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130 The Escort Ship—Challenge to the Shiphandler
By Lieutenant Commander D. N. Denton, U. S. Navy
135 The New U. S. Motor Gunboats
By Lieutenant Henry Dale,
U. S. Navy
137 The New Swedish Motor Torpedo Boats
By Commander Bertil Erkhammar,
Royal Swedish Navy
139 Weapons Systems Evaluation Group
By Captain T. F. Pollock,
U. S. Navy
142 Notebook
Professional Notes
Edited by Captain Daniel M. Karcher,
U. S. Navy
By Lieutenant Commander D. N. Denton, U. S. Navy,
Former Commanding Officer,
USS Dealey (DE-1006)
THE ESCORT SHIP— CHALLENGE TO THE SHIPHANDLER
The numerous books published on shiphandling provide relatively little guidance in handling a single-screw escort ship, a type becoming increasingly prevalent in the U. S. Navy.
The USS Dealey (DE-1006) was the first of the single-screw escort ships built after World War II. Commissioned in 1954, she is 314 feet over-all in length, has a full-load displacement of 1,950 tons, and a geared turbine power plant which produces more than 20,000 horsepower. A single, five-bladed screw and two large rudders give her exceptional maneuvering characteristics.
The Dealey generated a long line of escort ships, 76 of which are now in service or under construction. The latest of these escort ships (the DE-1052 series) are 438 feet long, displace 4,100 tons, and are rated at 35,000 horsepower. The postwar, single-screw DE thus forms a major portion of the Fleet.
I did not have experience in a single-screw ship before assuming command of the Dealey, nor could I find adequate reference books on the subject. I did talk to everyone available with experience, which in some cases did nothing more than confuse or upset me. The statement made by all which proved to be true was, “that the first underway and the first landing are the hardest.”
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There is no real mystery in handling a single-screw ship. The shiphandling characteristics of the DE are similar to those of a twin- screw destroyer at sea and when entering or leaving port. TheDE’s maneuverability in most cases is superior to that of the destroyer. The following may ease the tension for the commanding officer during those first few underway periods and also provide some guidance for prospective OODs of the DE Navy. I mi
tially discuss the DE-1006 through DE-1030 series of ships.
Getting Underway, Port-Side-To Berth: With winds of less than 15 knots and a clear path astern, no difficulty should be had in clearing a port-side-to berth. Lines 3, 4, 5, and 6 can be taken in, and while holding 2, heave around on 1. Using this method, the stern can be moved out about 15 degrees if berthed alongside another escort. After the stern is out at this angle, put the rudder right full, take in lines 1 and 2, and back two-thirds or full, depending on tide, current, and wind.
Less than two-thirds is not recommended and can be misapplied caution because of the additional time required to gain sufficient way to make the rudder effective. Normally, the stern will swing back to port about five degrees before sternway is sufficient to permit control of the ship by the rudders. Backing two-thirds will, under favorable circumstances, allow the shiphandler to hold the stern steady or move it slowly to starboard once sternway is gained. To move the stern smartly to starboard, it is necessary to back full, or possibly stop or slow engines occasionally, to increase the effect of the rudder.
In the above situation, with the wind setting on above 15 knots, the ship will tend to back into the wind regardless of the position of the rudders. Even in a wind up to 25 knots, you can steer the ship going astern up to about 30 degrees either side of the wind after sternway is obtained by using a back-full bell. The ship will not turn through a strong wind of more than this, and headway must be used to swing the bow through the wind.
Getting Underway, Starboard-Side-To: Clearing from a starboard-side-to berth under good conditions can be accomplished in the same manner as port-side-to. Fifteen degrees will normally be sufficient to clear the bow from the inboard ship with a back two-thirds or back-full bell.
Under certain conditions, the shiphandler may find it desirable to allow the bow to swing out while holding the stern in with line 6, and then back away from the berth. This works if the ship is not being set on the inboard ship or the pier.
In Either Starboard or Port-Side-To Berth: If the weather conditions require that an angle with the inboard ship be greater than 15 degrees, this can be obtained by the use of engine and rudder. With line 1 through the bullnose to the bullnose of the inboard ship, take in all remaining lines and slack 1 about 15 to 20 feet. Then, with the rudder hard over toward the inboard ship, use short one-third-ahead bells and the stern will swing out slowly. With patience, any desired angle can thus be obtained. As a general word of caution, special care must be taken any time that the ship is outboard any other class ship except another escort, since the fo’c’s’le deck edges will not coincide. If you do not have the required angle and the decks will not match, the engines and rudder must be used in order to get the stern slightly ahead of the inboard ship’s stern before your stern swings out.
In both cases of getting underway with wind above 15 knots, it may be advisable to use a tug either made up on the bow or at the pivot point with both a headline and a quarterline to pull you off smartly.
Making the Berth: In making landings there is no substitute for experience and courage. The discussions of starboard and port-side-to landings are brief and for the most part treat ideal conditions. The effects of wind and tide, if superimposed on the ideal, will not normally present impossible situations when the landing is port-side-to. However, in winds above 25 knots or strong currents, the judicious use of available tugs is recommended.
In some cases, conditions of wind and current will be such that two to three knots for the final approach will not be sufficient. A good rule of thumb here is “use only as much speed as necessary” for the situation at hand. Remember, whatever headway you have must be killed by additional backing, which in turn aggravates the tendency of the stern to move rapidly to port.
Port-Side-To: With the tendency to back to port, a port side to landing is the simplest to make. The approach should normally be at an angle of 10 to 15 degrees, with sufficient speed to give the shiphandler rudder response, but no more than required for the weather conditions. With this angle, and a speed into the berth of about two to three knots, a back-
two-thirds will normally kill the headway and walk the stern in so that contact will be made on the midships fender or possibly slightly aft of amidships. As a general rule, it is preferable to make the initial contact from midships aft than forward. ■
Starboard-Side-To: This landing is somewhat more difficult since the characteristic of backing to port hinders rather than assists in getting the stern in position. In general, the approach should be made somewhat flatter, with about five degrees being satisfactory in most cases. Just prior to reaching the point at which the backing bell will be given, put the rudder left full, and if necessary use a short ahead bell to start the stern swinging to starboard. Then back-two-thirds, killing both headway and the stern swing. Do not leave the backing bell on any longer than necessary to accomplish this, or the stern will walk too far to port and present a problem in getting back into position.
In some starboard-side landings, particularly in confined areas with weather conditions permitting, a completely flat approach at bare steerageway may be the best approach. This requires that there be no appreciable effect on the ship by wind or tide. Further, it may be necessary in some cases to make an approach with the bow out five to ten degrees to keep the stern where you want it. The bow can then be brought in by the capstan—a practice not so unseamanlike as it sounds; the capstan is there, so use it whenever appropriate.
A further word of caution on the starboard- side-to landings: try not to get into a position where you must use a lot of backing power. If you do, and your after lines are not over smartly, you may find yourself at a 40-to-50- degree angle to the berth, wishing vainly for a tug or a strong “on-berth” wind to get the stern back in. The best advice then is to back out and try again.
Casting: Casting to starboard is relatively simple. Put the rudder hard right, then alternate ahead and back bells. The ship comes around in litde more than her own length. Casting to port is difficult at best and should be avoided. However, it can be done, by use of the starboard anchor and right full rudder to counteract the stern backing to port.
The anchor should be used with five fathoms of chain more than the depth of the water and weighed each time before the left full rudder and ahead bell are used, then dropped again as the swing of the bow stops and just before backing down. I have not tried casting to port, but other commanding officers tell me this is the accepted method.
Replenishment at Sea: An escort ship will react a in the same way as any other destroyer during
the approach and alongside phases of replenishment, except that response to changes of turns or course is more rapid. The standard approach with a five-knot differential is identical. Holding speed until the last possible moment, then adjusting speed to give you zero relative motion alongside, and increasing to replenishment speed works well without any loss of maneuverability.
Use of Tugs: In making a berth parallel to the axis of strong currents, and where a choice exists, always stem the current. A port- side-to landing is possible with the current, but a starboard-side landing in this case requires tugs or perfect timing; I highly recommend tugs, as I have never trusted timing against the unknown. When a tug is made up, remember that this is a force that must be taken into account. It is always advisable to know the capability of the tug and how she handles. As an example, some tugs are direct drive, others back to starboard, etc. Most books on shiphandling have good information on handling tugs and their capabilities.
Linehandlers: Normally the escorts are assigned very restricted berths. It seems you always have to thread your way among other ships to reach the assigned berth. It is rare when you can come into port and your berth is clear and linehandlers on station. One of the greatest headaches or the biggest boon to your skill in mooring the ship is the training level of the linehandlers. You will rely on them increasingly with each approach and departure, especially as you become more daring and begin to make faster approaches. On a single-screw ship, you will find that lines are often used to spring the ship, in and out of position. My orders have always been to get lines 2 and 4 over first while making a berth. * The correct use of these two lines can make
a fast, poor approach into a landing that
you can walk away form. On the fast approach, holding line 2 only will stop your forward motion, bring the bow in rapidly and swing the stern out. By holding lines 2 and 4 at the same time, you will stop the forward motion and bring the ship in rather flat. Holding line 4 and kicking ahead slowly will bring the stern in.
I have found that knowledge of the use of nylon lines is also necessary. As an example, once you hold a nylon line and it takes a strain, it becomes almost impossible to slack it again. This one fact will come to life several times when a linehandler holds some line without orders or you make a wrong decision to hold a line. I have always found that frequent discussions with the bosun’s mate on the linehandling pay off with better landings.
Effect of Wind: Additional consideration must be made when mooring in restricted waters. The high sail area of the escort ships and the dash hangar deck make the class very susceptible to the effect of wind, particularly when moving at slow speeds. I have not discussed the effects of tides and currents in detail since the shiphandlers should be experienced in this area.
The following notes refer specifically to the DE-1037 and DE-1040/DEG-1 classes. My comments here are limited to changes from the handling of the escort ships previously discussed. Two factors must always be considered in dealing with these ships: (1) The rudder on these later escorts is offset some two feet to starboard, and (2) the large sonar dome requires the shiphandler to watch the movement of the bow very closely. After observing the outline of the ship and the immense sonar dome, I believe the shiphandler will shift his attention to the bow, and it will also become more apparent that once in trouble, it is difficult to recover. As an example, in restricted waters making an approach with no tugs for a star- board-side-to landing, if the approach is too fast with a strong backing bell required, the stern will go to port, moving the bow toward the pier. With no lines over and no room to kick ahead, you are in immediate trouble.
If a tug were made up on the port bow this landing would present no problem. As a general policy, I would always use one tug for safety. Even under the best conditions a landing can turn into a nightmare; if tugs are available, use their assistance. If conditions are so unfavorable that two tugs are required, I would also ask for a pilot. Their daily experience in tug handling and knowledge of tug characteristics can be quite valuable.
Remember, a YTB or YTM tug must stay clear of the sonar dome, particularly with his rudder, but a YTL does not have enough draft to hit the dome. The danger from a YTB or a YTM is not usually as great as it appears. If the tug is on an even keel she will probably stay clear, but the heeling effect might cause contact, so why take a chance?
The large rudder of the DE-1040 class is extremely effective in controlling the ship, even at very low speeds. At ten r.p.m. the ship can be steered very well even against a light wind. In making landings, if large rudder angles, such as 38 degrees, are used, the ship can be steered until almost dead in the water.
The offset of the rudder to starboard clearly has the expected effect when used with the ship stopped and the engines going ahead, i.e., with left rudder the head will turn to port before much headway is gained. With right rudder the head will come right very little until the ship is moving through the water, since the rudder is not in as much of the propeller wash.
Mooring to a Buoy: Using a length of spring lay wire rope as a buoy line, as described in Naval Shiphandling, [*] is the preferred way to moor to a buoy. The spring lay will be worth its weight in gold as a slip rope when breaking the moor. In making a moor, engine orders as low as 10 or 15 turns are effective. Full maneuvering bells may prove extremely fast for this delicate maneuvering.
Clearing a Pier: With a ship set off a pier, lines can be taken in and you should be able to get underway without assistance. With the ship set on the pier either side to, ask for a tug. A quarter line from the stern of the tug through the chock just forward of the boat davits will pull the ship out nearly parallel to the pier, with control being maintained by checking lines 1 and 6. From this position, the tug can be cast off quickly when ready to back out.
With no wind, you can clear a pier unassisted from either side to, provided there is room to go ahead first. You can heave around on line 6 to pull the bow out about 20 degrees from the pier heading. Put the rudder toward the pier and kick ahead after slacking or taking in line 6. The stern should swing out nicely leaving you parallel to the pier and some 15 to 20 feet from it. If the starboard side is to the pier, it will be easy to back out. If port-side-to, you may have to maneuver back and forth a few times to clear. Putting the stern toward the pier is feared by twin- screw shiphandlers, as most have always been taught to keep the stern away from danger. However, you will find that there will be many occasions when this is required, and the maneuver can usually be performed without difficulty.
Making a Landing: Port-side-to landings present few problems; however, a tug made up is recommended. The main use of the tug will be to hold off the bow. One item that will require attention is to ensure that no strain is taken on the forward lines until the stern starts swinging in. It seems that the slightest strain tends to spring the bow in; this effect is the same as on other escorts, but the large sonar dome makes one more conscious of the effect. In the DE-1040 class, it is easier on the shiphandler if in making landings the ship is in position some 30 feet from the pier; get your lines over and then work yourself in. This is not required in the other escorts, as you can “drive them in.”
I want to emphasize again: keep all singlescrew escorts out of situations that present potential hazards, especially when no tugs are being used. If you cannot make an assigned berth after several attempts due to unfavorable conditions, take any berth. It is much easier to explain to base operations why you shifted berths than to explain a wrecked pier or a damaged ship to a board of inquiry.
The escort ship is a fast, maneuverable, highly potent ASW weapons system. She is a command offering challenge and reward, and should be highly desired by line officers. Handling the single-screw escort ship should be no mystery; any officer with a good foundation in destroyer shiphandling can easily adapt this knowledge and become an expert shiphandler of the escorts.
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| By Lieutenant Henry Dale, |
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| U. S. Navy, | |
| Commanding Officer, USS Asheville (PGM-84) | tmFjM1 |
THE NEW U. S. MOTOR GUNBOATS
The two decades following World War II saw a continuing series of “limited war” operations which has led the U. S. Navy to develop a new breed of fighting craft—the motor gunboats.[2]
The prototype of this new breed is the USS Asheville (PGM-84), which was commissioned on 6 August 1966. Sixteen of these ships are now in various stages of construction for the U. S. Navy.
An unusual feature of these new ships is their construction. The Asheville is constructed almost exclusively of aluminum which ranges from -jg of an inch to 1| inches in thickness and reduces the ship’s weight by two-thirds over a steel-hulled ship of the same size. Because of the heat-transmitting qualities of the ship’s aluminum hull and the amount of waste heat developed by her gas turbine propulsion system, the ship is completely air conditioned. The Asheville's superstructure (01 and 02 levels) is framed in aluminum and plated with J-inch fiberglass which, because of its light weight, improves the ship’s stability. As she knifes through the water, the 165- foot Asheville draws as little as 9| feet of water, while her planing hull displaces 240 tons.
The most revolutionary concept incorporated in the Asheville—aside from her allaluminum construction—is her complex engineering plant. The ship is powered by two 725-horsepower Cummins V-12 diesels for cruising and a 14,000-horsepower General Electric LM 1500 gas turbine for high speeds. This combination is referred to as an “A-DOG” system for Alternate Diesels or Gas
Turbine. These two plants are completely independent of one another as main propulsion units. In the diesel model, each engine drives the second or low-speed reduction gear to its respective shaft. Gas turbine power is applied to the first or high-speed reduction gear which reduces the power turbine r.p.m. 50 per cent. From the first stage through the second stage reduction gears and to shafts there is an over-all reduction of 8 1.
Three propulsion mode combinations are available. The ship will normally cruise on diesels and, when higher speeds are needed, they can be had in short order. The LM 1500 jet engine is ignited and set at idling speed while the two diesels are brought to full power; the two engines thus are running at about the same r.p.m. after reduction. The next step in putting the Asheville on turbine power is accomplished by the flick of a switch. The synchronous clutches disengage the diesel engines
and engage the turbine. This change of propulsion modes takes place without losing speed. Once disengaged, the diesels return to idle. Full throttle power can be applied immediately to the turbine and within 60 seconds the ship will be at full speed. In this mode of operation the twin propellers are synchronized in pitch.
A third propulsion option—the emergency turbine maneuvering mode—is available by
propulsion engines, and the ship’s generators.
The Asheville’s armament consists of a rapid- fire, 3-inch/50-caliber single gun forward, a 40-mm. single gun aft, and twin .50-caliber machine guns to port and starboard. The range and selection of weapons give the ship the capabilities of fighting either a close-in or an open-range engagement. Communication and electronic equipment, while limited by the ship’s size, are nevertheless more than ade-
using turbine power and independently controlling pitch with the diesel throttles. Mode changes from diesels to turbine power and back can be controlled from the pilothouse or the engineer operating station. At maximum power the ship is capable of stopping and backing within two ship lengths without disengaging the clutch—another advantage of her variable pitch propellers. Rudder response is almost instantaneous. In terms of power, speed, and maneuverability the Asheville-class, motor gunboat is indeed the sports car of the sea.
The ship is serviced by two 190-horsepower Cummins engines coupled to 100-k.w. generators. Hydraulic power take-offs are located on the other end of each engine. An added feature to the propulsion system is that JP-5 aviation fuel is used for the gas turbine, main
quate for extended independent operation.
Most of the three officers and 21 enlisted men in the Asheville’s crew have received specialized training, such as the Navy J-79 jet engine school, General Electric’s LM 1500 instruction, and other contractor-furnished training peculiar to the unique equipment installations aboard the ship. At the same time, this new breed of ship requires an old breed of sailor. Because of the limited manpower on board and the number of one-of-a-kind ratings, the gunboat sailor, in addition to possessing the skills necessary to his rating, must be a well-rounded seafaring man—as adept with semaphore, flashing light, the maneuvering board or marlinspike as he is in repairing the fire control radar or preparing the evening meal. All hands must demonstrate proficiency in damage control and first aid.
In many other ways, this versatile new ship differs from other men-of-war. The pilothouse resembles the cockpit of a jet airplane and as the watch “straps in” (seat-belted watch chairs are provided because of rapid acceleration, deceleration, and maneuvering), the turning and flicking of switches brings the ship to life. Little is or has to be said; the evolution taking place is that of a precision watch, as it must be for 165 feet of ship performing at speeds in excess of 40 knots. Interior and exterior communication and navigational equipment are also borrowed from aircraft concepts and streamlined to provide maximum use of available manpower.
The Asheville’s missions can be many and varied. Because of the ship’s speed, maneuverability, and shallow draft, she is well suited for work close to enemy shores in support of counterinsurgency, guerrilla, and conventional amphibious operations. The interdiction of shipping, blockading harbors, and the control of large areas of enemy coastlines also fall within the capability of the Asheville and her sister ships. With weapons changes it is not inconceivable that this class of ship can perform many tasks now delegated to destroyers in the areas of anti-air warfare and antisubmarine operations. Her ability to act as a high-speed minelayer should not be overlooked. The potentials of the new gunboats seem unlimited and development of other missions and concepts will undoubtedly evolve as the Navy gains operational experience with the ship.
With the completion of the Asheville and her sister ships, the U. S. Navy will have a gunboat fleet well-suited for operations in the Cold War era.
| U. S. Asheville | Swedish Spica |
Displacement | 240 tons | 190 tons |
Length, over-all | 165 feet | 141 feet |
Beam | 24 feet | 21 feet |
Draft | feet |
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Machinery | Diesel-Gas turbine | Gas turbine |
Horsepower | 1,450/14,000 | 12,720 |
Speed | 40+ knots | 40+ knots |
Crew | 24 | 28 |
Armament | 1 3-inch gum | 1 57-mm. gun |
| 1 40-mm. gun | 6 torpedo |
| 4 ,50-cal. MG | tubes |
By Commander Bertil Erkhammar,
Royal Swedish Navy,
Chief of Naval Information Department,
Swedish Naval Staff
THE NEW SWEDISH MOTOR TORPEDO BOATS
The new 5/hca-class boats are the first attack ships to be constructed for the Swedish Navy under terms of a new naval defense plan, the so-called “Marin-plan 60.” One of the most essential features of the modern Swedish Navy is the systematic endeavor to distribute the striking power of the surface forces among a greater number of smaller ships. In this way, the chance of survival of the combat force is increased. Moreover, in this way maximum flexibility in technological developments can be retained.
Previously, offensive weapons forced a development trend toward larger ships. For example, a heavy naval gun required a large platform which in turn had to be protected by armor plating and consequently the ship became larger. Since the heavy gun had a greater range than any other weapon, this was a natural way of combining striking and defensive power. The range of guided weapons provided with their own propulsion power—torpedoes and missiles—is now greater than that of even the heaviest guns. Thus, the development of new weapons strengthens the argument in favor of the smaller ships.
However, this does not mean that the gun can be completely replaced by torpedoes or missiles. The need for an instantly available defense capable of developing a rapid and effective rate of fire against both surface and air targets still makes the gun competitive with the guided weapon and will continue to do so for a long time.
The offensive power of the Swedish Navy is now distributed among submarine and destroyer flotillas. The Swedish submarine force, fifth in size in the world, is composed of recently built attack submarines, the main weapons of which are long-range, remote- controlled torpedoes. The destroyer flotillas have modern destroyers and torpedo boats, the main weapons of which are guns, antisubmarine weapons, and remote-controlled torpedoes and missiles.
The existing motor torpedo boats are being replaced by the Spica-class T 121 attack ships. When the destroyers become obsolete, they will, in turn, be replaced by missile ships in combination with the Spica-class ships. These new attack ships are a logical development from the torpedo boats of the T 102 class which were built between 1951 and 1960. The modifications have been prompted by rapid technical developments in recent years, principally in regard to weapons, fire control equipment, and machinery. The comparatively small hull, 190 tons with a length overall of 141 feet, has a striking power even surpassing that of the destroyers of World War II. The main weapons are six remote-controlled torpedoes of a new type with long range and great destructive power. Automatic fire control equipment in combination with a high degree of accuracy of the torpedoes gives a high kill probability. Forward is a remote-controlled, Bofors 57-mm. automatic cannon.
The profile of the new torpedo boat is dictated by the demand to provide a wide arc of fire for the gun located in the middle of the exceptionally long foredeck of the ship. For attacks in special tactical situations, the Spica is equipped with one 57-mm. and four 103-mm. flare launchers.
The sturdy hull of the Spica also allows the ship to carry mines. Owing to the modern radar and fire control systems, all of the weapons can be used without regard for light and visibility conditions.
a
The latest in a long line of Swedish-designed motor torpedo/gun boats is the Spica class, the lead vessel of which is shown here. Note the 57-mm. gun isolated on her long foredeck and the triple exhausts of her gas turbine engines. The 57mm. mount is power operated and remote controlled. These ships have an extensive electronics array.
Royal Swedish Navy
These new torpedo boats are the first Swedish warships provided with gas turbine power plants. The earlier torpedo boats of the T 102 series are provided with three Mercedes Benz diesel engines, each developing 3,000 s.h.p. After trials and studies, transition to gas turbines was considered suitable. Consequently, the T 121 class has been equipped with three Bristol Proteus gas turbines, each developing 4,240 s.h.p. Their location aft and the small size of the turbines have made valuable space free for larger combat in-
formation and maneuvering centers, as well as providing more comfortable internal arrangements in these ships.
The gas turbine propulsion also provides fast starting, good maneuverability, and a speed exceeding 40 knots. Other advantages with this new propulsion technique are a sound-proof centralized control room for remote control of the turbines and variable pitch propellers of KaMeWa-type, making rapid and adjustable maneuvering and speed control possible direct from the bridge.
The Spica'& bridge house and the ventilation system have been designed for passage through radio-active zones. Consequently, when necessary, the ships can be closed so that they are completely watertight and airtight. They can then be operated from below deck with no one remaining in the open. To give the ship a good buoyancy, even when damaged, certain wing and bottom tanks are filled with foam plastic.
The crew consists of 28 men one lieutenant-commander, three lieutenants, three warrant officers, seven petty officers, and 14 ratings. All can be accommodated on board for a long time, making the ship less dependent on naval bases.
The initial Spica class consists of six ships, to be completed by the summer of 1967, and will be followed by six similar craft. The lead ship Spica (T 121) and her sister ships Sirius (T 122) and Capella (T 123) were built by the Gotaver- ken ship yard in Goteborg. These are probably the last ships to be built by the yard which has turned out Swedish warships since 1847. The remaining ships of the first series, the Castor (T 124), the Vega (T 125), and the Virgo (T 126) are being built by the Karlskronavarvet shipyard. All of the ships are named for stars.
These motor torpedo boats will be followed on the ways by a new class of motor gunboats. These craft, which will supplement the Spica class, will have a displacement of 170 tons and mount one 75-mm. and one 40-mm. Bofors guns. They will be diesel powered and have a crew of 25 men. Their speed has been estimated unofficially at 25 knots.
These new motor torpedo and motor gunboats will be a valuable addition to the Swedish Navy and an excellent example of increased striking power distributed among a number of small ships.
By Captain T. F. Pollock,
U. S. Navy,
Member, Military Studies and Liaison Divison, WSEG,
Office of the Secretary of Defense
WEAPONS SYSTEMS EVALUATION GROUP
Some of the problems of current concern to the Department of Defense can only be approached through an extensive investigation of the interplay of science and technology on the one hand, and strategic, military, political, and economic considerations on the other. Systems analysis is one of the methods by which the dynamics of these complicated problems can be studied, and the resulting product used to provide the decision-maker with relevant data, evaluated by experienced civilian and military personnel working together, and organized in a readily usable format. No single organization would normally have this particular combination of talents; consequently, two organizations have evolved which work together as a team.
The Weapons System Evaluation Division (WSED), a division of the Institute for Defense Analyses, consists of about 120 civilian scientists, analysts, and specially skilled technicians. Under a Department of Defense contract, WSED makes studies for, and with the military participation of, the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, Office of the Secretary of Defense.
The Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA) was formed by five leading universities as a non-profit organization. Initially IDA consisted of the Weapons Systems Evaluation Division (WSED), but since 1956 IDA has expanded. It is now associated with 12 major universities and has organized four additional divisions: Research and Engineering Support Division (RESD), Economic and Political Studies Division (EPSD), Jason Division of outstanding scientists for summer or special studies, and Communications Research Division (CRD). The Defense Systems Analyses Education Program for Military Officers was started by IDA in 1965.
JOHN P. HOLLAND
1841-1914
Inventor of the Modern Submarine by Richard Knowles Morris
This Irish-born teacher- inventor built his sixth submarine in 1897. She was purchased by the U.S. Government and became the first submarine of the U. S. Navy (USS Holland). 211 pages, plus 32-page illustration section. Line drawings. Ship plans. Appendixes. Bibliog- graphy. Index.
List Price $8.50 Member's Price $6.80
The Weapons Systems Evaluation Group (WSEG) was formally established as a separate organization in 1949 for the purpose of conducting operational analyses and evaluations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Director of Defense Research and Engineering, and others authorized by the Secretary of Defense. WSEG consists of senior military personnel from the four military services. The director is a lieutenant general or vice admiral assigned on a rotational basis. An Army and an Air Force major general and a Navy rear admiral are assigned as senior service representatives.
The senior Navy member of WSEG is a rear admiral and there are 17 senior Navy and Marine Corps members of the Military Studies and Liaison Division (MSLD). The experience of these officers covers nearly all facets of Navy and Marine Corps endeavors. Their responsibilities are to:
• Maintain liaison with the military agencies of DOD with respect to military plans, operations and tactics, techniques, doctrines, technical material, and intelligence.
• Review the military features assumed in connection with particular evaluations being conducted within WSEG, and advise superiors as to the adequacy and accuracy of these assumptions.
• Plan and co-ordinate arrangements for other service agencies to assist WSEG in specific projects by obtaining and providing data or by undertaking supporting analysis.
• Participate as a member of a team in the evaluation of specific weapons systems. Prepare contributory or supporting studies and analyses for group evaluation.
• Advise scientists of WSED on military views, doctrine, and customs. Assist scientists in the analyses of military problems in interpreting doctrinal matters and techniques in the light of military knowledge, experience, and judgment.
• Work with positive objectivity in the analyses of problems where service interests are at variance or where controversial issues are under consideration and be able to deal effectively and work co-operatively with people, both military and civilian, at high levels in DOD and other agencies.
The WSED/WSEG program of studies investigates and evaluates strategic and tactical
weapons systems, command and control systems, nuclear warfare, space implications, and other matters on which major decisions may be pending.
Strategic warfare system studies investigate the effectiveness of ballistic missile systems in penetrating target areas and in target damage as well as defense capabilities, damage limiting capabilities, counterforce targeting, nuclear materials allocation, and the use of space systems.
Air defense studies examine both the potential effectiveness of current and proposed systems to protect the United States and the capabilities of penetrating enemy defenses. Other studies investigate antisubmarine warfare, logistics, comparative effectiveness of tactical aircraft systems, and operational combat systems in Southeast Asia.
Command and control projects study equipment, systems, and procedures that are required to support a controlled response in any situation. Certain selected critical incidents of national interest are investigated in detail and are evaluated.
There are two supporting units available to provide important inputs to each of the projects as may be required. A cost analysis unit assembles cost data from a wide variety of cost accounting systems and puts it in a format which can be readily used in cost effectiveness calculations. A mathematics unit provides mathematical support, develops techniques, and assists the programming and computer staff.
Cost effectiveness has become a vital factor in defense decision making during the life of WSED/WSEG. New weapons must be considered in terms of scientific research, people, material development laboratories, operational evaluation organizations, industrial production facilities, military manpower, and, last but not least, the money from the national economy to pay for this effort. The national economy cannot possibly develop all proposed weapons and must select the best one from several alternatives which will hopefully prove to be the most effective selection
for today, tomorrow, and ten years from now.
Systems analysis alone cannot dictate the correct choice of alternative weapons. However, good analytical studies can provide very significant aid to the exercise of judgment by the decision maker. An improperly conducted or misinterpreted study can be misleading and therefore dangerous to national security; thus, it is essential that studies clearly delineate what they do and what they cannot do. Studies are most useful when they present clear and unbiased results along with a clear demonstration of the methodology, criteria, assumptions, constraints, limits of uncertainty, and the sensitivity to the inputs. Systems analysis methodology uses computer programming and mathematical techniques to investigate the effect of changing the variable factors over a wide range of limits and can provide the answers in a relatively short time. These processes can show ways in which we can project our experience and lend objectivity to the assessment of the consequences of varying the assumptions; thus these processes provide a valid basis for selection among various alternatives.
Systems analysis has played a dramatic role throughout the Department of Defense. The defense executive must make decisions affecting national security which involve billions of dollars and large increments of national scientific research and development resources in the face of budget cycle deadlines, daily crises as they arise, uncertainties in future international relations, the imponderables of future warfare requirements and from a selection of competitive and non-competitive systems from which only a few may be selected.
The united efforts of WSED/WSEG combine operational data, theoretical studies, analytical methods, mathematical formulations, computer applications, and mature judgment of scientist-analyst teams and highly experienced military officers to provide the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Department of Defense with an important contribution to logical decision making for future national security.
★
Notebook
U. S. Navy
a Bag to Keep Sharks From Men (Navy Times, 4 January 1967): The Navy has come up with a new protective device that should be more than welcome to men overboard in shark-infested waters.
Developed by Dr. C. Scott Johnson of the Navy Ordnance Test Station’s Marine Biology Facility, Point Mugu, Calif., the device is a five-foot plastic bag which screens a man in the water from sharks.
Tests at Hawaii and Eniwetok show that sharks ignore the bag in the water and, in some cases, go out of their way to avoid it.
The bag, which is filled with water and supported by inflatable rings at the top, keeps blood and human scent inside the bag. The bag also helps keep its user warm by conserving body heat.
With a black body and international orange top, the bag is made of commercially available strong, lightweight, mildew and decay- proof plastic.
The development of the bag followed a long search for an effective shark repellent.
During World War II, men in the Pacific frequently encountered sharks after ditching or abandoning ship and it soon became obvious that a repellent was necessary.
By 1943, the Navy came up with a chemical preparation composed of 20 per cent copper acetate and 80 per cent nigrosine dye.
In theory, the copper acetate was included because when mixed with sea water it formed acetic acid, which was believed repugnant to the shark’s sense of smell. The nigrosine, a black dye, was to hide the man. This repellent, called “Shark Chaser,” was issued as a 65- ounce cake and was included in the survival gear for Navy pilots. It wasn’t as satisfactory as anticipated.
The Shark Research Panel of the American Institute of Biological Sciences was formed with the support of the Office of Naval Research in 1958 to appraise the effectiveness of anti-shark measures and the use of repellents. Conducting tests on the Shark Chaser, they found the copper acetate did not convert to appreciable amounts of acetic acid, and that the cloud of black dye was a more effective barrier.
The clue that the screening agent was the more useful of the two ingredients led to the new bag concept. Bags of many colors and materials were tested by humans among both captured and free-living sharks, and the black bag won out.
The Office of Naval Research has recommended an immediate purchase of the shark protective screens and estimates they can be produced at a cost of less than $10 each.
s 'Who Owns the Ocean Bottom?’
{Armed Forces Management, December 1966): In a series of speeches from Canada to West Virginia to California, Adm. David L. McDonald, Chief of Naval Operations, has been placing repeated emphasis on the Navy’s role in oceanography and has sounded a warning trumpet.
“There is,” he said, “one thing the future might hold for us with which we haven’t been too concerned in the past. With the advancement of the ocean sciences and deep ocean exploration, we may well run into a new problem in the area of national sovereignty with respect to those areas of the seabed which we have been able to develop.
“Today, each country has sovereignty over the bottom of the ocean out to the edge of the continental shelf. But as our explorations go deeper and deeper we might consider who will exercise sovereignty over those ocean depths. Will a nation which has sovereign rights over a particular portion of what is now the free oceans’ seabed control the waters above that seabed the way a nation now controls the airspace above the sovereign land mass? If so, will the sea continue to be free?
“When the time comes for such problems to be settled at the international conference table, we must make certain that we have the power to make our voices heard and, perhaps more importantly, we must make certain that we have the power—the sea power— to enforce any agreements which may be reached in such matters.”
0 Navy Defers VSX Development {Aviation Week & Space Technology, 26 December 1966): Navy last week deferred development of an advanced carrier-based antisubmarine warfare aircraft (VSX) because it has not decided whether to emphasize land- or carrier- based aircraft for this mission.
However, the Navy will continue to work on designs and long-lead-time items for an aircraft that will replace the Grumman S-2.
Vice Adm. Charles B. Martell, Navy ASW chief, last week said that “harder facts” are needed for a VSX design because of the competition it is receiving from land-based aircraft, such as the Lockheed P-3 Orion. But he said ASW carriers are essential so the United States can operate without restriction on the seas.
Martell said the total U. S. ASW technology currently is 20 years ahead of Russian capabilities.
Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara concurred late last month with the Navy’s modified approach to development of a VSX design when he approved continuing funding for avionics systems and engines for the VSX as well as concurrent airframe studies.
In the meantime, the Navy will continue to improve its present antisubmarine aircraft forces, since in open ocean areas they are the dominant defensive force against any submarine threat, Martell said. Included in these
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J World's W’arships by Blackman 3.95 j
plans will be the funding in Fiscal 1968 for the P-3C, which is to carry the latest version of the Navy’s A-New [computerized aircraft ASW] system.
Describing the P-3C as “thoroughly computerized” to handle and display the large amount of data that can be received from the various sensor systems on board, Martell said that any future carrier-based ASW aircraft
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must have the same over-target capability.
Other programs the Navy is pursuing in modernizing its ASW capabilities include its Helicopter Attack System (HATS), which was proposed in 1963 and completed flight testing in a Navy/Sikorsky SH-3A early this year.
Developed to counter the threat of highspeed, deep-diving submarines, HATS uses improved sensor systems and an integrated display system. HATS uses a tactical coordinator as a key member of the crew, as do tactical operations with the P-3.
Advances in such a system and the ability of the helicopter to operate from restricted areas could result in major changes in the composition of ASW forces, Defense Dept, spokesmen said.
Other U. S. Services
0 Air Force Tests New ECM Warhead
{Armed. Forces Management, December 1966): The Air Force is one step nearer an objective to develop a radar jamming system designed to broadcast a sufficiently strong signal from a re-entering ECM (Electronic Counter Measures) vehicle such that the radar return from other re-entry vehicles to defending radars would be masked by the jamming signal.
On the 26 of October, from Wallops Island, Va., the Air Force launched the second of six planned experiments to study space reentry communications “black-out.”
According to an Aerospace Corporation report the primary obstacle to the development of the new ECM system is “during the extended portion of its re-entry trajectory, a ballistic missile or space vehicle is enveloped in a layer of ionized air. Because this plasma layer reflects and absorbs radio frequency (rf) electromagnetic waves, its presence severely limits the effectiveness of communications and electronics countermeasures systems.”
However, recent theoretical and experimental investigations of rf transmission through the plasma sheath may open a new door to the success of an ECM System.
The current launch was designed to boost a 60-pound experimental package to an altitude of 200 miles by a four-stage Trailblazer rocket. The unit is then blasted back to earth.
Purpose of the experiment is to measure plasma “noise” which interrupts radio communication. Instruments inside the nose cone sample “noise” (which begins at about
300,0 feet) at the front, center, and back sections of the vehicle.
Foreign Military
0 Jane’s Finds Soviet Navy 2d to U. S.
(The New York Times, 14 December 1966): The Soviet Union has moved up behind the United States as the world’s second naval power and is pressing Japan for merchant marine leadership.
These conclusions were reached yesterday by Jane's Fighting Ships, the accepted authority on maritime affairs, in its 1966-67 report.
According to a British Admiralty spokesman, Britian was second before the Soviet Union moved up.
Facts collected by the 69-year-old publication show that while the Soviet Union has no aircraft carriers, it outstrips the United States in conventional submarines. The Soviet Union lags in nuclear-powered submarines, however.
American naval power is clearly visible because of the war in Vietnam, said Jane’s, while the Soviet Union is “blatantly flaunting” its strength.
A 20-year Soviet program, Jane’s said, means that Moscow can match submarines, cruisers, destroyers, escorts, support ships, minesweepers, guided-missile patrol boats, oilers, store carriers and electronic surveillance scouts, usually fishing trawlers, with “anything that the other major naval powers can produce.”
Jane’s estimated Soviet strength at 40 nuclear-powered submarines, 340 conventional submarines, 20 cruisers, 110 destroyers, 100 escorts, 300 coastal escorts, 300 minesweepers, 100 missile patrol boats, 350 motor torpedo boats and 200 landing craft.
The United States is aiming for an entirely nuclear-powered fleet by the nineteen seventies and in the meantime has a force of 3,400 units.
These include 60 carriers or types that can be so used, 207 submarines, 38 heavy and light cruisers, 670 destroyers or escorts, 220 mine-laying and mine-sweeping vessels plus
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Naval . . . maritime . . . ships . . . sea . . . some military. If you read or collect such volumes, we feel that you will enjoy browsing through our newest 500 item catalog. Write now for your free copy.
ANTHEIL BOOKSELLERS
Dept. P, 2177 Isabelle Court No. Bellmore, New York 11710 (Large and small naval book collections purchasedI
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S Warships of World War I. comb. vol. 6.75 ^
? Warships of World War II, comb. vol. 8.75 :
2 World’s Warships by Blackman 3.95 \
plans will be the funding in Fiscal 1968 for the P-3C, which is to carry the latest version of the Navy’s A-New [computerized aircraft ASW] system.
Describing the P-3C as “thoroughly computerized” to handle and display the large amount of data that can be received from the various sensor systems on board, Martell said that any future carrier-based ASW aircraft
i Over 125 new STAR 1:1250 highly detailed, moderately T
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j NEW complete catalog now available for 35tf j
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must have the same over-target capability.
Other programs the Navy is pursuing in modernizing its ASW capabilities include its Helicopter Attack System (HATS), which was proposed in 1963 and completed flight testing in a Navy/Sikorsky SH-3A early this year.
Developed to counter the threat of highspeed, deep-diving submarines, HATS uses improved sensor systems and an integrated display system. HATS uses a tactical coordinator as a key member of the crew, as do tactical operations with the P-3.
Advances in such a system and the ability of the helicopter to operate from restricted areas could result in major changes in the composition of ASW forces, Defense Dept, spokesmen said.
Other U. S. Services
S3 Air Force Tests New ECM Warhead
(Armed Forces Management, December 1966): The Air Force is one step nearer an objective to develop a radar jamming system designed to broadcast a sufficiently strong signal from a re-entering ECM (Electronic Counter Measures) vehicle such that the radar return from other re-entry vehicles to defending radars would be masked by the jamming signal.
On the 26 of October, from Wallops Island, Va., the Air Force launched the second of six planned experiments to study space reentry communications “black-out.”
According to an Aerospace Corporation report the primary obstacle to the development of the new ECM system is “during the extended portion of its re-entry trajectory, a ballistic missile or space vehicle is enveloped in a layer of ionized air. Because this plasma layer reflects and absorbs radio frequency (rf) electromagnetic waves, its presence severely limits the effectiveness of communications and electronics countermeasures systems.”
However, recent theoretical and experimental investigations of rf transmission through the plasma sheath may open a new door to the success of an ECM System.
The current launch was designed to boost a 60-pound experimental package to an altitude of 200 miles by a four-stage Trailblazer rocket. The unit is then blasted back to earth.
Purpose of the experiment is to measure plasma “noise” which interrupts radio communication. Instruments inside the nose cone sample “noise” (which begins at about
300,0 feet) at the front, center, and back sections of the vehicle.
Foreign Military
@ Jane’s Finds Soviet Navy 2d to U. S.
(The New York Times, 14 December 1966): The Soviet Union has moved up behind the United States as the world’s second naval power and is pressing Japan for merchant marine leadership.
These conclusions were reached yesterday by Jane’s Fighting Ships, the accepted authority on maritime affairs, in its 1966-67 report.
According to a British Admiralty spokesman, Britian was second before the Soviet Union moved up.
Facts collected by the 69-year-old publication show that while the Soviet Union has no aircraft carriers, it outstrips the United States in conventional submarines. The Soviet Union lags in nuclear-powered submarines, however.
American naval power is clearly visible because of the war in Vietnam, said Jane’s, while the Soviet Union is “blatantly flaunting” its strength.
A 20-year Soviet program, Jane’s said, means that Moscow can match submarines, cruisers, destroyers, escorts, support ships, minesweepers, guided-missile patrol boats, oilers, store carriers and electronic surveillance scouts, usually fishing trawlers, with “anything that the other major naval powers can produce.”
Jane’s estimated Soviet strength at 40 nuclear-powered submarines, 340 conventional submarines, 20 cruisers, 110 destroyers, 100 escorts, 300 coastal escorts, 300 minesweepers, 100 missile patrol boats, 350 motor torpedo boats and 200 landing craft.
The United States is aiming for an entirely nuclear-powered fleet by the nineteen seventies and in the meantime has a force of 3,400 units.
These include 60 carriers or types that can be so used, 207 submarines, 38 heavy and light cruisers, 670 destroyers or escorts, 220 mine-laying and mine-sweeping vessels plus
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hundreds of service boats that include highspeed “mosquitoes” now in use off Vietnam.
In contrast, Jane’s wrote that the once mighty British Navy was despondent over the cancellation of a proposed new carrier of
50,0 tons.
s NavShips Aids Spanish Shipbuilding
(NavShips Technical News, December 1966): As a result of government-to-government agreements between Spain and the United States, the U. S. Navy is assisting the Spanish Navy in the construction of five guided missile escort destroyers in Spain and in the activation in the U. S. of a light aircraft carrier being leased to them by the United States. Under terms of the agreements the U. S. Naval Ship Systems Command is responsible for providing technical support for both programs to the Spanish Navy.
The escort destroyers, designated DEG-7, are to be built in a Spanish shipyard with the U. S. Navy providing complex material, working plans, and technical assistance in shipbuilding, facility development, training and maintenance. This assistance includes the procurement of the weapons and electronics systems and the development of the complete ship design. The U. S. will be reimbursed by the Spanish government for all direct assistance provided.
The American firm of Gibbs and Cox is acting as design agent for the complete ship system design under contract to the U. S. Navy. Equipment to be built in Spain will be made to U. S. designs under license with U. S. manufacturers. Certain contractor furnished material and equipment which is beyond Spain’s current capability to produce will be produced in the United States.
The guided missile ships being built in Spain are similar to the U. S. Navy’s DE-1052 Class. They will be about 480 feet in length with a 47-foot beam, and will displace over 4,100 tons. In addition to a five-inch gun, antisubmarine warfare torpedoes and rockets, they will carry a Tartar surface-to- air missile system similar to those aboard guided missile ships built for the U. S. Navy.
The contract for construction of the ships in El Ferrol del Caudillo, Spain, was scheduled to be awarded by the Spanish Navy in November of this year. The first ship is sched-
P
*
uled to be completed by September of 1971, with the remaining four being completed at short intervals thereafter.
The DEG-7 program represents a significant increase in Spanish shipbuilding and will require a major effort on the part of their Government and industry. The program is part of Spain’s broad effort to update and modernize its industry.
In addition to the U. S. Navy Shipbuilding Liaison Office in Madrid, a Resident Ship Liaison Officer is now established in El Ferrol to provide on site assistance. This office will be staffed by military and civilian U. S. Navy personnel. To arrange the U. S. Navy efforts in the United States on the program a Project Management Office has been established in NavShips (SHIP-PM1).
In the other program the light aircraft carrier (ex USS Cabot) has been leased to Spain for five years under Public Law 89-324. The Spanish Government will reimburse the U. S. Government for activation, repair, alteration, and outfitting of the ship for use as a helicopter carrier named Dedalo (PH-01). Work is now underway at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard with completion of the vessel planned for 1967.
Maritime General
0 Ship Designing by Computer (Shipbuilding & Shipping Record, 10 November 1966): Vickers Shipbuilding Group, Walker, are installing next spring a computer which will enable the yard to plan “perfect ships.” Details of the project have been revealed by Mr. P. D. Fraser-Smith, manager of the company’s forward development and research group. It could bring a big revolution in ship designing.
Vickers claim that if shipowners provide not only details of the vessel they require but also the full facts of the service in which it will be operating, the computer will come up in an hour or two with enough design details to provide the perfect ship for the job. “If the shipowner will give us all the facts and figures about any particular shipping service we can design the ship that will really fulfill the requirements,” said Mr. Fraser-Smith. “The design we produce might surprise the owner, but it will be the one he needs.”
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Progress
Hard to See—A camouflaged A-6A Intruder taxies on the deck of the USS Kitty Hawk (CVA-63) in the South China Sea. Intruders, A-l Skyraiders, and RA-5C Vigilantes have been used in the Vietnamese war to evaluate various camouflage schemes for naval aircraft.
Canada’s First—HMCS
Ojibwa, the first of three British-built, Oberon- class submarines for Canada, is now operational. Her sister- ships Onondaga and Okanagan will be commissioned in 1967 and 1968. These boats are 295 feet over-all, have a standard displacement of 1,610 tons, and diesel-electric drive. Their armament consists of six bow and two stern torpedo tubes. Britain will have 13 submarines of this type completed by summer.
Canadian Forces
Peruvian Versatility—The six coastal patrol boats recently built for the Peruvian Navy are designed for rapid conversion to torpedo boats or minelayers. Their basic armament, shown in the Santillana at right, consists of two 20-mm. guns and depth charges. Sonar equipment is also fitted. The 110- foot, 100-ton craft are powered by two turbo-charged diesels and are rated at a speed of 30 knots.
Vosper
Ethylene Tanker—The SS Teviot, the world’s first tanker built specifically to transport ethylene, and her sister ship Traqiiair are now operating in European waters. The ships have a cargo capacity of 400 tons of ethylene or 517 tons of ammonia. Each is 173 feet between perpendiculars, 7,000 tons deadweight, and powered by a remote-control, turbo-charged diesel providing a speed of 11 knots.
Ian Joy/Shipbuilding and Shipping Record
Expanding Aerial—The U. S. Army is evaluating an inflatable radio antenna which can be raised to a height of 60 feet in seconds. The antenna and pump are carried in a backpack, weighing approximately eight pounds.
Goodyear
A Piggyback Launch— When smalltugs are too short to go down the building ways themselves, they are launched piggyback aboard barges at the Jeffersonville (Indiana) Boat and Machine Company yard. Cranes then lifted this tug—the Sweet P's—from the barge and her propeller shafts and rudders were fitted.
Courier-Journal and Louisville Times
[*] R. S. Crenshaw, Jr., Naval Shiphandling (Annapolis, Md.: U. S. Naval Institute, 1965), pp. 82-86.
[2] During World War II, the U. S. Navy operated t 32 motor gunboats converted from submarine chasers
(PC and SC). All were discarded after the war.
f See Ship Notes, U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings, January 1967, pp. 137—139.