integrated operationally. The British amphibious force, however, is declining. The current Dutch ten-year plan calls for construction of an 8,000- ton amphibious ship, to carry 600 marines, in the mid-1990s. It will probably be necessary to replace the older of the two underway replenishment ships, the Poolster.
Norway: Norway is to sell three Kobben-class submarines, built in the early 1960s, to Denmark for $10.5 million. The United States was part owner, because the submarines were built with U. S. and Norwegian funds. Norway is transferring ten F-5A fighters to the United States in return for full ownership of nine of her 14 Kobben-class submarines. The F-5As have been in storage since Norway converted to the F-16, and presumably they will be retransferred by the United States. The submarine purchase price will contribute to the modernization of the six Kobbens Norway plans to retain in service, alongside new Ula- class submarines being built for it in West Germany. The lead boat was laid down on 29 January 1987 and is due for completion in February 1989. Five more will commission at six-month intervals, through 1992. The remaining unmodernized Kobbens will probably be cannibalized for spares. The first modernized unit, the Sklinna, is due for completion in April 1988.
The Norwegian Government agreed in August 1987 to build ten coastal mine countermeasures craft (six sweepers and four hunters) in a cooperative program with the Netherlands. The design is derived from a civilian surface-effect craft, and if it is successful, it will probably be the first surface-effect mine countermeasures craft in service anywhere in the world. The U. S. attempt to build such a craft, the Cardinal (MSH-1), was abandoned in 1986. Construction of the Norwegian craft should start in 1989, and all should be in service by 1996, replacing ten ex-U. S. coastal sweepers.
The new craft will displace 360 tons (179 X 42.6 x 7.6 feet off cushion and 2.8 feet on cushion), and be powered by two 1,470-brake-horsepower diesels and two 930-brake-horsepower lift engines, for a cruising speed of 20 knots.
In 1987, the Norwegian arms manufacturer Kongsberg Vapenfabrik admitted its role with Toshiba Machine in the sale to the Soviet Union of advanced propeller-milling machinery. That brought into question the U. S. program to buy the company’s Penguin antiship missis for use on board SH-60B LAMPS-IH helicopters. Kongsberg was already in serious economic trouble, largely owing 10 losses in its jet-engine division. The Norwegian Government had decided to rescue its weapon division well before the machine-tool scandal surfaced.
As a result, Norway reduced other defense spending. The 1984-88 Five Year Plan calls for 3.5% annual real growth- However, the proposed 1988 budget shows only 3% growth. The government gave Kongsberg a sum nearly equal t° this increase, half of which is a direc charge on the defense budget (so that rea growth will be 1.5%), and a fifth 0 which represents an addition to the defense budget for direct payments 10 Kongsberg.
Norway bought a P-3C Orion Update III package from Lockheed. .
Sweden: In contrast to most NAT nations, Sweden plans considerable >n creases in its ten-year defense plan- 10 pay for considerable modernization, 1,1 j eluding new submarines and ASW c°r vettes. The last of six glass-reinforc® plastic minehunters, the Vert, was la1 down on 15 May 1987. Her hull mater'" technology was incorporated in the 11 fated U. S. Cardinal-class minehuntef' The second of four Vastergotland-daS submarines, the Hals ingland, v,a launched on 31 August.
Reports persist of intrusions by Pra sumably Soviet submarines. In July- 1
wedish Government formally changed ”e rules of engagement applying to local ftS\V forces. They can now attack sus- j^cted submarines and submersibles with u" (presumably lethal) force, and with- °ut warning.
The Finnish Wico yard is reportedly wilding a craft for the Swedish coast- dense force, to transport shallow-water Section arrays, presumably of the type ested in 1986. The boat reportedly will pWrry six unspecified ASW weapons.
ans and other technical data were re- P°rtedly stolen from the builder in Febru- ^ 1987.
inland: Four Helsinki-2-class fast- !?ack craft were ordered in August 1987. hey will be smaller than the first four of R H dass, and will be armed with Swedish dS-15 antiship missiles and a Bofors -rum. gun. Other equipment will inarrangement will be subject to national referendum.
An on-going naval modernization program includes substantial auxiliary construction: five 4,400-ton tank landing craft (the first, laid down in April 1987, to be delivered in 1988) at the Hellenic Shipyards at Skaramanga; two tankers; five oil tenders; one floating dry dock (6,000-ton capacity); and a 1,200-ton water tender. In addition, Hellenic Shipyards is building two 55-meter (180-foot) offshore patrol boats to Danish (Danyard) designs under an agreement reached in July. They will be similar to “Osprey”- class vessels serving the Burmese and Danish governments and recently delivered to Senegal. The force of World War II-built destroyers is also being modernized; at least three ships are receiving new antiaircraft weapons and at least one
ton version of Type-209, which is already being built in Brazil.
The first of the four MEKO-200 frigates, the Yavuz, began sea trials on 1 April 1987 and was delivered on 17 July. The second, the Turgut, began trials in August. The third, the Fatikh, was launched on 24 April at the Golcuk Navy Yard. The fourth, the Yildirim, was laid down at Golcuk in January 1987. It is likely that Turkey will contract for license construction of two more of the class.
The Yavuz, first of four MEKO-200 frigates built for Turkey, was delivered in July 1987. Its Seaguard close-in antimissile system (inset) is the first installed on a naval combatant. In 1987, sisters Turgut began trials, Fatikh was launched, and Yildirim was laid down. .
(D ® a short-range air-defense missile 'sh n blV French Sadral or the Sweden °°^0rs RBS-70) and a towed-array kar^ he'ng developed by Finland’s Fis- ttyQS Flesco. They will be powered by dr; • T,000-brake-horsepower diesels
~ln8 water jets.
Ca^reecc: Greece and Turkey almost tj0i)e to blows early in 1987 in connec- &a 'Vlt*1 Turkish oil exploration in Ae- C|aiWaters near the island of Tasoz tberned by both nations. At one point, Greek fleet was at sea, and a tecte^ul Turkish squadron sortied to pro- Grhe oil exploration ship Piri Reis. cris. nt and air forces went on alert. The filin'5 dissipated after the Turkish prime rem'^r announced that his ships would ain within Turkish territorial waters, exp: 6 ®x'sting U. S. base agreement res in December 1988. Any future was fitted with Harpoon antiship missiles for trials.
Greece plans to purchase four frigates, the first to be built abroad and the others at home, using U. S.-supplied weapons and sensors. The most likely candidate is the German MEKO-2000. Should that prove to be too expensive, Greece is reportedly interested in buying two Batch-3 Leander-class frigates that the Royal Navy is to discard in 1988. Other possible purchasers are Chile, Indonesia, and Pakistan.
Turkey: The Turkish Government asked in November for proposals for a new class of submarines to replace existing ex-U. S. craft, and to supplement the current fleet of six Type-209s. The two contenders are Vickers, which is offering a new 1,400-ton VPV-1 boat, and Germany’s HDW, which is offering a 1,440-
The Turkish Navy is modernizing four of its seven FRAM-I Gearing (DD-710)- class destroyers. Turkey bought two signal STIR tracker-illuminator radars, and at least two ships are to be armed with vertical-launch Sea Sparrow missiles. Sea Sparrow already arms the new Yavuz frigates.
In August, the Turkish and Pakistani navies exercised together in the Aegean, prompting Greek queries.
Dr. Friedman is a defense analyst working under contract for the U. S. Navy and several private companies. The author of many books on naval weapon and ship designs, he writes the regular Proceedings “World Naval Developments" feature as well as other frequent contributions to Proceedings and other professional naval magazines. The Naval Institute published his new book. U. S. Small Combatants, in December 1987.