The conditions below decks of war vessels 200 years ago were almost indescribable. The decks and bulkheads were almost always damp, due to the seepage of water through seams and leaky ports and hatches, and due also to the lack of dry air for removing moisture. The illumination produced by the few smoky lanterns placed around the decks served only to intensify the darkness. The air was never properly changed in the lower deck compartments and in the gun deck compartments only when the ports and hatches could be kept open. In this damp, dark and foul atmosphere disease germs flourished and food rotted.
These conditions were recognized as interfering greatly with the efficiency of the Navy and various means were brought forward to remedy them. A Book of Ventilators was published about 1735 describing some of the devices proposed for ventilating ships. One scheme not included in the above publication is set forth by
the inventor the while he complains of the treatment he received in attempting to introduce his invention into the British Navy. His scheme is a workable one, as is shown by the following description, as well as by the fact that a similar scheme was used for ventilating coal bunkers as late as 1884. A description and plan of this method of ventilation is contained in a pamphlet entitled "An Historical Account of A New Method For Extracting the Foul Air of Ships, etc., With The Description and Draught of the MACHINES, By which it is performed: And the Relation given thereof by Dr. Mead, to the Royal Society. By Samuel Sutton, the Inventor. London: Printed for J. Noon, at the White-Hart in the Poultry, 1745. (Price One Shilling.)"
Mr. Sutton was a London brewer of an inventive turn of mind if we can believe the record he has left for posterity. Listen to Mr. Sutton:
"In the Year 1739, I was informed by a Gentleman, that the Sailors on Board the Fleet as Spithead were so dangerously ill, for the want of fresh Air, that they were put ashore to recover their Health; and the Ships to which they belonged stunk to such a Degree, that they infested one another. In Compassion to my Fellow-Creatures, I thought myself obliged to do all that was possible for their Relief in these unhappy Circumstances, and from this Time tried what could be done by Fire. I at length found, that by stopping the Air out of a Room that had three Fire-Places, and making two large Fires in two of them, I could bring the Air to draw down the third Chimney, with such Force as to put out a Candle. I then lighted a Fire in the other Chimney; which so rarified the Air in the Room, that the incumbent Air pressed to enter in, and with a Force sufficient to raise a Pulley with Half a Hundred Weight; and as soon as the Room was cooled, by the coming in of the Air, the Door was shut, and then opened again in three Minutes."
Mr. Sutton's statement that his great fire would raise fifty pounds on a door seems a little large upon investigation, but it could be done. Let us suppose him a prosperous brewer with a large house so that his chimney top was sixty feet above his open fire. The theoretical draft obtainable from a sixty-foot stack with a "large Fire" is about .35 inch. Due to various losses the available draft is about .28 inch in the grate. This draft will produce a pressure of about .oi pound per square inch or 1.44 pounds per square foot. To get a fifty pound pull from the stack suction he would need a door some eight feet by four and the hinges would have to be well oiled at that.
"Having proceeded thus far with good Success, I stopped up all the Chimnies in the House, the Garret excepted, and then lighted two large Fires, which drew the Air down the Chimney with such Violence as to put out four or five Candles immediately; whereupon I concluded that, a Fire being always kept on Board a Ship, and a Pipe or Cavity made to the Well, one End of it being heated by Fire, a change of Air would follow, and that by this Means rendered sweet and pure, and fit for Respiration.
"From this Time I made it my Business to consult the Officers and Sailors of the Navy, who all agreed that such a Change of Air would be of the greatest Use imaginable, in preserving the Lives of the Men on Board His Majesty's Ships. I particularly remember, that, being at a Coffee-House near the Admiralty, I placed myself nigh some Gentlemen of the Navy, and enquired of them, as I had before of others, as to the Usefulness of the fore-mentioned Change of Air, who all, to a Man, acknowledged that it would be of the utmost Service; and, upon their unanimous Approbation of it, I told them, that I could procure such a Change of Air; upon which one of the Company went to another Table, and the rest followed him; and I heard him tell the others, that he heartily pitied me, as being really mad, and out of my Senses."
This unexpected treatment resolved Mr. Sutton to apply to "some Person of Consequence in the Navy" so that he might get a trial of his idea aboard ship. Through his acquaintance with one of the commissioners of the navy, he obtained a letter from the Admiralty to the Surveyor of his Majesty's Naval Works, Sir Jacob Ackworth. I gather from other contemporary naval references to this gentleman that he was a rather difficult person to deal with, and his treatment of Mr. Sutton was no exception. Sir Jacob apparently did not care much for Mr. Sutton's idea after reading the letter of introduction, for he kept him waiting several days and then "was pleased to express himself in the following words: 'Sir, I suppose you intend to throw Air into the Wells of Ships.'" When the device was explained to him and he was asked to "appoint a Time for an Experiment to be made of my Scheme," he replied, "That no Experiment should be made, if he could hinder it."
This disappointment failed to daunt our inventor, for he went right back to the Lords of the Admiralty and obtained an order to have an installation made on the Greenwich, a man-of-war lying at Woolwich. " . . . pursuant thereto, to the Satisfaction of myself and all on Board the Greenwich, I placed the Pipes and all Things necessary to my Experiment, except .the Soldering of two Pipes; But, whilst the Solder was hot and the Plummer in Readiness to solder them, a Messenger from the Builder of His Majesty's Yard came to order the Workmen ashore."
The surveyor was beginning to "hinder it." The joints were never soldered, but Mr. Sutton tried out the system the next day nevertheless," . . . and as soon as I put the Candle to the Ends of the Pipes, they immediately extinguished the Flame: Which fully convinced those on Board of the great Usefulness of my Invention." The experiment was scarcely concluded before workmen arrived to take down the pipes and to plug up the holes.
Was Mr. Sutton through? Did he decide that sea-going conservatism could not be broken through and resolve to let the navy continue to breathe its foul air? Not at all. He took another tack and got the backing of the medical profession and interested the scientists of the Royal Society. Dr. Mead, the King's physician and a fellow of the society, communicated an account of the invention and method to that body. His version of the properties of air as well as his description of the apparatus is quite interesting.
"It is found by daily Experience, that Air shut up and confined in a close Place, without a Succession and fresh Supply of it, becomes unwholesome, and unfit for the Use of Life.
"This is more sensibly so, if any stagnating Water be pent up with it.
"But it grows still worse, if such an Air as this is made use of in Respiration, that is, becomes moister and hotter, by passing and repassing through the Lungs.
"These bad Effects, in different Degrees, according to the different Manner in which Air is inclosed, are observed in many Cases; particularly in deep Wells and Caverns of the Earth, in Prisons or close Houses, where People are shut up with Heat and Nastiness: but most of all in large Ships, in which, with the Stench of Water in the Hold, many Men being crouded up in Close-quarters, all the mentioned Circumstances concur in producing greater Mischief than would follow from any of them single.
"The reason of these bad Effects is this: It is that Property of the Air which is called it's Elasticity or Springiness, which makes it so useful to our Life. When any part of it is inclosed and kept from the Communication of the outward Air, it expands itself, and, in Proportion to the Closeness of the Place, loses it's Spring; and if any Heat or Moisture comes to it, the elastic Force may be quite lost and destroyed. And not only so, but if it happens to be impregnated with noxious Effluvia, either from unwholesome Substances of any kind, or from the infectious Breath of diseased Bodies; it will become quite poisonous and deadly, in a manner suitable to the original Cause.
"It is proposed at present to find out a Remedy for this Evil in Ships only: but by making Alterations according as particular Places require, the same may be applied to any Houses or Parts of them, as Prisons, the sick Wards in Hospitals, &c.
"Now it is a natural Consequent of the Elasticity of the Air, that when it is rarefied in any Part, (which is most effectually done by Heat) the neighbouring Air will rush that way, till this Part is brought to be of an equal Density and Elasticity with itself; and this again will be followed by the Air next to it; So that, if a Conveyance for Air be laid from the Hold or Well of the Ship, and a Rarefaction of the Air therein be made; the foul Air from this Place will run or be drawn out that way, and fresh Air from the adjacent Parts, will succeed in it's room.
"It is upon these Principles that the following Scheme is most humbly offered to the Right Honourable the Lords of the Admiralty, and Commissioners of the Navy, which it is hoped will be found effectual for clearing the bad and corrupted Air from the Holds and other close Parts of His Majesty's Ships; and thereby prove beneficial to the Public, by preserving the Healths of many of His Majesty's good Subjects serving on board the same; the whole thing being indeed easy to be executed, and what will no ways incumber, or be troublesome, in any of the Vessels where it shall happen to be applied; the same being, in short, no more than this: that whereas in every Ship of any Bulk there is already provided a Copper or Boiling-place proportionable to the Size of the Vessel, it is proposed to clear the bad Air by means of the Fire already used under the said Coppers or Boiling-places, for the necessary Uses of the Ship.
"It is well known, that under every such Copper or Boiler, there are placed two Holes separated by a Grate; the first of which is for the Fire, and the other for the Ashes falling from the same; and that there is also a Flue from the Fire-place upward, by which the Smoke of the Fire is discharged at some convenient Place of the Ship.
"It is also well known, that the Fire once lighted in these Fire-places, is only preserved by the constant Draught of Air through the forementioned two Holes and Flue; and that if the said two Holes are closely stopped up, the Fire, though burning ever so briskly, is immediately put out.
"But if after the shutting up the above mentioned Holes, another Hole be opened, communicating with any other Room or airy Place, and with the Fire; it is clear, the said Fire must again be raised and burn as before; there being a like Draught of Air through the same, as there was before the stopping up of the first Holes: this Case differing only from the former in this, that the air feeding the Fire, will now be supplied from another Place.
"It is therefore proposed, that in order to clear the Holds of Ships of the bad Air therein contained, the two Holes above-mentioned, that is, the Fire-place and the Ash-place, be both closed up with substantial and tight iron Doors; and that a copper or leaden Pipe, of sufficient Size, be laid from the Hold into the Ash-place, for the Draught of Air to come in that way to feed the Fire. And thus it seems plain from what has been already said, that there will be from the Hold a constant Discharge of the Air therein contained; and consequently, that that Air so discharged must be as constantly supplied by fresh Air down the Hatches, or such other Communications as are open into the Hold: whereby the same must be continually freshened, and it's Air rendered more wholesome, and fit for Respiration.
"And if into this principal Pipe so laid into the Hold, other Pipes are let in, communicating respectively either with the Well or lower Decks; it must follow, that Part of the Air consumed in feeding the Fire, must be respectively drawn out of all such Places, to which the Communication shall be so made."
The support of the Royal Society enabled Mr. Sutton to obtain an order from the Admiralty for another trial. This time he fixed on a hulk at Deptford "because that was immovable and could not, like a Ship, be sent away." When he arrived at Deptford he found that "Workmen belonging to the King's yard were busily employed in trying the Usefulness of another Machine, industriously set on Foot to supplant mine." Evidently Sir Jacob had a hand in this for it was done without orders from the Admiralty. The hindering went on, too, for when the installation was finished, Mr. Sutton found that the pipes had been made of wood, with so many gaping cracks that if they had not been stopped up with paper and size, the air leaks would have effectually killed all suction at the ends of the pipes.
"At length, in September 1741, the Day appointed for the Trial of my Experiment came; when the Lords of the Admiralty, the Commissioners of the Navy, Dr. Mead, Martin Folkes, Esq; and several other Members of the Royal Society, being present on Board the said Hulk; Sir Jacob Ackworth was pleased to say, in the Hearing of them all, 'I am sorry that you are come to see the Trial of such a foolish Experiment, that I tried myself Yesterday, and it would not shake a Candle.'"
This must have been a pure fabrication on the part of Sir Jacob and a foolish one too for he hardly could have expected the assembled committee to believe him and go away without waiting for a trial of the apparatus. The experiment was quite successful, the end of every pipe blowing out a candle as Mr. Sutton said it would ". . . and all the Lords and Gentlemen aforesaid . . . expressed their Approbation of the Performance."
After a wait of two months, Mr. Sutton was given an order to equip a sea-going vessel with his apparatus and he journeyed down to Portsmouth where the Norwich was fitted up as he desired. The figure shows the ventilation system as installed on that vessel.
As can be seen from the figure, the galley range was situated under the forecastle, with a stack to take away the smoke extending up above the deck, probably at least six feet. This would give a total stack height above the grates of about ten feet. This height would give a natural draft of .05 of an inch of water. Such a draft will produce velocity of almost 900 feet per minute. The pipe shown on the sketch leading to the well was six inches in diameter, and it was only one of several fitted. On a length of fifty feet as shown on the figures, about 150 cubic feet per minute could be drawn through this pipe to the ashpit of the galley range. If we add 100 cubic feet per minute as the capacity of other pipes fitted, there would be 250 cubic feet of foul air per minute drawn out of the lower deck compartments and discharged into the furnace for combustion. In these days of 10,000 cubic-foot blowers this amount of fresh air seems pitifully small. However, it was just that much better than nothing, and, as will be seen, was adequate for the health of the crew. Let us see now if enough air was coming into the furnace to burn the fuel necessary for cooking. Assuming that the fuel used in the galley of the Norwich was oak, the amount of air required to burn a pound of this wood is about six pounds or eighty cubic feet. A cord of four-foot white oak firewood will contain about seventy-five cubic feet of solid wood, which will weigh some 3,750 pounds, total. Three hundred thousand cubic feet of air will be required to burn it. Our pipes will supply more than this much air in the course of twenty-four hours, so there was no dearth of air for combustion. As a matter of fact, a quarter of a cord of wood a day was probably quite an ample for the simple cooking and water heating required, so that the cooks found it necessary to choke down a bit on the various pipes to prevent too hot a fire being produced.
When the installation was completed, Mr. Sutton waited for a satisfactory report but to his disagreeable surprise was "acquainted that no Report could be made till the Norwich returned from its Voyage; which was sent to Guinea and from thence to the West Indies, which constrained me to repent of my Journey."
With an eighteen-month wait ahead of him, Mr. Sutton returned to London and requested the commissioners of the navy to make a report of what he had done, . . . in order that I might receive a suitable Reward for my useful Invention, and reasonable satisfaction for my Trouble, Loss of Time, to the Neglect of my other Affairs, and Expences in the Execution of the same."
Due to the sudden change in the Ministry which occasioned a change also in the Admiralty, Mr. Sutton heard nothing until the return of the Norwich in June, 1743.
Captain Gregory of the Norwich made the following report:
"As to the Air-Pipes which were put on Board of me. I was obliged to stop up two of them, by Reason the Fire came down between Decks: the other to the Well was kept open, but the Ship making Water enough to keep her sweet, I was not able to judge of their Use, having been so healthy as to bury only two Men all the Time I was on the Coast."
Mr. Sutton complained bitterly of this report, writing to the Earl of Winchelsea and to Sir Jacob Ackworth, but it was not until October, 1743, that he received the following order from the Lords of the Admiralty:
“Mr. Treasurer,
No. 2619
1743
In Pursuance of an Order from the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 22 October 1743, signifying that, whereas Mr. Samuel Sutton did, some Time since, propose to that Board an Invention of his, for Extracting the foul Air out of Ships by Fire, and letting in fresh Air, an Experiment of which was ordered to be made on Board His Majesty's Ship the Norwich, bound to the Coast of Africa; and Captain Gregory, who commanded the said Ship, having since his Return, made a Report thereof, a Copy of which their Lordships sent us therewith, whereby it appears, that it does not, in all Respects, come up to the Expectation, and that the Use thereof is dangerous, and liable to Accidents by Fire: Yet, as the said Mr. Sutton has employed a great deal of Pains and Time about the said Invention, for the Benefit of the Navy, and had Encouragement from their Lordships so to do; and their Lordships being desirous to give Encouragement to Persons who shall turn their thoughts to any Inventions, that may tend to the Advantage of the Navy, do hereby desire and direct us to cause a bill of one Hundred Pounds to be made out to the said Samuel Sutton, as a Reward for the Loss of Time and Expences he has been at about the said Invention."
"We pray you to pay unto Mr. Samuel Sutton accordingly, the Sum of One Hundred Pounds, dated 22 Oct. 1743."
This £100 and a fourteen-year patent were the results of Mr. Sutton's four years' experiments with the ventilation of ships, even though, as he said, " . . . the Simplicity of the Machine; it's easy Stowage without being cumbersome; it's Operation without any Labour to the Seaman; the small Expence to put it in Execution, and maintain it; besides it's Tendency to preserve the Health and Lives of the Seamen, to keep the Ship dry, and the Merchandize from damaging; are strong Reasons why no Ship should go to Sea without it."
He probably wished he had devoted himself to developing a new variety of beer.