PROFESSIONAL NOTES
Prepared By Lieut. Commander R. A. Hall, U. S. Navy
FRANCE
French Naval Outlook.—While France's powerful army is progressing silently, having not only numbers (769,000 men in 1922), but, what is of greater moment, a trusted war doctrine that has victoriously withstood the test of the real thing, France's navy is yet under a cloud, slowly recovering from the blows it sustained in the course of the war, viz., neglect of all new construction and relative decline of the materiel, and, what is much worse, loss of the pre-war doctrine navale, so patiently elaborated by Admls. Daveluy and Darrieus and other painstaking pupils of the eloquent Mahan, and which events showed to be no longer adapted to our times. From the stormy squabbles that are agitating naval circles and lending interest to every reunion of the Conseil Superieur it is easy to gauge that where the Marine Francaise has suffered most is not in her materiel, but in her morale. Gallic naval men suffer from having been made to play a defensive role, to which their national temperament and training totally unsuited them. No doubt the war achievements of the French Navy are quite creditable. Only ignorant or prejudiced critics can deny that, yet, when our young officers think of Jutland, and especially of the British exploits at Dover and at Zeebrugge, they cannot help bitterly regretting that circumstances did not permit the gallant Adml. Rouyer and his cruiser squadron to make a desperate dash at the whole armada of the Kaiser and show what the descendants of Jean Bart and Duguay-Trouin could do against overwhelming odds. Inaction of systematic defensive is deadly to the naval spirit that can best thrive on traditions of offensive c otitrance and self-sacrifice. In 1914 the French Navy had power, made up of the right stuff of seamen (think of the enthusiasm of the crews of the Rouyer and Guepratte squadrons), and the French Marine of to-day is suffering from the fact that that power was not used—at least, not used fully. Here is the true cause of the "malaise" ashore and afloat, of the prevailing mistrust in those at the head and in their naval creeds and of the discouragement among young officiers de vaisseau, who complain of wasting their time and activity "en travaillant dans le vide" doing nothing or mere make-believe work.
Now, navies, to live and thrive, require a raison d’être, a clearly-defined object, or, as noted by Adml. Darrieus, "une application a des cas concrets."
For the present critics are so numerous and so noisy that the French naval outlook is apt to appear rather unpromising to those unacquainted with the past records and the recuperating possibilities of the Gallic naval service. On the morrow of the 1870 war the marine was pronounced by President Thiers to be useless, "un luxe superflu," just as it had been before condemned by Minister Louvois under Louis XIV: "La marine coute trap cher et ne sert qu'a defendre les cotes." Still, high spirit was in 1885 displayed by the fleet under the able Courbet (China war). Again, under Ministers Pelletan and Thomson (1903- 1909), the French Navy was thought to be dead or dying, in such a bad way, with untrained crews, defective guns, unreliable powder and ammunition, that Adml. Touchard then declared that his battle-squadrons were disarmed, unfit to fight, though they would know "how to die with honor." Yet five years later the situation had altogether changed, and a successor of Adml. Touchard, Adml. de Lapeyrere did not hesitate to assure his captains he had assembled after a successful battle-practice that he felt ready to tackle any comer (of course, in the old Nelson-Suffren style, barring new tricks).
The truth is that things are never so bad in the Gallic Navy as they appear to be. It is especially so now since the business-like Minister Guist'hau has put an end to the post-war stagnation, sent all battle-worthy ships to sea, and set the Section Technique hard working at superior ship and gun designs in conformity with his judicious and seamanlike motto: "La marine est faite pour navigeur et se preparer activement au combat." Action was the first need of the French Navy; it has revived it. The Salaun fleet, with modernized dreadnoughts, having full complements on board and a reserve of ammunition, must be proclaimed "prete au combat" (in pre-war style at least); and the Lequerre squadron of semi-dreadnoughts at Cherbourg will be in a satisfactory condition as soon as crews have been completed, minor repairs finished, and the practice of the sea resumed. No mean strides have thus been accomplished when it is remembered that last year there was hardly in the whole French Navy a single battleship fit to put to sea.
Senator Berenger, Rapporteur du Budget de la Marine, is reproaching Minister Guist'hau with having adopted an inadequate (insuffisant) naval program and with delaying the taking in hand of the same. The blame is not deserved, since M. Guist'hau is to be thanked for the voting of the cruiser program by the Chamber (a formality his predecessors could not succeed in performing), and since, also, the Commission de la Marine of the Chamber criticized the 8000-ton cruiser type as being unnecessarily large and costly, this in blissful ignorance of cruiser progress in other navies. As a matter of fact, it is a lucky thing for the French Navy the Briand Ministry weathered the recent Parliamentary tempest, as a governmental crisis would have further delayed shipbuilding. The Guist'hau program may not be much, but it is something, whereas if Ministers of Marine are to be changed every eight months nothing more than a nominal French fleet, without either worth or prestige, will be obtained, whatever expenditure is wasted in so-called Budgets de la Marine. Without stability and continuity of views at the head, no bona fide sea power is obtainable, and, with her peculiar system of mismanagement, the Republique Francaise is, year in and year out, wasting assets of strength and efficiency only second to those of Great Britain. Indeed, it is a strange spectacle for a great country to keep on "jouer au marin" in this expensive and fruitless guise. No wonder many think with ex-Minister of War Lefevre it would be more sensible once for all to recognize the incompatibility between the Republican instability and naval efficiency, and to shape accordingly the foreign policy of France.
With the Paris Parliament lies the responsibility for the French maritime decline. As noted by Depute de Grandmaison, an efficient striking force on the water is not so much a matter of finances as of "vouloir" of will; and the Chamber is wholly absorbed by party quarrels and has no time to devote to sea affairs that are, moreover, completely ignored by the bulk of Messieurs les Deputes. There has never been a Budget de la Marine which the Chamber has not curtailed and maimed. There has never been a naval program it has not delayed or reduced; and it is truly a marvel to think that under this "regne de l'absurde" the Marine Francaise has managed to live and is yet giving signs of a sturdy inward life. Under similar circumstances, especially when are reckoned the many disastrous consequences of instability in management, no other navy would have survived.
The Chamber and Senate will be asked this month to vote 965,000,000 francs for the Guist'hau program, of which 223 millions are to be expended in 1922, 344 millions in 1923, 327 millions in 1924, and 71 millions in 1925, in the construction of three 8000-ton cruisers of 35 knots, six 2400-ton and 36-knot scouts (probably three 140 mil. guns), 12 destroyers of 1200 tons, and 12 submarines of 1100o tons. In addition, credits will be asked for a "program d' aeronaiitique" that is ready and for a "programme de defensive des cotes" prepared in collaboration with the war office, that contains interesting innovations.
The 1922 Budget ordinaire was to attain 939,948,000 francs (about 350 million in pre-war money), against 951 million francs in 1921. Unfortunately, the Minister of Finances, who (amusing to note) is a late President de la Ligue Maritime, has already made a reduction of 96 million francs in next year's Budget, and he wants still further "economies," for the good reason that France has in 1922 a projected expenditure superior by some two milliard francs to her normal income, as the consequences mostly of the German devastations and partly of the growth of "fonctionnarisme."
A strong demand is anew being made for a reduction in the number of arsenals. While Brest, Toulon, and Bizerta will be preserved as first-class ports-militaires, it is probable that Rochefort will be suppressed and Lorient and Cherbourg reduced to the rank of secondary bases and arsenals.—Naval and Military Record, 16 November, 1921.
Paris Deputies Adopt Large Naval Budget.—The chamber of deputies to-day (6 December) adopted provisionally the naval budget of 844,000,000 francs, which covers the commencement of and progress on three light cruisers, six torpedo boat destroyers, twelve torpedo boats, twelve submarines and one airplane carrier; and later in addition three cruisers and 24 submarines.
It developed during the debate that annual construction probably would cost 333,000,000 francs, making future naval budgets average 1,200,000,000 francs. This would include 50,000,000 francs annually for submarines and coast defense.
Admiral Guepratte, describing France's fleet as almost nonexistent, said that five of the former German warships, despite the fact that they are antiquated, are France's best units.
It was remarked during the debate that the present naval appropriation was only 5 per cent of the total budget compared with 13 per cent in 1914. The present budget increases the naval personnel from 51,000 to 57,000.
France now has about 50 submarines, mostly small and many of them obsolete. The best of them are ten 800-ton boats surrendered by Germany. Admiral Guepratte and other deputies emphasized the importance of submarines to France and said experts during the past year had been seeking to perfect plans for the most modern type of this kind of vessel.—The Washington Post, 7 December, 1921.
GERMANY
Ex-Enemy Ships.—The Reparation Commission in Paris has issued an interesting statement as to the way in which Germany has fulfilled her obligations under Part VIII (Annex III.) of the Treaty of Versailles down to the 1st May, 1921. This relates to the obligation laid upon her by the victors in regard to the handing over of mercantile tonnage. From the statement it would appear that a total of 2,153,407 tons had been handed over. This fleet is made up of:
Passenger vessels 611,327 tons.
Cargo vessels 1,432,191 tons.
Sailing ships 80,140 tons.
Fishing boats 9,749 tons.
If one appreciates the wording of the statement properly, it would seem that this total does not include the many and important vessels which now fly the United States flag, but which were formerly comprised in the German Mercantile Marine. For the vessels with which the statement deals are vessels which have been surrendered. The vessels now under the American flag were never surrendered. They took refuge in United States ports on the outbreak of the war in August, 1914, and remained sheltering there till the United States itself became a belligerent. Then it promptly seized all the German tonnage within its jurisdiction. At the Armistice the Americans announced their intention of continuing to hold these ships. This it has done. As the United States were obviously not parties to the Treaty of Versailles it is further apparent that these vessels cannot be dealt with under its provisions. It seems obvious then that the American claim is based upon seizure and continued possession, and accordingly the real diminution of Germany's mercantile fleet is, say, 600,000 tons greater than the figures from Paris would lead us to imagine. An official estimate of the value of the tonnage surrendered is also furnished by the Commission. This is put at 745 millions of gold marks, which would be equivalent to thirty-seven and a quarter millions of British currency.
Not only are the German shipbuilding yards well occupied with work for the purpose of restoring their country to the place on the seas which had been won for it prior to the war, but temporary measures are being taken for showing the commercial flag while the new fleet is in process of making. Owing to the low standard to which the German paper mark has now fallen in the international exchanges, Germany can make a good thing out of running foreign ships which would otherwise be laid up owing to the fact that in consequence of the relatively high rate of their own country's exchange, they cannot be profitably employed under their national flag. Accordingly, many vessels are being sold, or colourably sold, by Swedes to German ship-owners. Swedish vessels are being removed to the German register and being managed by German ship-owners, who, in addition to certain allowances, receive 10 per cent of the net profit from the working of the ship as compensation for the work of management.—The Marine Engineer and Naval Architect, November, 1921.
German Shipping to the Far East.—The latest extension of German shipping is a cargo service to the Far East. The Hamburg-America and the Norddeutscher Lloyd are arranging a united service which opens on December 4 with the H.A.L. motor ship Haveland. The N.D.L. steamer, Westphalia, follows on January 7, 1922. Vessels call at Bremen and Rotterdam, and then proceed to the Straits, Flong Kong, Shanghai, Kobe and Yokohama. The ships employed afford accommodation for a limited number of passengers.—Engineering and Industrial Management, 17 November, 1921.
North German Lloyd's New Ocean-Going Fleet.—In a statement issued to the German press, Vice-President Ehlers of the North German Lloyd Company states that his line is making rapid progress with the rehabilitation of its fleet. At present the company is employing in the Brazil service the Vegesack and Bremerhaven which were built last year and has recently repurchased from England its former steamers Westfalen, Holstein, Gotha, Seydlits, York, Gottingen and Hannover. These steamers are of about 50,000 tons gross.
On October 1 there was launched for the company the steamer Minden of 4200 gross tons. She is 360 feet long and has accommodations for 12 cabin passengers. The Minden is a coal burner. _ In order to be able to compare the different motive powers now in use with regard to their safety and profitableness, the company has ordered two sister ships of equal size, one of which will be fitted with steam turbines and the other with Diesel motors. The largest unit building for the line is the steamer Hindenburg of 35.000 gross tons which is completing at the Schichau Yards in Danzig. She is a sister ship of the Homeric of the White Star Line.—Nautical Gazette, 19 November, 1921.
Dirigible Construction in Spain.—An arrangement has been reached between the Compania Trans-Atlantic and the Zeppelin Company of Germany for the construction in Spain of two rigid airships, each 250 meters long, 38.8 meters in diameter, and with a gas capacity of 180,000 cubic meters.
An air base is to be established in Spain (between Sevilla and Cadiz) where one shed will be built. A base has also been selected in the Argentine Republic where two sheds—one revolving—will be erected. The manufacture of the sheds will require an estimated time of two years. The sheds themselves can be built in much less time.
A smaller ship of the capacity of 50,000 cubic meters will be used for service between Spain and the Canary Islands, and for the training of pilots.—Aerial Age Weekly, 28 November, 192 1.
Germany's Past and Future Ship Output.—In a review of the present position of shipbuilding in Germany, a correspondent of The Shipbuilder states that about 73,000 men were employed in German shipyards in 1913. The output that year was about 460,000 gross tons or an average of 6.3 tons per man. In 1919 there were 80,000 men engaged in the construction of merchant vessels, who produced 250,000 gross tons or just over three tons per head. Most of the ships built in that year were small units, requiring more labor per ton than vessels of large tonnage, but the diminution of output as compared with that of pre-war days is obvious. As regards 1920, the output of that year may be estimated at about 320,000 tons with 75,000 men employed or about 4.3 tons per man.
At the present time the cost of construction is about 8000 marks per gross ton, but this is likely to be advanced shortly owing to the increasing cost of material and labor. At a cost per ton of 8000 marks, the government indemnity funds awarded ship-owners permit an output of 330,000 gross tons in 1921, 210,000 tons in 1922, 150,000 tons in 1923, 110,000 tons in 1924 and 50,000 tons in 1925. To these totals must be added any ships built for private ship-owners apart from the government's program.
In some of the German shipbuilding establishments, the output of the men per head is now as great as it was before the war. At other plants, the output is still materially less, the falling off being as much as 25 to 30 per cent. Moreover, the output of the yards has been considerably cur tailed by the adoption of the 48-hour in place of the 57-hour week.—Nautical Gazette, 26 November, 1921.
GREAT BRITAIN
New Warship Contracts Let.—The contracts for the four capital ships provided for in the naval program of Britain have now been placed by the Admiralty. The orders have been pretty fairly distributed, and the balance has been evenly held between the necessarily conflicting claims of the different steelmaking and shipbuilding districts and the facilities they can provide for the execution of such contracts. True, the Clyde receives orders for three of the new battle-cruisers to the Tyne's one, but the contracts for the armaments of the vessels will provide employment for thousands of men in Sheffield, Manchester, Barrow on the Tyne, and at Woolwich Arsenal.
Names of Successful Bidders.—The hull and machinery of one vessel, as everyone expected, go to Messrs. John Brown & Co., Ltd., of Clydebank and Sheffield. As the experienced builders of H.M.S. Hood and many another warship of recent design, high speed, and heavy armament they could not be passed by. The Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering Company, Ltd., of Govan, Glasgow, also receive an order for a complete ship, hull and machinery. Then Messrs. William Beardmore & Co., Ltd., have received the contract for the hull of the third battle-cruiser, but the machinery will be built by Messrs. Vickers. The successful Tyneside firm, Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson, Ltd., has a reputation for merchant shipbuilding which is second to none, but in modern warship construction of the largest type it has yet to win its spurs.
The machinery of this ship has been sub-let to Messrs. Parson Marine Steam Turbine Company, Ltd., of Wallsend. The contracts will mean an expenditure in the Clyde center alone of possibly over £25,000,000, and employment for thousands of shipyard workers for the next three or four years. Each vessel, it may be roughly estimated, will cost about £9,000,000 to complete. At Sheffield, too, the steel contracts will provide work for many hands and "shops," and all round, the orders should give a much needed fillip to employment in the iron and steel trades of the Kingdom. The designs of the new ships are, of course, secrets of the Admiralty, but naturally they will incorporate all the sea lessons of the war which our navy, above all others, should know best.—Nautical Gazette, 19 November, 1921.
America's Great Lead.—It would be paying the Americans a poor compliment to attribute their initiative in the matter of naval disarmament purely to altruism. Certain newspapers in this country, which appear to think that a never-ending stream of servile flattery is required to keep our American friends in good humor with us, are already uttering hysterical protests against any "tampering" with the Washington scheme of cutting down the navies of the world. This sort of behavior is decidedly un-British and by no means calculated to raise our prestige across the Atlantic. There are few papers, we venture to affirm, which have striven so consistently as The Naval and Military Record to foster amicable relations with the United States. Our efforts in this direction have frequently met with generous recognition from the American Service Press, and we shall therefore not be misunderstood if we try to throw a little fresh light on the genesis and true meaning of the naval proposals laid before the Conference by Mr. Hughes.
The fundamental motive is, without doubt, a sincere desire both to lighten the international burden of armaments and to avert war in the Pacific. It is, indeed, the transparent honesty of its authors which has caused the scheme to be so favorably received in practically every quarter. They offer no one-sided bargain, and demand of others no sacrifice which they are not prepared to make themselves. It is a square deal in every sense of the word, with all the cards laid on the table—a refreshing contrast to the hole-and-corner methods, the chicanery and the cynical sophistry which characterized the proceedings at The Hague. But when all this is admitted, the fact remains that the proposals for scaling down the battle fleets, suspending further dreadnought construction, and allotting definite standards of strength for auxiliary craft have been most carefully drafted with an eye to America's own strategical requirements of the future. This does not mean that the scheme is unfair to Great Britain or Japan. On the contrary, it is eminently fair, given certain minor readjustments which will doubtless be suggested by the technical experts who are considering the program.
The British Empire, with its intricate network of sea communications to guard, and its almost complete dependence on seaborne imports of food, may reasonably lay claim to a larger share of such vessels as are best suited to the work of patrolling the ocean highways. In our opinion the British Navy might be twice as strong as the American Navy in cruising ships, and yet have too few to protect the Empire's trade in wartime; and if the navy cannot fulfill that all-important function, it is demonstrably inadequate. Japan, on her part, is raising some objection to the wholesale scrapping of costly warships which are within measurable distance of completion. She wishes to proceed with the Mutsu, a 33,800-ton battleship armed with 16-inch guns, which is due to hoist the pennant next month, and is very loath to break up the still larger battleships Kaga and Tosa and the giant battle-cruisers Amagi and Akagi, several of which have reached the launching stage and would probably have been afloat by now but for the labor troubles in Japan. It is further pointed out by Japanese critics that the suggested ratio of scrapping would bear more heavily on their country than others. America undertakes to delete 15 vessels out of a total of 33, which is equivalent to 46 per cent, while inviting Japan to discard ten ships out of 20, which means a 50 per cent reduction.
There is even more force in the Japanese argument that her inferior resources for shipbuilding and armament production ought to be taken into account when determining the strength of her permanent fleet. Both Britain and America could add enormously to their naval establishments in the course of a year or two of intensive building, as, in fact, both did during the war; but this would be impossible for Japan. Finally, there is considerable misgiving in Japan as to the effect that a sudden and complete suspension of all naval construction may have on the labor and general political situation, which is none too stable at the moment. Four-fifths of the entire work at present being done in Japanese shipyards is on behalf of the navy, and, if this were withdrawn, the shipbuilding industry would be threatened with ruin. Common justice demands that consideration be paid to the peculiar difficulties which confront Japan in this matter of naval reduction.
No feature of the scheme propounded at Washington has evoked more comment than America's offer to scrap her six battle-cruisers. Nearly every American naval critic has hitherto referred to these ships as being absolutely indispensable, and, although there had been plenty of suggestions for discontinuing work on the six heaviest battleships, it was taken for granted that the battle-cruisers would have to be completed at all costs. What is the explanation of this surprising change in the American attitude? Principally, we think, a desire to give concrete proof of good faith, and a frank recognition that the sacrifice of the battle-cruiser program was a condition precedent of a true "naval holiday."
Had these six ships been retained, Japan would unquestionably have gone on with her four corresponding vessels of the Amagi class, and we should probably have decided to complete the four super-Hoods. Realizing this, America has taken the bull by the horns and offered to demolish six ships which would have been the most powerful and valuable units of her future battle fleet. But there was perhaps a third reason for the sacrifice, namely, a growing doubt as to the wisdom of building such huge, costly, and vulnerable vessels at a time when aircraft and submarines are developing remarkable powers of offense.—Naval and Military Record, 23 November, 1921.
Building Suspended.—There is a prospect of the fruits of the Washington Conference being garnered at an earlier date than had been anticipated even by the most sanguine optimist. In less than a week of the assembly of the nation's delegates in the capital of the United States, the British Admiralty feel justified in issuing instructions for the suspension of work on the four super-Hoods, for which orders were given last month at an estimated cost of £30,000,000. The general public have every reason to rejoice over this fact, but by the many thousands of people interested in the shipbuilding industry the announcement will be received with mixed feelings; and, although the orders for the ships had been allotted to private yards in the North, the employees in the Royal Yards are directly interested in view of the probability of further discharges from the national yards in the near future. How seriously the suspension of the work will affect the shipbuilding industry and kindred trades is indicated by the fact that at the beginning of this month the statement was officially made that it was considered that some 5000 men would be employed in the shipyards, engine works, and steel works during the last two months of this year, and that in the New Year this number would rapidly increase to 25,000 men. The number of firms that would be interested to a greater or less extent in actual building or in providing material would probably be in the neighborhood of 500.—Naval and Military Record, 23 November, 1921.
"Durban" Commissioned.—The Durban, which hoisted the pennant at Devonport on 1st inst. for service with the Fifth Cruiser Squadron on the China Station, where she will be on service by the time the Prince of Wales arrives in the Far East, is the second light cruiser to be completed at Devonport since the Armistice. She was laid down at Messrs. Scott's Shipbuilding and Engineering Works at Greenock as long ago as January, 1918, so that three years and nine months have been occupied in building a class of ship which before the war, to take the case of the Devonport-built Aurora, was completed in a little short of two years.
The Durban was brought from Greenock to Devonport to be finished in order to give work to the Westcountry establishment, but was not given much attention by the dockyard authorities until the Raleigh, a larger and more powerful light cruiser, which also came from a private shipyard on the Clyde to be completed, was placed in commission. According to the current year's estimates, the total cost of the ship is £861,602, excluding armaments and ordnance stores.—Naval and Military Record, 9 November, 1921.
The Burden of Armaments.—Some very instructive figures relating to the pre-war and present ratios of military expenditure to the total national disbursements have been brought to our notice. In the financial year 1913-14 the appropriation for the navy was 24 per cent, and that for the army 14 per cent of the total expenditure. In the following year the percentage for the army remained constant, but the navy budget rose to 25 per cent. When these figures are compared with the budgets for 1921-22 it will be found, not only that a very large reduction has taken place in military expenditure as a whole, but that the army has now usurped the navy's former place as the most expensive fighting service; for the current army estimates represent 10 per cent of the total expenditure, and the navy estimates only 8 per cent. Eight years ago there were 149,960 officers and men on the navy's pay-roll, and the total personnel vote was £12,227,702. The number borne to-day is 123,700, a reduction of 17 per cent, yet the personnel vote has risen to £28,350,600, an increase of 132 per cent. In spite of the substantial cut in numbers, the pay-roll is 122 per cent heavier than in 1913, and the vote for victuals and clothing has increased by 157 per cent. The cost per man in 1913-14 was £81 10s. 9d.; to-day it is £229 3s. 9d.—an increase of 181 per cent. Extending the comparison to the shipbuilding programs, we find that the new program authorized in 1913-14 called for five battleships, eight light cruisers, sixteen destroyers, and a number of submarines and auxiliaries; whereas the new program for 1921-22 provides for only four capital ships to replace those becoming obsolete.
Turning to the army statistics, a somewhat different picture appears. The strength in 1913-14 was 180,000, and the personnel vote amounted to £24,214,000. At the present time the army has a strength of 341,000, and the personnel vote is £84,161,000. Thus, although there has been an increase in strength of only 89 per cent, the charge for maintenance, pay, etc., has risen by 196 per cent. An arresting item in the army estimates is that which concerns the expense of the War Office and Staff of Commands, etc. Eight years ago this vote was limited to £443,000; to-day it is £4,149,900—an increase of 836 per cent. Studied as a whole the statistics reveal very clearly the enormous cost of maintaining even comparatively moderate armaments under present-day conditions. Twenty shillings spent to-day produce about the same degree of naval or military power that was purchasable in 1913 for eight shillings. The fact that we are now spending more on the army than on the navy is due to a variety of causes which are fairly well known, chief among them being the heavy military commitments left over by the war.—Naval and Military Record, 9 November, 1921.
Docking of H.M.S. "Hood."—An old but interesting problem has come up in connection with the docking of H.M.S. Hood. It is understood that as the result of firing trials the plating of the ship has been strained, and it will be necessary for the newest British warship to be repaired as well as re-fitted. The straining of warship structures as a result of the firing of heavy guns came up for serious consideration during the war period, and it is one with which naval architects are quite familiar.—The Engineer, 11 November, 1921.
Britain's Oil Policy.—A singularly clear and candid exposition of the oil question and its bearing on our relations with the United States was printed lately by The Times. It is safe to say that very few members of the public realize how closely this question will affect the outcome of the Washington Conference. Most of us regard the controversy over the ownership or control of the various oilfields as a mere business squabble between rival plutocrats, but in reality it is of far wider significance. The well-informed writer in The Times does not hesitate to assert that a complete understanding between America and ourselves on the international aspect of oil production and supply must precede any agreement as to the limitation of armaments. "Indeed," he adds, "it may fairly be advanced that if Great Britain is not prepared to make concessions in this vital question the Conference is likely to break down."
The present position seems to be that the British Government, acting on the urgent representations of the Admiralty, has lent the weight of its influence to bring large tracts of oil-producing territory under the control of syndicates in which British capital predominates. This policy has roused the antagonism of the Standard Oil Company, probably the largest and most influential business combine in the world. Now the Standard Oil people can pull many strings, even at Washington, as we have discovered from the official notes addressed to the British and Dutch governments. They are assiduously fostering the belief that this country is out to corner the world's entire oil resources, and the patent absurdity of the charge has not prevented it from being widely accepted. German and Irish mischief-makers in the United States are using it as the text of fresh diatribes against perfidious Albion, and the Hearst papers have seized with avidity upon this new pretext for sowing discord between the two countries.—Naval and Military Record, 16 November, 1921.
Manning and Training Problems.—So drastic has been the reduction in the personnel of the Royal Navy since the end of the war that the Admiralty are experiencing difficulty in putting into operation in its entirety the new scheme for the training of boys in sea-going ships. The shortage exists not only in the number of schoolmasters available for service afloat, but in the number of petty officers for duty as instructors. It is probable that as the result of the encouragement offered to seamen to qualify for promotion there will in the near future be sufficient petty officers to meet the needs of the fleet.
Whether the schoolmasters' branch will reach the required strength will mainly depend upon the promised concessions in rates of pay and conditions of service which have been promised, but it is evident that these improvements have been decided on none too soon. In the meantime several paragraphs in the scheme promulgated in 1919 are to remain in force and will continue to operate until the necessary number of schoolmasters is available, while with regard to petty officers, the Admiralty directs that until such time as the necessary number is available it shall be left to each commanding officer to decide at his discretion whether the new scheme shall be introduced in its entirety.—Naval and Military Record, 9 November, 1921.
Temporary Naval Officers.—It is satisfactory to learn from a recent reply to a question in the House of Commons that no temporary officers for combatant duties remain in the Naval Service. There are, of course, a few officers entered on a temporary basis during the war who are not yet demobilized, but in each case there are special and exceptional circumstances which govern their retention. In one category are the officers entered in consequence of a shortage of permanent officers in the medical, dental, and instructor branches, and the whole-time Roman Catholic and Nonconformist chaplains who were formerly employed on a civilian basis. Another category consists of the officers employed with the Inter-Allied Commission of Control in Germany, mainly on interpreting duties, and those employed as interpreters in the Eastern Mediterranean, where there are also a few officers retained on account of their special knowledge of local conditions. Most of the latter, however, will be demobilized shortly or relieved by officers of the Royal Navy. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the authorities that in view of the great reductions in the fleets and naval establishments—which may be extended somewhat as a result of the Conference now taking place in Washington—and the consequent increase in the numbers of regular officers who are obliged to go on half-pay, often with great hardship to them and their families, every possible check should be placed upon the keeping on of temporary officers, many of whose jobs could, at least, after a short period of study, be taken over by officers of the Royal Navy.—Army and Navy Gazette, 19 November, 1921.
The Fleet and Air Observers.—Upon similar lines to the specialist branches for gunnery, torpedo, navigation and signals, the British Admiralty have decided to make a specialist branch of the Air Observers among naval officers. For the present, eight officers will be selected each half-year. In time, only junior lieutenants of two years and upwards will be selected, as in other specialist branches, but a few commanders and lieutenant-commanders are required, immediately for training. Courses, each of seven months' duration, will begin in May and November in each year, and will include two months' preliminary training at the naval schools in gunnery and signals, and five months at the seaplane training school at Lee-on-Solent.
While under training with the R.A.F. officers will receive the full pay of their naval rank, with extra remuneration for each actual day of ascent, of 3s. in the case of commissioned and subordinate officers, and is., 6d. in the case of warrant officers. After qualifying they will be eligible for appointment as observers in aircraft carriers in the Royal Navy, and while actually detailed as trained observers will receive allowances of 4s. and 2s. a day respectively. If qualified in wireless telegraphy, these allowances will be increased to 6s. and 3s. a day. Officers will retain their naval rank and wear naval uniform while under training. On completing the qualifying course they will be rated probationary observers and appointed to fleet carriers for further training. On completing six months, including a course at Leuchars, Fife, they will be eligible for confirmation on the recommendation of the commander-in-chief of the Atlantic fleet.—Aerial Age Weekly, 5 December, 1921.
Admiralty and Requests for Changes.—As applications are frequently made to the Admiralty to have appointments cancelled, it must be pointed out that officers cannot, as a general rule, be permitted to select or decline appointments. Applications to have an appointment cancelled are not to be made except for urgent reasons, which are to be fully stated in writing. If an officer making such an application is on full pay, his commanding officer, in forwarding it, is to state whether or not he recommends that the application shall be granted. This does not apply to officers on unemployed pay.
Many officers as a matter of principle never decline an appointment at whatever personal or private inconvenience. It is evidently unfair to such officers if others are permitted to do so with the object of avoiding foreign service appointments of an arduous character, etc.
Applications are also received for appointments to particular ships. The board consider that such application for exchange may be forwarded for consideration through the usual channels provided that adequate reasons are given, and that the commanding officers of both ships concerned express their approval of the application.—Naval and Military Record, 23 November, 1921.
Fleet Coal Supply.—The Admiralty has invited tenders for the supplies of Welsh coal during 1922. The Admiralty pre-war requirements amounted to about 1,500,000 tons per annum. The requirements for next year are anticipated to be only about one-third that figure, by reason of the development in the use of oil in the navy.—Engineering, 18 November, 1921.
Imperial Wireless.—With regard to the proposals for the imperial wireless chain, the postmaster-general has stated that the scheme was approved by the government and was endorsed by a committee of the Imperial Conference over which Mr. Churchill presided, and by the conference itself in the following resolution: "It is agreed that His Majesty's government should take steps for the erection of the remaining stations for which they are responsible, as soon as the stations are designed; that the governments of Australia, the Union of South Africa and India, should take similar action so far as necessary, and that the governments of Canada and New Zealand should also co-operate." The above scheme was accepted by the Prime Minister of the Commonwealth subject to giving full freedom of action to Australia to decide the method in which Australia will cooperate. No change in the policy of the government has since taken place. The first two stations in the imperial chain, Leafield and Cairo, will be completed and working by the end of this year, and a commission of experts has been engaged in designing the remaining stations. Their report is expected within a few weeks, and on its receipt the construction of the stations will be proceeded with as quickly as possible.—Engineering, 25 November, 1921.
First 20,000-Ton Liner with Diesel Engines.—The first 20,000-ton motorship will be the new British trade ship, which is being built for exhibition purposes. She is to make an 18 months' tour of the world and is to sail on her first voyage in August, 1923.
According to Motorship, three Diesel engines each of 3000 horsepower are to be installed on this trading craft. Through the use of internal combustion motors in place of steam, extra space will be available for exhibits and cabin accommodations. No funnel will be required and coaling will be entirely done away with. Moreover, the propelling machinery will represent the very latest development in marine engineering and will be certain to prove of great interest to visitors at the overseas ports at which the ship is to call.—Nautical Gazette, 26 November, 1921.
British Shipping First in Chinese Trade.—For the first time since 1914 statistics of the tonnage entered and cleared from Chinese ports have been published. The total figures were 104,266,695 tons, of which 40,300,000 tons were British, 28,200,000 tons Japanese, 23,600,000 tons Chinese and 4,700,000 tons American. In 1919 the American total was only 2,100,000 tons.—Nautical Gazette, 19 November, 1921.
JAPAN
Japanese Naval Construction.—The fact that Japan as a naval power is now inferior only to ourselves and the United States forms the subject of a great deal of comment both here and across the Atlantic. It has drawn unusual attention to the financial and political aspects of Japanese naval policy, and was undoubtedly one of the main reasons why the American Government convoked the present Conference. At first sight there seems little enough justification for this sudden interest, not to say apprehension, regarding the naval developments which have been taking place in the Far East. Reckoning only such ships as are now in service, the Japanese Navy does not appear to be particularly formidable in comparison with the navies of Great Britain and the United States. Its elevation to the rank it occupies to-day is due much more to fortuitous circumstances than to any efforts put forward by the Japanese themselves. Had not the war intervened, Japan might still be fourth, perhaps even fifth, in order of naval precedence, for her existing fleet is considerably smaller than that which Germany possessed at the outbreak of hostilities. Moreover, the program that France had in hand in 1914 would doubtless have been completed in the normal course of events, in which case the French Navy would now be stronger in battleships than the Japanese. The really significant factor in the situation is not the amount of naval tonnage which Japan has already built, but the amount which she has on order or proposes to build. This is so large that its completion would approximately double her present fighting strength at sea. On October 1 of the current year, the Japanese Navy included only seven completed dreadnought battleships and four battle-cruisers. The corresponding figures were, for the United States, 20 battleships and for Great Britain, 22 battleships and seven battle-cruisers. Therefore against a total of 20 American or 29 British all-big-gun ships, Japan could muster only 11. Had there been no reason to anticipate any drastic alteration in this ratio, the present discussion with regard to Japanese naval policy would be irrelevant and uncalled-for. It is only when we turn to the statistics of tonnage building or authorized that we begin to appreciate the magnitude of Japan's naval preparations. Her avowed purpose—now presumably to be modified—was to create a first-line fleet of two squadrons, one comprising eight battleships and the other eight battle-cruisers—or 16 capital ships in all. Of the vessels already completed, only two were deemed worthy of inclusion in this so-called "eight-eight fleet"; which means that the remaining 14 units have yet to be completed. It will, therefore, be seen that the 11 capital ships now in commission represent numerically less than half the establishment contemplated, which would ultimately have stood at 25 ships, 16 of which were to be of the largest and most powerful type. The date on which this maximum degree of strength was to be attained was March, 1928. Besides the capital ships enumerated, provision had been made for 12 cruisers, 32 destroyers, 5 gunboats, 18 fleet auxiliaries, and "a certain number" of submarines—all of which were additional to construction voted previous to July, 1920. According to an Admiralty statement in the House of Commons on December 1, 1920, Japan had on hand at that time the balance of an old program due for completion in 1923-24, the residue of which included 11 cruisers and 41 destroyers.
We are not concerned with the political aspect of this great shipbuilding scheme, but some .brief comments on the financial burden its execution would have entailed may not be out of place. The following table shows the credits which have been or were to be voted year by year for new construction alone, as distinct from other naval services, during the period covered by the program now in force:
1920-21 £23,189,233
1921-22 £27,330,135
1922-23 £20,092,565
1923-24 £15,473,463
1924-25 £10,981,144
1925-26 £11,205,479
1926-27 £11,369,285
1927-28 £11,537,735
This gives a total of £131,179,039 to be spent on new naval tonnage in the space of eight years. It is an imposing sum as it stands, the expenditure of which would strain the resources of a state much wealthier than Japan. Nevertheless, it is already evident that if the program had been carried out in its entirety the above estimate would have had to be revised on the upward scale. It was framed last year on the supposition that the cost of each ship would not exceed a certain figure, but it is notoriously difficult to forecast the trend of naval design even a few years ahead, and what seems an ideal type to-day may have become almost obsolete by to-morrow. The present cost of a capital ship of conventional type is probably about £7,500,000 or £8,000,000. But should anything occur to make still greater dimensions necessary or desirable, the cost per ship must inevitably rise in proportion. There is, indeed, some reason to believe that improvements made recently in the design of certain Japanese ships which were about to be laid down have upset the financial calculations on which the above table was based, and the Press of Japan takes it for granted that the building program would eventually have cost from 20 to 30 per cent more than the original estimate. The difficulty of appraising the annual cost of a given program of naval construction over a long term of years has often been exemplified. Germany, in carrying out her "Flottengesetze." found it impossible to adhere to the yearly installments originally fixed, and more recently still the United States have been compelled to make a substantial increase in the credits authorized for each and every type of ship included in the three-year Navy Law of 1916.
One striking point about the Japanese naval budget is the extraordinarily large percentage which is absorbed by new construction. This vote alone accounts for 55 per cent of the total navy appropriations in the current year. An analysis of Japan's national income and expenditure shows that this year's vote for new naval construction is equivalent to 17.5 per cent of the total revenue from taxation. Clearly therefore, "the burden of armaments" is something more than a phrase to the taxpayers of Japan. That so large a share of the navy budget should be available for shipbuilding is due in part to the low cost of other branches of the service compared with foreign navies. Pay, pensions, allowances, victualling, labor charges, etc., are on a considerably lower scale than those prevailing in Europe or the United States. On the other hand, Japan probably has to pay more for building materials, machinery, armor, ordnance, and equipment, so that it is doubtful whether in the long run she gets better value for her naval expenditure than other powers.
Apart from the severe financial strain imposed by the "eight-eight" program, doubts have been cast upon the ability of Japanese industry to cope with so much naval work and complete it within the specified period. To do this would have necessitated an increase of approximately 50 per cent in the present rate of output from the shipyards, engineering shops, armor and ordnance factories. When introducing the new program to the Imperial Diet in July, 1920, the Minister of Marine said that the national building capacity was two capital ships a year. But if the whole of the fourteen new capital ships were to be in service by 1927 it is obvious that production would have had to be accelerated. Long before the Washington Conference met, certain organs of the Japanese Press said openly that the program could not be completed to time-table without enlisting the aid of foreign builders, and it is no secret that inquiries have been made in this country by the Japanese authorities with a view to placing orders for warships. That no such contracts have actually been awarded is attributed to dissatisfaction with the terms quoted. Be that as it may, British industry has already been called upon to supply machinery, armor plate, and ordnance accessories for certain Japanese vessels now under construction. There is a natural reluctance in Japan to let more work go out of the country than is absolutely necessary, especially at a time like the present, when the shipbuilding and kindred industries have been badly hit by the slump in mercantile tonnage. Precise details of the shipbuilding resources now available in Japan are not easy to obtain. It is known, of course, that the government yards at Kure and Yokosuka and the private establishments of Mitsubishi and Kawasaki can undertake "dreadnought" construction, and have, in fact, built capital ships of the largest dimensions. Other private yards, however, may now be in a position to accept such work, thanks to the extensions that were made during the war period. Five such establishments were in process of developing their building facilities on a very large scale when the war came to an end, but it is not certain whether their plans have materialized. If they have it is probable that some, at least, of these yards could now build warships of any displacement. But the building of the hull is only part of the sum of labor represented by the completion of a great fighting ship, and while several of the yards in question may be competent to do this share of the work, it may be doubted whether they would be able to manufacture propelling machinery of such high power as that which is to be installed in the new ships—the battle-cruiser Amagi, for instance, is credited with engines of 170,000 shaft horsepower. Nor is it certain that the armor and ordnance plants, in spite of recent developments, could produce sufficient guns and armor plate to equip, say, four capital ships every year. A careful survey of Japanese resources in the light of the latest data obtainable leads the writer to estimate the maximum output of capital ships, complete in every detail, at three ships per annum. As regards smaller naval vessels, there are seven yards which can build and engine cruisers up to 8000 tons. The production of surface torpedo craft could undoubtedly be increased far beyond the present figure if it were deemed necessary to do so. Some noteworthy records in the rapid construction of these craft stand to the credit of Japanese builders, and a group of destroyers which had been completed in a few months went afterwards to the Mediterranean, where the vessels proved equal in every way to the arduous conditions of war service.
It is only during the past six years that Japanese naval opinion has become really impressed with the possibilities of submarine warfare. Since 1915, however, the submarine flotilla has been steadily reinforced, though the process was and still is attended with serious difficulties of a technical character. It was found that the European and American types from which the earlier boats were modeled were not well adapted to the peculiar conditions that govern submarine navigation in Far Eastern waters. Scantlings of abnormal strength are said to be essential in boats intended to operate in those latitudes. A purely Japanese design has been evolved, but reports as to its performance are somewhat conflicting. In particular, trouble is reported to have been experienced with the motors of native construction, and in recent years the tendency has been to rely very largely on foreign manufacturers for submarine engines. As is well known, Vickers, Limited, are now completing an order for several sets of submarine engines to Japanese account; and in August last it was announced that Messrs. Sulzer Bros., of Winterthur, had received a Japanese contract to the value of £1,250,000 for submarine Diesel engines in sets of 4000 brake horsepower each. From all accounts the program of July, 1920, provided for an eventual establishment of eighty "first-line" submarines, ocean-going and coastal types, very few of which have been completed to date. It remains to be seen whether the residue of this program which survives the reductions to be determined at the Washington Conference can be realized without enlisting foreign aid to a much larger extent than is the case at present.
Before leaving the subject of Japan's naval shipbuilding resources it will be well to correct a misapprehension which seems to be prevalent even in naval circles in this country, viz., that the industry in Japan is immune from the labor troubles which impose so serious a handicap on our own efforts in the same direction. Only a few weeks since one of the London newspapers printed an article by a British naval officer, who declared, inter alia, that "Japanese shipyard workers never strike." The accuracy of this statement may be judged by the fact that throughout last July and August the two greatest private shipbuilding yards in Japan, the Mitsubishi and the Kawasaki, were forced to remain idle in consequence of a strike involving no less than 40,000 workmen at Kobe alone, 90 per cent of whom were engaged in shipbuilding trades. Further enlightenment on this subject is given by the following extract from a Japanese paper of September 22: "Investigations published by the Furukawa Gomel Kaisha show that uncertainty of employment still continued to prevail during August, and disputes have multiplied since the second half of the year, owing to the spread of labor doctrines, the workers claiming the rights of collective bargaining, the adoption of a factory committee system, etc. During August there were fewer troubles than in the previous month. The number of disputes totaled twenty-five, in which 39,991 laborers were involved. These figures show, as compared with July, a decrease of fourteen in the number of disputes and 6000 of laborers affected. Classifying by industry, the shipbuilding trade suffered most severely, embracing 63 per cent of all the agitations." It will be seen, therefore, that the supposed Japanese advantage in respect of immunity from labor troubles in the shipbuilding world is quite illusory.
At the present moment there are four capital ships on the stocks in Japan. The Kawasaki Yard, Kobe, is building the battleship Kaga, and the Mitsubishi Yard, Nagasaki, the battleship Tosa. These are sister ships and both were due to take the water in October. Their launch, which has been delayed by the strikes mentioned above, is expected to take place this month—November. According to press reports, their dimensions are: Length, 700 feet; breadth, 100 feet; displacement, 40,600 tons. Their speed is to be 23 or 23H knots, and they will mount eight or more 16-inch guns. The other two ships being built are the battle-cruisers Amagi and Akagi, laid down respectively at the naval arsenals of Yokosuka and Kure in December, 1920, and January, 1921. Both were to have been launched early next year. Their unofficial details are: Length over all, 880 feet; breadth. 103 feet; displacement, 43,500 tons; speed, 33 knots; main armament, eight 16-inch guns. As soon as the slips now occupied by the Kaga and the Tosa became vacant the keels of two new battle-cruisers, the Atago and the Takao, were to have been laid thereon. These vessels, which may never be built, are generally described as sisters of the Amagi, but they were just as likely to have proved larger and more powerful in every way. The launch early in 1922 of the Amagi and Akagi would have left the slips at Yokosuka and Kure free for the laying down of the new battleships Owari and Kii, regarding which no details can be obtained.
We come now to the completed ships of the Japanese Navy. The Nagato is not only the largest fighting ship so far built for the Japanese Navy; she is actually the largest battleship in the world at the present time, and now that the American ships of the Indiana class are apparently to be scrapped she will probably retain that distinction for a good many years to come. Her sister ship, the Mutsu, was completed this month and is now finishing off her trials. The Nagato was begun at Kure Dockyard in August, 1917, and did not reach the launching stage till November, 1919. She was formally commissioned in December, 1920, as flagship of the First Fleet, and now flies the flag of Admiral Tochinai. In general features she conforms to what has become the standard type of capital ship, characterized by a main armament of eight heavy guns mounted on the center line—the type which originated with the British Queen Elizabeth and Royal Sovereign classes, and is now represented in the American Navy by the Maryland. The dimensions of the Nagato are as follows: Length between perpendiculars, 660 feet 7 inches; breadth, 95 feet; mean draft, 30 feet: normal displacement, 33,800 tons. She is fitted with turbines with reduction gear, developing 48,000 shaft horsepower. The designed speed of 23 ½ knots was attained with ease on the steam trials. Very heavy armor and special underwater protection has been worked into this ship, but details as to the thickness of plating, etc., are carefully guarded. Such views and drawings as have appeared do not indicate the presence of a bulge. Eight 16-inch 45-caliber guns constitute the main armament. The 16-inch gun discharges a projectile of 2190 pounds with a muzzle velocity of 2800 foot-seconds, and the nominal figure of penetration at a range of 12,000 yards is 12 inches of hardened steel. The first Japanese gun of this caliber was built at the Muroran steel works, the breech mechanism being made at Kure arsenal. It is said to have proved a most successful weapon. The adoption of 16-inch guns by the Japanese Navy was due to the initiative of Admiral Baron Kato, the present Minister of Marine—now representing his country at the Washington Conference—who is strongly in favor of big calibers. It is interesting to note that a full broadside from the main battery of the Nanato would weigh 17,520 pounds, the corresponding figures for the Maryland being 16,800 pounds and for the Queen Elisabeth or the Hood 15,360 pounds. The Nagato thus fires the heaviest broadside of any warship completed up to the present date. She carries in addition twenty 5.5-inch 82-pounder quick-firing guns, mounted in casemates on the upper and forecastle decks; three or four anti-aircraft guns, and eight torpedo tubes, some of the latter being, it is said, placed above the water line. Externally, the most arresting feature of this magnificent battleship is her foremast, which consists of a central trunk of large diameter supported by six struts. An electric lift working within the main trunk affords rapid access to the fire control station at the masthead. This heptapodal structure was built as the result of experiments which were made to ascertain the form of mast that would give the greatest rigidity and also offer the strongest resistance to shell attack.
The battleship Ise and her sister ship, Huiga, belong to the 1914 program, both being laid down in May of the following year. They are comparable, in fighting power with their American contemporaries of the New Mexico class. The leading dimensions are: Length between perpendiculars, 640 feet; breadth, 94 feet; extreme draft, 28 feet 4 inches; normal displacement, 31,260 tons. Turbine machinery of 45,000 shaft horsepower is installed, the designed speed being 23 knots. The water line, the main artillery positions, and other vital parts are protected by armor 12 inches thick, but the armor decks appear to be less substantial than is now deemed desirable in modern capital ships. As these vessels were not begun till nearly ten months after the outbreak of war, it is to be assumed that special attention was paid to their defence against under-water attack. The main armament comprises twelve 14-inch. 45-caliber guns paired in turrets on the center line, two being placed forward, two amidships, and two at the stern. Twenty 5.5-inch quick-firing guns are mounted, mostly in upper-deck casemates, and there are four anti-aircraft guns and six submerged torpedo tubes. These vessels are slightly improved versions of the Fuso and Yamashiro, which were laid down respectively in 1912 and 1913, and the dimensions are very similar, except that the Fuso and her sister are 10 feet shorter and displace only 30,600 tons. Moreover, the speed is only 22 or 22.5 knots. The main armament is the same, but the amidship turrets are disposed on a different system. The armor protection is practically identical with that of the Ise.
Although she belongs to a type which is already obsolescent, the battleship Settsu is of interest as representing the first purely Japanese conception of an all-big-gun capital ship. Her keel was laid at Kure Dockyard in April, 1909, and she came into service some three years later. She is 533 feet in length over all, 84 feet 2 inches in breadth, and displaces 21,420 tons. Curtis turbines of 25,000 shaft horsepower give her a speed of 20.5 knots. Good protection is afforded to the vital parts by 11-inch and 12-inch armor and several strong decks. The main armament is twelve 12-inch guns, those in the forward and after turrets being 50 calibers long, while the remaining eight are 45 calibers in length. The disposition of the turrets is such that only eight guns will bear on either beam, and thus the full benefit of the powerful armament is not obtained. Originally there was a sister ship, the Kawachi, but she was completely destroyed in July, 1918, by an internal explosion.
In proportion to its strength in armored ships the Japanese Navy is well supplied with light cruisers. Two of those authorized under the current program are to be ships of more than 7000 tons. Other light cruisers being built or completed are the Yura, Isudsu, Nagara, Natori, and Kiso, while four ships of the same general type—Kuma, Tama, Oh-i, and Kitakami—have been completed during the past twelve months. All the vessels named are practically uniform in dimensions, displacing from 5500 to 5780 tons, with a speed of 33 to 33.5 knots, and an armament of seven s.5-inch guns. It is believed that they burn oil fuel only, a system which has not yet been extended to the heavier vessels of the Japanese Navy, owing to the difficulty of securing a supply of this fuel adequate for all emergencies. The Tatsuta and Tenryu, completed during 1919, have many features in common with the British Arethusa class, to which, perhaps, they owed their design. They are 400 feet in length, with a beam of 40 feet 9 inches, and displace 3500 tons. Their speed is 31 knots, and they were the first large Japanese vessels of war to burn oil only. A light armament of four 5.5-inch guns is carried, together with six torpedo tubes on triple-deck carriages. The Hirado and her sisters, Yahagi and Chikuma, were laid down in 1910. In their case a not unsuccessful attempt was made to combine good speed, an extensive radius of action, and a powerful armament on a displacement of 4950 tons. The principal details are as follows: Length over all, 475 feet breadth, 46 feet 6 inches; machinery, turbines of 22,500 shaft horsepower for a maximum speed of 26 knots—exceeded on trial; armament, eight 6-inch 50-caliber guns and three torpedo tubes. All three ships performed splendid service in the Great War, steaming many thousands of miles without experiencing any engine-room troubles.
Japanese destroyers are of two types—first-class boats, i.e., above 1000 tons, and second-class boats, i.e., below 1000 tons. It has been customary for some time past to provide for both types in every annual program. The latest first-class boats approximate in size and armament to our flotilla leaders. They displace from 1300 to 1400 tons, have a designed speed of 34 knots, and mount three or four 4.7-inch guns, with six 21-inch torpedo tubes. To this group belong the seven vessels of the Minekaze class, and also the Tanikaze and Kawakaze. The Amatsukaze and her three sisters, launched in 1916, were the first of the really modern type of first-class destroyers. They displace 1227 tons, and have touched 35 knots in service. The armament consists of four 4.7-inch guns and six 18-inch torpedo tubes. The Momo class—ten boats in all—may be taken as typical of the new second-class type: Displacement, 835 tons; speed, 31.5 knots; armament, three 4.7-inch guns and six torpedo tubes.
Reliable details of modern Japanese submarines are difficult to obtain, for in this respect the naval authorities follow the example of other powers in observing strict reticence. There is, however, reason to believe that the underwater vessels now constructing in Japan will be at least equal in size, sea endurance, and armament to the largest submarines building abroad. A special interest attaches to submarine No. 19, for this boat is—or was until quite recently—the largest submarine in the Japanese Navy, and was also the first ocean-going boat of purely native design. She displaces 890 tons in surface trim and 1200 tons when submerged. The surface speed is 16 knots. Five torpedo tubes are mounted, two of which are in the bows, one in the stern, and two above water on each side of the superstructure. The nominal sea endurance of No. 19 is 6500 sea miles, but the actual cruising radius is probably well above that figure. No 26 is one of the latest boats, having been completed for service early in the present year. Her displacement when submerged is about 1000 tons, and her speed on the surface 16.5 to 17 knots. With two-thirds of her maximum fuel supply on board she can travel a distance of 7500 sea miles. The torpedo armament is limited to four tubes, but a quick-firing gun is mounted on the deck—3-inch in some boats of this series, 4.7-inch in others. In the later submarines now in hand an attempt has been made to increase the radius of action very considerably, for it is recognized that cruising endurance is of the utmost importance in submarines designed for operations in the Pacific. In future, it is said, the Japanese naval authorities will concentrate on two distinct types: (1) Submersible cruisers of good speed, mounting a powerful gun and torpedo armament, and in some cases equipped for mine-laying; and (2) smaller ocean-going vessels, not exceeding 1000 tons, of 17 to 18 knots speed, and carrying a lighter armament. According to one account, "the purely coastal type will not be perpetuated, for experience has shown that it is false economy to construct diminutive submarines when the addition of a couple of hundred tons in displacement endows a boat with good sea-going qualities and a far higher degree of all-round fighting value." The big versus little ship controversy has seemingly spread to Japan, for the naval authorities have been criticized by a section of the press for continuing to build heavy armored ships instead of devoting the equivalent in money and labor to the construction of a multitude of submarines. Nevertheless, the official policy, as explained by the Minister of Marine nearly two years ago, remains unaltered. Speaking in the Imperial Diet, Admiral Kato said: "The more we study the lessons of the war, the stronger does our conviction grow that the last word in naval warfare rests with the big ship and the big gun."—The Engineer, 25. November, 1921.
Japan and Naval Balance.—While there is no change in the note of general approval which has been accorded to Mr. Hughes's proposal as affording evidence of America's sincerity, and while it is everywhere conceded that Japan will be second to none in advocating a drastic limitation of armaments, the belief that Japan should put forward a demand for a fairer balance of naval power is daily growing more conspicuous in comments expressed on the Conference.
The newspaper Kokumin Shimbun voices the opinion, which is held in many quarters, that Japan would be justified in insisting on the retention of her fleet in the ratio of 70 per cent to that of the American Navy, considering the needs of national defence and the industrial capacities as well as geographical conditions of the two Powers.—Naval and Military Record, 23 November, 1921.
Japanese Aerial Notes.—Japanese newspapers report that the Army Balloon Corps will participate in the maneuvers with the Imperial Guards Division at Suson near Mt. Fuji. The model R captive balloon will be used for observation purposes. Five officers of the Balloon Corps and several additional observation officers will take part.
Ten civilian aviation students at the Army Flight School at Tokorozawa graduated August 31. This is the first civilian class at Tokorozawa, but it is expected that these classes will be continued regularly in the future.
A small, non-rigid type airship was recently purchased by the Japanese Government from the Vickers Co., London, according to the Japanese magazine Aviation. The airship performed its final test of four hours' continuous flight successfully, only thirty men being required to handle it, and it ascended and descended very readily. The airship is described as having one "ship" in the center, capacity five men, and with a speed of over 50 m.p.h.
The graduation flight of the Naval Air School at Yokosuka took place on July 10. The course was from Oppama (near Yokosuka) to Shinmaiko and return, six graduates taking part. Only one machine reached the latter place, the other planes being forced to descend into the sea. Bad weather conditions prevented this one plane from attempting the return journey.—Aviation, 21 November, 1921.
Japanese Aviation.—It appears that Japan is sparing no efforts of expense to building up a great military and civil air force. From England, representatives of Messrs. Short Brothers and from the Sopwith Aviation Company have gone to the East to superintend the building of British-designed machines. In addition, a number of R.A.F. officers have gone to Japan to organize the Japanese naval air service. Japan has enrolled some of the leading British designers and engineers. Shipbuilding firms have acquired foreign licenses for the manufacture of naval aircraft and aeronautical engines, and several European firms have established branches in Japan. In addition, military and naval deputations from the East have been for some time inspecting factories and machines in Great Britain, and orders for British, French and Italian machines have been placed with various firms.—Aerial Age Weekly, 28 November, 1921.
N.Y.K. Adding to Fleet.—The plan to construct a new mercantile fleet amounting to 500,000 tons proposed by the Nippon Yusen Kaisha during the President Kondo's tenure of office, which has been suspended since the orders for the construction of 150,000 tons were placed with the Yokohama Dockyard; is reported about to be resumed.—Nautical Gazette, 26 November, 1921.
UNITED STATES
Navy Department—Bureau of Construction and Repair Vessels Under Construction, United States Navy—Degree of Completion, As Reported November 30, 1921
Type, number and name | Contractor | Per cent of completion | |||
Dec. 1, 1921 | Nov. 1, 1921 | ||||
Total | On ship | Total | On ship | ||
Battleships (BB) | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
45 Colorado | New York S.B. Cpn. | 84.9 | 83.8 | 83.0 | 81.6 |
47 Washington | New York S.B. Cpn. | 69.8 | 63.6 | 69.8 | 63.6 |
48 West Virginia | Newport News S.B. & D.D. Co. | 65.7 | 59.3 | 64.0 | 57.3 |
49 South Dakota | New York Navy Yard | 36.5 | 29.5 | 35.2 | 27.7 |
50 Indiana | New York Navy Yard | 33.9 | 26.3 | 33.2 | 25.1 |
51 Montana | Mare Island Navy Yard | 27.6 | 19.0 | 27.6 | 19.0 |
52 North Carolina | Norfolk Navy Yard | 36.7 | 27.1 | 36.7 | 27.1 |
53 Iowa | Newport News S.B. & D.D. Co. | 30.7 | 25.8 | 29.9 | 25.5 |
54 Massachusetts | Beth. S.B. Cpn. (Fore River) | 11.1 | 4.3 | 10.4 | 3.9 |
Battle Cruisers (CC) | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
1 Lexington | Beth S.B. Cpn. (Fore River) | 28.8 | 19.3 | 26.7 | 17.8 |
2 Constellation | Newport News S.B. & D.D. Co. | 17.1 | 15.0 | 15.5 | 13.7 |
3 Saratoga | New York S.B. Cpn. | 31.0 | 23.6 | 29.4 | 22.2 |
4 Ranger | Newport News S.B. & D.D. Co. | 3.5 | 1.3 | 2.9 | 1.2 |
5 Constitution | Philadelphia Navy Yard | 12.3 | 7.3 | 11.7 | 6.8 |
6 United States | Philadelphia Navy Yard | 11.5 | 6.5 | 11.1 | 6.2 |
Scout Cruisers (Light Cruisers CL) | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
4 Omaha | Todd D.D. & Const. Cpn. | 98.4 | 91.7 | 96.8 | 89.6 |
5 Milwaukee | Todd D.D. & Const. Cpn. | 93.6 | 86.0 | 93.4 | 86.0 |
6 Cincinnati | Todd D.D. & Const. Cpn. | 87.4 | 81.0 | 87.4 | 80.8 |
7 Raleigh | Beth. S.B. Cpn. (Fore River) | 63.7 | 45.6 | 63.7 | 45.6 |
8 Detroit | Beth. S.B. Cpn. (Fore River) | 74.4 | 58.1 | 71.6 | 54.1 |
9 Richmond | Wm. Cramp & Sons Co. | 81.0 | 73.0 | 78.0 | 70.0 |
10 Concord | Wm. Cramp & Sons Co. | 74.0 | 65.0 | 71.0 | 60.0 |
11 Trenton | Wm. Cramp & Sons Co. | 53.0 | 40.0 | 52.0 | 39.0 |
12 Marblehead | Wm. Cramp & Sons Co. | 47.0 | 33.0 | 47.0 | 33.0 |
13 Memphis | Wm. Cramp & Sons Co. | 40.0 | 26.0 | 40.0 | 26.0 |
Auxiliaries | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Repair Ship No. 1, Medusa (AR1) | Puget Sound Navy Yard | 72.5 | 60.9 | 70.6 | 56.7 |
Dest. Tender No. 3, Dobbin (AD3) | Puget Sound Navy Yard | 66.6 | 66.3 | 66.4 | 66.1 |
Dest. Tender No. 4, Whitney (AD4) | Boston Navy Yard | 41.3 | 35.0 | 36.8 | 33.3 |
Sub. Tender No. 3, Holland (AS3) | Puget Sound Navy Yard | 21.5 | 5.5 | 21.5 | 5.5 |
Aircraft Tender, Wright (AZ1) | Tietjen & Lang | 99.3 | … | 96.0 | … |
Patrol Vessels | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Gunboat No. 22, Tulsa (PG22) | Charleston Navy Yard | 71.2 | 56.6 | 71.1 | 55.7 |
Destroyers | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
.338 Wasmuth | Mare Island Navy Yard | 99.9 | 99.9 | 99.7 | 99.7 |
.339 Trever | Mare Island Navy Yard | 98.0 | 98.0 | 97.7 | 97.7 |
.340 Perry | Mare Island Navy Yard | 82.7 | 82.2 | 79.5 | 78.8 |
.341 Decatur | Mare Island Navy Yard | 79.5 | 79.0 | 73.7 | 73.0 |
Authorized but not under construction or contract: (1) Transport No. 2.
Destroyers authorized but not under construction or contract: (12) Nos. 348 to 359 inclusive.
There are 37 submarines and 4 fleet submarines under construction.
There are 1 submarine and 6 fleet submarines authorized but not under construction or contract.
Limitation op Armaments.—The Conference on the Limitation of Armaments was opened on November 12 by President Harding, who delivered an address. The Secretary of State, Mr. Hughes, was made presiding officer and, following an address, gave details of the American proposal as to a reduction or limitation of armaments.
On Tuesday Great Britain and Japan accepted, in principle, the proposal made by Mr. Hughes.
Secretary Hughes at the close of the meeting on Monday gave out the following statement:
"The first meeting of the committee on limitation of armament was held in the Pan-American Building at 4 p.m.
"There were present the delegates of the United States of America, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan, with a secretary for each delegation, and the secretary-general of the conference, who was chosen secretary of the committee.
"A sub-committee composed of one technical naval adviser for each of the five powers was constituted to take under immediate advisement the questions raised by the proposal of the United States for a limitation of naval armaments and to report to the committee from time to time the progress of their deliberations. The sub-committee is composed of the following: Colonel Roosevelt, Admiral Beatty, Vice Admiral De Bon, Vice Admiral Acton, and Vice Admiral Kato, with full power of substitution for each adviser. At the suggestion of Mr. Balfour it was agreed that Colonel Roosevelt should act as chairman of this sub-committee.
"The committee adjourned to meet at the call of the chairman."
The following sub-committees were appointed by the American delegation in connection with the agenda of the conference:
Executive committee—Mr. Sutherland, chairman ex officio; Mrs. Eleanor Franklin Egan, secretary; Undersecretary of State Fletcher, Samuel Gompers, Secretary Hoover, Assistant Secretary Roosevelt, former Senator Willard Saulsbury, of Delaware, and W. Boyce Thompson, of New York.
Land armament—General Pershing, chairman; Charles S. Barrett, Mrs. Charles Sumner Bird, Walter George Smith, Representative Stephen G. Porter, Assistant Secretary Wainwright, of the War Department, and John L. Lewis.
Pacific and Far Eastern questions—Stephen G. Porter, chairman; Mrs. Katherine Phillips Edson, Mr. Gompers, Mr. Saulsbury, Harold M. Sewell, Mr. Smith, and Mr. Wainwright.
Naval armament—Rear Admiral Rodgers, chairman; Governor John M. Parker, of Louisiana; Mr. Sewell, Mr. Smith, Carmi A. Thompson, Mr. Wainwright, and Mrs. Thomas G. Winter.
New weapons of warfare—Carmi A. Thompson, chairman; Mrs. Edson, Mr. Lewis, Governor Parker, General Pershing, Admiral Rodgers, and Mr. Roosevelt.
General information—William Boyce Thompson, chairman; Mr. Barrett, Mrs. Bird, Secretary Hoover, Mr. Lewis, Governor Parker, and Mrs. Winter.
The proposal of the United States for a limitation of naval armaments follows:
The United States proposes the following plan for a limitation of the naval armaments of the conferring nations. The United States believes that this plan safely guards the interests of all concerned
In working out this proposal, the United States has been guided by four general principles:
- The elimination of all capital ship-building programs, either actual or projected.
- Further reduction through scrapping certain of the older ships.
- That regard should be had to the existing naval strength of the conferring powers.
- The use of capital ship tonnage as the measurement of strength for navies and a proportionate allowance of auxiliary combatant craft prescribed.
Proposal for a limitation of naval armaments:
CAPITAL SHIPS
UNITED STATES
1. The United States to scrap all new capital ships now under construction and on their way to completion. This includes six battle cruisers and seven battleships on the ways and building and two battleships launched.
(Note—Paragraph 1 involves a reduction of 15 new capital ships under construction, with a total tonnage when completed of 618,000 tons. Total amount of money already spent on 15 capital ships, $332,000,000.)
2. The United States to scrap all battleships up to, but not including, the Delaware and North Dakota.
(Note.—The number of old battleships scrapped under paragraph 2 is 15; their total tonnage is 227,740 tons. The grand total of capital ships to be scrapped is 30, aggregating 845,740 tons.)
GREAT BRITAIN
3. Great Britain to stop further construction on the four new Hoods.
(Note.—Paragraph 3 involves a reduction of four new capital ships not yet laid down, but upon which money has been spent, with a total tonnage when completed of 172,000 tons.)
4. In addition to the four Hoods, Great Britain to scrap her pre-dreadnoughts, second line battleships and first line battleships up to but not including, the King George V class.
(Note.—Paragraph 4 involves the disposition of 19 capital ships, certain of which have already been scrapped, with a tonnage reduction of 411,375 tons. The grand total tonnage of ships scrapped under this agreement will be 583,375 tons.)
JAPAN
5. Japan to abandon her program of ships not yet laid down, namely: The Kii Owari, No. 7, No. 8, battleships, and Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 8, battle cruisers.
(Note.—Paragraph 5 does not involve the stopping of construction on any ship upon which construction has begun.)
6. Japan to scrap three battleships: The Mutsii, launched; the Tosa and Kaga, building, and four battle-cruisers, the Amagi and Akagi, building, and the Atago and Takao, not yet laid down, but for which certain material has been assembled.
(Note.—Paragraph 6 involves a reduction of seven new capital ships under construction, with a total tonnage when completed of 288,100 tons.)
7. Japan to scrap all pre-dreadnoughts and capital ships of the second line. This to include the scrapping of all ships up to, but not including, the Settsu.
(Note.—Paragraph 7 involves the scrapping of ten older ships with a total tonnage of 159,828 tons. The grand total reduction of tonnage on vessels existing, laid down, or for which material has been assembled is 448,928 tons.)
FRANCE AND ITALY
8. In view of certain extraordinary conditions due to the World War affecting the existing strength of the navies of France and Italy, the United States does not consider necessary the discussion at this stage of the proceedings of the tonnage allowance of these nations, but proposes it be reserved for the later consideration of the conference.
OTHER NEW CONSTRUCTION
9. No other new capital ships shall be constructed during the period of this agreement except replacement tonnage as provided hereinafter.
10. If the terms of this proposal are agreed to, then the United States, Great Britain and Japan agree that their navies, three months after the making of this agreement, shall consist of the following capital ships
LIST OF CAPITAL SHIPS
UNITED STATES
Maryland, California, Tennessee, Idaho, Mississippi, New Mexico, Arizona, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, Nevada, Texas, New York, Arkansas, Wyoming, Utah, Florida, North Dakota and Delaware; total, 18; total tonnage, 500,650.
GREAT BRITAIN
Royal Sovereign, Royal Oak, Resolution, Ramillies, Revenge, Queen Elizabeth, Warspite, Valiant, Barhani, Malaya, Benbow, Emperor of India, Iron Duke, Marlborough, Erin, King George V, Centurion, Ajax, Hood, Renown, Repulse and Tiger; total, 22; total tonnage, 604,450.
JAPAN
Nagato, Hiuga, Ise, Yamashiro, Fu-So, Settsu, Kirishima, Haruna, Hi-Yei and Kongo; total, 10; total tonnage, 299,700.
Disposition of Old and New Construction
11. Capital ships shall be disposed of in accordance with methods to be agreed upon.
Replacements
12. (a) The tonnage basis for capital ship replacement under this proposal to be as follows:
United States, 500,000 tons.
Great Britain, 500,000 tons.
Japan, 300,000 tons.
(b) Capital ships 20 years from date of completion may be replaced by new capital ship construction, but the keels of such new construction shall not be laid until the tonnage which it is to replace is 17 years of age from date of completion. Provided, however, that the first replacement tonnage shall not be laid down until 10 years from the date of the signing of this agreement.
(c) The scrapping of capital ships replaced by new construction shall be undertaken not later than the date of completion of the new construction, and shall be completed within three months of the date of completion of new construction, or, if the date of completion of new construction be delayed, then within four years of the laying of the keels of such new construction.
(d) No capital ships shall be laid down during the term of this agreement whose tonnage displacement exceeds 35,000 tons.
(e) The same rules for determining tonnage of capital ships shall apply to the ships of, each of the powers party to this agreement.
(f) Each of the powers party to this agreement agrees to inform promptly all the other powers party to this agreement concerning:
- The names of the capital ships to be replaced by new construction.
- The date of authorization of replacement tonnage.
- The dates of laying the keels of replacement tonnage.
- The displacement tonnage of each new ship to be laid down.
- The actual date of completion of each new ship.
- The fact and date of the scrapping of ships replaced.
(g) No fabricated parts of capital ships, including parts of hulls, engines and ordnance, shall be constructed previous to the date of authorization of replacement tonnage. A list of such parts will be furnished all powers party to this agreement.
(h) In case of the loss or accidental destruction of capital ships, they may be replaced by new capital ship construction in conformity with the foregoing rules.
Auxiliary Combatant Craft
13. In treating this subject auxiliary combatant craft have been divided into three classes:
- Auxiliary surface combatant craft.
- Submarines.
- Airplane carriers and aircraft.
14. The term auxiliary surface combatant craft includes cruisers (exclusive of battle-cruisers), flotilla leaders, destroyers, and all other surface types except those specifically exempted in the following paragraph
15. Existing monitors, unarmored surface craft as specified in paragraph 16, under 3000 tons, fuel ships, supply ships, tenders, repair ships, tugs, mine-sweepers and vessels readily convertible from merchant vessels are exempt from the terms of this agreement.
16. No new auxiliary combatant craft may be built exempt from this agreement regarding limitation of naval armaments that exceed 3000 tons displacement and 15 knots speed, and carry more than 4-5 inch guns.
17. It is proposed that the total tonnage of cruisers, flotilla leaders and destroyers allowed each power shall be as follows:
For the United States, 450,000 tons.
For Great Britain, 450,000 tons.
For Japan, 270,000 tons.
Provided, however, that no power party to this agreement whose total tonnage in auxiliary surface combatant craft on November 11, 1921, exceeds the prescribed tonnage shall be required to scrap such excess tonnage until replacements begin, at which time the total tonnage of auxiliary combatant craft for each nation shall be reduced to the prescribed allowance as herein stated.
Limitation of New Construction
18. (A) All auxiliary surface combatant craft whose keels have been laid down by November 11, 1921, may be carried to completion.
(B) No new construction in auxiliary surface combatant craft except replacement tonnage, as provided hereinafter shall be laid down during the period of this agreement, provided, however, that such nations as have not reached the auxiliary surface combatant craft tonnage allowances hereinbefore stated may construct tonnage up to the limit of their allowance.
Scrapping of Old Construction
19. (A) Auxiliary surface combatant craft shall be scrapped in accordance with methods to be agreed upon.
(B) Submarines.
20. It is proposed that the total tonnage of submarines allowed each power shall be as follows:
For the United States, 90,000 tons.
For Great Britain, 90,000 tons.
For Japan, 54,000 tons.
Provided, however, that no power party to this agreement whose total tonnage in submarines on November 11, 1921, exceeds the prescribed tonnage shall be required to scrap such excess tonnage until replacements begin, at which time the total tonnage of submarines for each nation shall be reduced to the prescribed allowance as herein stated.
Limitation of New Construction
21. (A) All submarines whose keels have been laid down by November 11, 1921, may be carried to completion.
(B) No new submarine tonnage except replacement tonnage as provided hereinafter shall be laid down during the period of this agreement, provided, however, that such nations as have not reached the submarine tonnage allowance hereinbefore stated may construct tonnage up to the limit of their allowance.
Scrapping of Old Construction
22. Submarines shall be scrapped in accordance with methods to be agreed upon.
(C)—Airplane Carriers and Aircraft
23. It is proposed that the total tonnage of airplane carriers allowed each power shall be as follows: United States, 80,000 tons; Great Britain, 80,000 tons; Japan, 48,000 tons.
Provided, however, that no power party to this agreement whose total tonnage in airplane carriers on November 11, 1921, exceeds the prescribed tonnage shall be required to scrap such excess tonnage until replacements begin, at which time the total tonnage of airplane carriers for each nation shall be reduced to the prescribed allowance as herein stated.
Limitation of New Construction, Airplane Carriers
24. (a) All airplane carriers whose keels have been laid down by November 11, 1921, may be carried to completion.
(b) No new airplane carrier tonnage except replacement tonnage as provided herein shall be laid down during the period of this agreement, provided, however, that such nations as have not reached the airplane carrier tonnage hereinbefore stated may construct tonnage up to the limit of their allowance.
Scrapping of Old Construction.
25. Airplane carriers shall be scrapped in accordance with methods to be agreed upon.
Auxiliary Combat Craft, Replacements
26. (a) Cruisers 17 years of age from date of completion may be replaced by new construction. The keels for such new construction shall not be laid until the tonnage it is intended to replace is 15 years of age from date of completion.
(b) Destroyers and flotilla leaders 12 years of age from date of completion may be replaced by new construction. The keels of such new construction shall not be laid until the tonnage it is intended to replace is 11 years of age from date of completion.
(c) Submarines 12 years of age from date of completion may be replaced by new submarine construction, but the keels of such new construction shall not be laid until the tonnage which the new tonnage is to replace is 11 years of age from date of completion.
(d) Airplane carriers 20 years of age from date of completion may be replaced by new airplane carrier construction, but the keels of such new construction shall not be laid until the tonnage which it is to replace is 17 years of age from date of completion.
(e) No surface vessels carrying guns of caliber greater than 8 inches shall be laid down as replacement tonnage for auxiliary combatant surface craft.
(f) The same rules for determining tonnage of auxiliary combatant craft shall apply to the ships of each of the powers party to this agreement.
(g) The scrapping of ships replaced by new construction shall be undertaken not later than the date of completion of the new construction and shall be completed within three months of the date of completion of the new construction, or, if the completion of new tonnage is delayed, then within four years of the laying of the keels of such new construction.
(h) Each of the powers party to this agreement agrees to inform all the other parties to this agreement concerning:
- The names or numbers of the ships to be replaced by new construction.
- The date of authorization of replacement tonnage.
- The dates of laying the keels of replacement tonnage.
- The displacement tonnage of each new ship to be laid down.
- The actual date of completion of each new ship.
- The fact and date of the scrapping of ships replaced.
(i) No fabricated parts of auxiliary combatant craft, including parts of hulls, engines and ordnance, will be constructed previous to the date of authorization of replacement tonnage. A list of such parts will be furnished all powers party to this agreement.
(j) In cases of the loss or accidental destruction of ships of this class they may be replaced by new construction.
Aircraft
27. The limitation of naval aircraft is not proposed.
(Note.—Owing to the fact that naval aircraft may be readily adapted from special types of commercial aircraft, it is not considered practicable to prescribe limits for naval aircraft.)
General Restriction on Transfer of Combatant Vessels of All Classes
28. The powers party to this agreement bind themselves not to dispose of combatant vessels of any class in such a manner that they later may become combatant vessels in another navy. They bind themselves further not to acquire combatant vessels from any foreign source.
29. No capital ship tonnage nor auxiliary combatant craft tonnage for foreign account shall be constructed within the jurisdiction of any one of the powers party to this agreement during the term of this agreement.
Merchant Marine
30. As the importance of the merchant marine is in inverse ratio to the size of naval armaments, regulations must be provided to govern its conversion features for war purposes.—Army and Navy Register, 19 November, 1921.
Army and Navy Transport.—It is now practically certain that President Harding shortly will issue an order discontinuing the army and navy transport services across the Pacific, and will direct that this traffic be turned over by the government to commercial lines. The Shipping Board has submitted to the White House information on the cost of these services, and it is understood that the President will follow the recommendations of the Board. This will automatically cancel the previous request of the War Department for the transfer of four of the new 502 combination ships to the army.—Nautical Gazette, 26 November, 1921.
Panama Canal Earnings.—For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, the gross earnings of the Panama Canal amounted to $12,040,116.70 as compared with $8,935,871.57 in the fiscal year of 1919-20, an increase of $3,104,245.13. The cost of operation and management for the year of 1919-20 amounted to $9,328,300.14. Without making any allowance for depreciation of plant or for interest charges on the capital invested, which amounted to $368,543,271.95 on June 30 last, the Canal made a profit in the last fiscal year of $2,711,816.56. Since the opening of the Canal the excess of revenues over expenses has amounted to $480,724.95.—The Nautical Gazette, 5 November, 1921.
Larger Diesel Engined Ships.—On June 30 last there were 145 full-powered Diesel engined ships of over 2000 gross tons. These were divided among the following flags:
? | Number | Gross tons |
British | 34 | 217,104 |
Danish | 21 | 121,580 |
Swedish | 20 | 91,681 |
American | 28 | 86,457 |
Norwegian | 21 | 85,032 |
Italian | 6 | 26,449 |
All other | 15 | 63,467 |
?
In addition to these large motor ships there were 553 small Diesel engined vessels, aggregating 210,118 gross tons. Of this number, 59 were American vessels, totaling 27,521 gross tons.
The United States leads in sailing ships equipped with Diesel or semi-Diesel engines for auxiliary power. It owns 61 such ships, aggregating 60,103 gross tons.—Nautical Gazette, 19 November, 1921.
Board Offers Ships at World Market Prices.—In accordance with instructions issued by Chairmaa Lasker, the Shipping Board is advertising for bids on the transport Northern Pacific and 28 cargo carriers. These ships are being offered at world market prices. In the case of the Northern Pacific, which is a vessel of 8255 gross tons and of 20 knots speed, the offers must be submitted before December 12. Bids on the other vessels will be opened on December 21. They include the following: Three 12,000 deadweight freighters. South Bend, Marica and Edyllen, built by the Sun Shipbuilding Company; Eastern Merchant, 12,000 tons, built in Japan by the Asano Shipbuilding Company ; five Japanese vessels. Eastern Trade, 12,975 tons; East Indian, 11,679; Eastern Shore, 11,054; Eastern Light, 10,705; Eastern Soldier, 10,625; four Chinese-built freighters. Mandarin, Cathay, Celestial and Oriental, 12,000 tons, constructed by the Kiangnan Dock & Engine Works, Shanghai.
Two 5740-ton freighters, Chickamauga and Pinellas, built by the Merrill-Stevens Shipbuilding Corporation; four 5i7S-ton cargo carriers, Bethnor, Macomet, Mason City and Maddequet, built by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation; four 5075-ton fabricated steel ships, Tashmoo, Toledo Bridge, Orinoko and Suwied, built by Submarine Boat Corporation; two 5300-ton colliers, Ahsecon and Tuckahoe, built by New York Shipbuilding Corporation; Minooka, 5000-ton cargo. Mobile Shipbuilding Company; Delfina, 5210 tons, Hanlon Dry Dock & Shipbuilding Company; M.J. Scanlon, 8597 tons, New York Shipbuilding Corporation. In addition, three 150-foot sea-going tugs and four 1800-ton steel oil barges are being offered for sale.—Nautical Gazette, 3 December, 1921.
Shipping Board's First Balance Sheet.—The first full balance sheet ever prepared to cover the business of the Shipping Board was laid before Chairman Lasker last week. It is said to represent four months' work by accountants.
The total assets of the Board as of July i are shown as $307,400,000, exclusive of unexpected appropriations and the value of the fleet, and the total liabilities, exclusive of pending claims, as $115,878,000. The balance on hand, $191,500,000, offsets in part claims estimated at $200,000,000 to $300,000,000.
Detailed items of the report are as follows:
Assets
Cash on hand $33,000,000
Accounts and notes receivable $33,954,000
Accounts receivable from managements $9,360,000
Operation supplies $10,850,000
Surplus materials for sale at inventory valuation $35,561,000
Land, structures and equipment for sale $42,229,000
Mortgages receivable and securities $10,865,000
Accounts and notes receivable from ship sales, not secured by mortgages $16,375,000
Notes receivable secured by mortgages $98,997,000
Real estate and equipment in operation $3,967,000
Liabilities
Accounts and vouchers payable, refunds of deposits and collections, $71,482,000
Mortgage bonds and mortgages payable, assumed upon acquisition of certain properties, $2,109,000
Reserve against inventories of surplus materials and land, structures and equipment, including depreciation, $42,287,000
According to President Joseph W. Powell, of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, the Shipping Board has lost about $25,000,000 since July 1, which has been more than offset by the appropriation of $48,000,000 granted by Congress.—Nautical Gazette, 26 November, 1921.
New San Francisco-Mexican Service.—The Compania Naviera de los Estados Unidos de Mexico (Mexican States Line) will begin, in the latter part of this month, a new passenger and freight steamship service between San Francisco and ports of Mexico and Central America. Fortnightly sailings are contemplated. The six vessels to be used in the new service are the Sinola, Chihuahua, Chiapas, Oazaca, Colima and Guerrero. They will fly the Mexican flag and are under contract with the Mexican Government to carry mail. They have accommodations for seventy first-class passengers, sixty second-cabin and fifty steerage and have a cargo capacity of about 1500 tons. They are 270 feet long.—Nautical Gazette, 12 November, 1921.
Battle-Cruisers as Passenger Steamers.—Talk of scrapping our battle-cruisers after the disarmament conference has brought forth the usual number of weird proposals, one of which is that these vessels might be converted into vast passenger steamers of the Aquitania type. The amateur marine architects who made this brilliant suggestion apparently overlooked the fact that battleship and passenger ship hulls are totally unlike and that no amount of rebuilding could effect the desired transformation. A scheme just about as practicable was recently sprung by one of the editorial writers on an evening newspaper, who suggested that in view of the present scarcity of housing accommodation the fleet of idle Shipping Board vessels might be moored along the east and west rivers and take in roomers.—Nautical Gazette, 3 December, 1921.
Lloyd's 1920 Wreck Figures.—Lloyd's Register has just published its statistical summary of vessels totally lost at sea in 1920. According to its figures 585 vessels of 657,554 gross tons were lost from all causes. Of the total number of vessels lost 215 were sailing vessels with an aggregate tonnage of 138,950 and 370 vessels with a combined tonnage of 518,595 were steam.
The causes of loss are set forth in the following table:
How Lost | Number | Gross tons |
Abandoned at sea | 60 | 52,585 |
Foundered | 80 | 53,878 |
Missing | 43 | 46,665 |
Broken up, condemned, etc. | 9 | 9,454 |
Burnt | 52 | 95,077 |
Collision | 36 | 38,399 |
Wrecked | 255 | 322,066 |
Lost, etc. | 26 | 24,479 |
Total | 561 | 645,603 |
The following table shows the number of vessels of each flag listed which were included in the total of vessels lost:
Flag | Number | Tonnage | Percentage of tonnage |
United Kingdom | 99 | 131,481 | 0.76 |
British dominions | 64 | 29,022 | 1.39 |
American | 108 | 159,694 | 1.16 |
Danish | 22 | 6,646 | 0.83 |
Dutch | 15 | 4,417 | 0.25 |
French | 40 | 63,866 | 1.97 |
German | 19 | 10,280 | 1.53 |
Italian | 10 | 13,287 | 0.59 |
Japanese | 29 | 41,988 | 1.40 |
Norwegian | 42 | 52,648 | 2.37 |
Russian | 7 | 15,529 | 2.91 |
Spanish | 18 | 14,826 | 1.49 |
Swedish | 23 | 23,026 | 2.15 |
Other European countries | 52 | 54,307 | … |
Central and South America | 9 | 12,149 | … |
Other countries | 3 | 5,377 | … |
No flag | 1 | 7,060 | … |
The number and tonnage of vessels lost during the last ten years, excluding those lost through war causes, were as follows:
Year | Number | Gross tons |
1911 | 888 | 884,843 |
1912 | 680 | 748,965 |
1913 | 665 | 717,030 |
1914 | 605 | 682,835 |
1915 | 582 | 793,975 |
1916 | 598 | 226,937 |
1917 | 619 | 777,105 |
1918 | 567 | 748,538 |
1919 | 666 | 636,830 |
1920 | 585 | 657,554 |
—Nautical Gazette, 19 November 1921.
October Shipbuilding Output in Detail.—The Bureau of Navigation, Department of Commerce, reports 71 sailing, steam, gas and unrigged vessels of 50,265 gross tons built in the United States and officially numbered during the month of October, 1921, as follows:
? | Atlantic and Gulf | Pacific | Great Lakes | Western Rivers | Total | |||||
No. | Gross | No. | Gross | No. | Gross | No. | Gross | No. | Gross | |
Wood | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Sailing | 3 | 4,535 | … | … | … | … | … | … | 3 | 4,535 |
Steam | 1 | 385 | … | … | … | … | 1 | 55 | 2 | 440 |
Gas | 26 | 1,988 | 9 | 228 | 3 | 62 | 5 | 163 | 43 | 2,441 |
Unrigged | 6 | 1,304 | … | … | … | … | 4 | 58 | 10 | 1,362 |
Total | 36 | 8,212 | 9 | 228 | 3 | 62 | 10 | 276 | 58 | 8,778 |
Metal | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Sailing | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … |
Steam | 3 | 13,065 | 3 | 22,008 | … | … | 1 | 1,537 | 7 | 36,610 |
Gas | 2 | 571 | 1 | 3,803 | … | … | 1 | 59 | 4 | 4,433 |
Unrigged | 2 | 444 | … | … | … | … | … | … | 2 | 444 |
Total | 7 | 14,080 | 4 | 25,811 | … | … | 2 | 1,596 | 13 | 41,487 |
Summary | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
Sailing | 3 | 14,080 | … | … | … | … | … | … | 3 | 4,535 |
Steam | 4 | 13,450 | 3 | 22,008 | … | … | 2 | 1,592 | 9 | 37,050 |
Gas | 28 | 2,559 | 10 | 4,031 | 3 | 62 | 6 | 222 | 47 | 6,874 |
Unrigged | 8 | 1,748 | … | … | … | … | 4 | 58 | 12 | 1,806 |
Grand total | 43 | 22,292 | 13 | 26,039 | 3 | 62 | 12 | 1,872 | 71 | 50,265 |
The above total includes 19 rigged vessels of 2191 gross tons and 3 unrigged vessels of 639 gross tons, total 22 vessels of 2830 gross tons built in years previous to 1921. There were not any vessels built for the United States Shipping Board or for foreign owners during the month of October 1921. The largest vessels delivered during the month were the tankers F.H. Hillman and Birkenhead of 9835 and 6960 gross tons respectively.—Nautical Gazette, 19 November 1921.
Concrete Tanker "Faith" Junked.—In the Bureau of Navigation’s bulletin of changes in American documented sea-going merchant vessels during October, the name of the concrete tanker Faith is subtracted on account of the vessel having been sold for junk. She is of 3427 gross tons and was built by the San Francisco Shipbuilding Co. only three years ago. The Faith was the first large concrete ocean-going vessel ever constructed.—Nautical Gazette, 26 November 1921.
AERONAUTICS
Helium for Airships.—In the course of an interview with a correspondent of a British newspaper shortly following the recent ZR2 airship disaster, Maj. P.E. Van Nostrand, of the Balloon and Airship Division, Office of the Chief of Air Service, who was to have returned to America aboard the big dirigible, asserted that airships can be made safe, and that while helium is the best gas known for airships—and he hoped the time will come when not only naval and military airships, but commercial airships as well, will be filled with helium—gasoline rather than hydrogen is the greater menace to the safety of airships. He is of the opinion that hydrogen can be used, and used safely, pointing to the fact that the hydrogen gas in the latter part of the ZRs apparently did not explode, but came down intact, demonstrating that buoyant gas, if it stays in the bag, is a help rather than a danger. He added that if the ZR2 had been filled with helium, the result of the accident would have been little more than a casual wetting for the men aboard her—provided a less explosive fuel than gasoline had been in use.
Supply Still Limited.—At the present time, in view of the fact that the supply of helium is very limited and difficult to obtain, the problem is to find a less volatile liquid for burning than gasoline, and this, in Major Van Nostrand's opinion, is an easier proposition to obtain than helium.
Commercially pure helium has 92.6 per cent lift of pure hydrogen, and being absolutely inert has no deteriorating effect upon balloon fabrics, and is safe from combustion under all conditions.
Up to April, 1918, helium had been obtained only in extremely small quantities, and for scientific purposes only—the total amount probably not exceeding 100 cubic feet, at a cost of about $1700 to $2000 per cubic foot. The most promising fields thus far discovered are located in Texas, Kansas, and Ohio. It is believed by scientists that other sources of supply will be discovered, susceptible of development for the production of helium in balloon quantities, as the result of exploration work. At the present time such an exploration program is being actively prosecuted by the government.
After our entry into the war three experimental plants for the production of helium from natural gas obtained from the Petrolia pool at Petrolia, Texas, were erected. Two of these, known as Plants No. 1 and No. 2, were located at Fort Worth, Tex., the gas being supplied through a pipe line from the former place, and the last plant, known as Plant No. 3, was established at Petrolia.
Cost of Production.—The cost of producing one cubic foot of helium in a mixture of 92 per cent purity in Plant No. 1, the most successful plant to date, was about 39 cents, showing the extremely remarkable reduction in the price of producing helium, especially when the fact that this was an experimental plant and not of such proportions as to give lowest cost, is taken into consideration.
After helium of 92 per cent purity was produced in Experimental Plant No. 1, the navy, acting for the army and navy, entered into a contract with the Linde Co. for the erection of a large production plant at Fort Worth. Latest figures on the cost of producing helium in the new production plant, as estimated by the Navy Department, which is in charge of its operation, show that 94.5 per cent helium costs $150.01 per 1000 cu. ft., and 92.9 helium as $280.12 per 1000 cu. ft.
Helium provides the United States with a Weapon of warfare which is apparently not available to any other nation, because nearly all of the practical supplies of helium so far discovered are contained within the borders of this country. On account of the anticipated further reduction in the cost of this product below the present figure, it would seem advisable that the government should not relax its endeavors to further the exploration and development of this gas, for with an adequate supply of helium the future of the military airship in this country would be assured.
The average production of helium in this country at the present time is such that, when compared with the production figures in the past, would indicate that helium production is making encouraging progress.
One of the most important problems that will have to be solved in connection with the use of helium in lighter-than-air craft is the question of its loss by expansion and consequent valving. Due to the excessive cost of this gas, a radical departure will have to be made in the method of handling the gas pressure than obtains at present with automatic valves in type R balloons and airships. The navy is preparing to conduct aerial experiments with helium in an airship of the C type, and the U.S. Army Air Service will do likewise upon the completion of an airship that is being designed particularly for the use of helium.
With regard to the repurification of helium, the Army Air Service has two plants under construction for conducting this work—one the Railroad Repurification Plant in Washington, and the other a stationary Repurification Plant at Langley Field, Hampton, Va., both of which are under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Mines.
Helium Repurification Plant.—The Railroad Repurification Plant at Washington is now approaching completion, and consists of two cars, one utilized for producing power for the operation of the apparatus contained on the other car. This apparatus, through the process of refrigeration, absorbs the impurities (consisting principally of air—contained in the helium. The capacity of this plant is approximately 2000 cu. ft. per hour. Being built on standard railroad cars, the plant is capable of being transported to any section of the country upon short notice. It is intended to utilize it for repurification of helium in use at isolated stations where it is inadvisable to locate permanent repurification plants, the impure helium, at these stations being allowed to collect for a period of six months or so, stored in cylinders and then repurified upon the annual or semi-annual visit of the Railroad Repurification Plant.
The plant at Langley Field, Va., which was designed and developed for the Army Air Service by Dr. Harvey M. Davis, Mechanical Engineer, Harvard University, has a capacity in excess of 2000 cu. ft. per hour, and the method used is the liquification of impurities from the helium. Dr. Richard B. Moore, Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Mines, is in charge of this plant, assisted by Mr. Ferris of that Bureau, the latter being stationed at Langley Field. The plant is operated in conjunction with the hydrogen plant at this station.
It is anticipated that both the Railroad Repurification Plant and the plant at Langley Field will be ready for operation about the first of next year. The successful operation of these plants is assured, inasmuch as the laboratory designs which have been tested out have proved very successful.
Airship C-2 to Experiment with Helium.—Plans are in progress to make practical use of helium in navy airships in the near future. An immediate start is to be made in the experimenting with this gas at the naval air station, Hampton Roads, Va., where a non-rigid airship of the C class will be inflated.
This experimentation is being conducted in connection with tests in regard to buoyancy, valve control, permeability of airship fabric, and methods of handling helium in connection with all types of lighter-than-air craft. This will be the first airship in the world to be so inflated, and it is expected that important data will be obtained, which it is hoped will be of considerable value in future employment of the gas. This is in accordance with the provisions laid down by the Aeronautical Board of the army and navy for the experimentation and development of lighter-than-air craft.—Aviation, 28 November, 1921.
The "Roma" in Test Flight.—The semi-rigid airship Roma, purchased from Italy by the United States, made her first test flights November 15, remaining in the air nearly four hours.
Officers at Langley Field, where the Roma was assembled, described the flight as most successful.—Aerial Age Weekly, 5 December, 1921.
Aerial Lifeboat.—A lifeboat for the air is a new contrivance being perfected in London for safety of passengers flying over water. It is an evolution of the parachute, by means of which the passengers can be released from a flying craft and dropped gracefully.
The device is so arranged that a pilot, when convinced that the chances of saving the lives of his passengers are extremely remote, simply pulls a lever, which releases the passenger compartment from the falling flying machine. The whole operation requires only four seconds. Tests have already proved satisfactory.—Aerial Age Weekly, 21, November, 1921.
Mine-Laying Airplanes.—With the experimental work in the tactical use of aircraft such as the making of smoke clouds to hide formations and maneuvers, the dropping of toxic gas bombs from aircraft, and the construction of airplane carrier ships, it may be expected that the Naval Air Service will conduct tests of harbor and inlet protection with mines laid from airplanes. It would be an enormous task, and an expensive one in time and material, to cover any large area in this manner, but where there exists the combination of a limited period of time for the work and a small area to be covered airplane mine-laying might reasonably be expected to be successful. Little has been done along this line, though the Germans did successfully attempt the method on the Baltic Sea in 1917, we are reminded by Aviation, using seaplanes of the float type, known as torpedo planes. These were two-engined machines using either 200 horsepower Benz or 260 horsepower Mercedes engines. The use of twin floats permitted the attachment of the mine, or torpedo, between them and under the fuselage. A release system was arranged so that the mine could be freed by the pilot. These airplanes were normally loaded with eight no pound bombs or one torpedo. In laying mines, the airplane was flown within 10 to 15 feet of the water, and the mines, which weighed 800 pounds, with an explosive charge of 440 pounds, were released, automatically anchoring after sinking to a predetermined depth.—Scientific American, December, 1921.
Navy to Test Dornier Boat.—The navy department is arranging for a special demonstration of the German Dornier all-metal flying boat, to be held at the naval aircraft factory in Philadelphia for the benefit of aeronautical manufacturers and engineers.
Secretary Denby said that it had been the policy of the Navy Department to purchase abroad examples of metal construction in order to study the latest development in the art. These tests at Philadelphia will include demonstration in flight of the Dornier flying boat, which is a post-war product of the Zeppelin Company, and was originally designed for commercial passenger service. Several other examples of foreign construction will be available for the detailed examination of the engineers invited to witness the demonstration.—Aerial Age Weekly. 21 November, 1921.
Motorless Aeroplane Record Flight.—Interest in the motorless air machine has been stimulated by the arrival at Croydon Aerodrome of the Aachen glider, with which a flight extending over 20 minutes was made at a recent trial. The machine, which was launched from a hill 1000 feet high, is reported to have been maneuvered to an even higher level and to have made a landing at a point only 30 feet below the original height of 1000 feet. The previous time record for flights in machines of this type was beaten by six minutes. It is understood that other types of German gliders are likely to be sent to England, and that a series of gliding tests will be carried out. Aviation optimists suggest that it might be possible to produce for sporting purposes an aeroplane designed on the lines of motorless gliders, but which, fitted with an engine of about two and one-half horsepower, would be able to make' comparatively long low-speed flights.—The Engineer, 18 November, 1921.
"Roma" is Ready.—The Roma. America's largest airship, is now ready to make her maiden flight in this country. For several months the big ship has been under construction in the big airship hangar at Langley field. Now she awaits the word which will open the giant doors of her berth and release her anchorage preparatory to the test flight which will later be followed by an exhibition and trial flight or cruise.
A special docking rail is being constructed leading from the landing field to the hangar. The first flight will probably be made before this feature is completed, although it will be necessary to call upon the entire personnel of the field to handle the ship with security when this mechanical arrangement is not utilized.
The thousands who have watched with interest the construction of the airship and hope to see her in flight will appreciate the statement for which Major Thornell, who is in command of the Roma, is authority that at least 24 hours' notice will be given the residents of Langley field and vicinity of the time of the first flight of the big ship.
The crew of the Roma will consist of from 12 to 15 enlisted men, while four or five officers in addition to the commander of the ship will be on board on all flights.
One feature of the ship is the photographic department, provision being made not only for the usual taking of aerial pictures but also for the development and printing of negatives while in flight. A complete photographic dark room is being fitted up in a roomy compartment directly under the passenger cabin.
Another interesting and practicable feature is the powerful radio equipment which is being installed which will enable persons on board to converse with ease with other aircraft or land stations many miles removed from the mighty ship of the air.—Aerial Age Weekly, 21, November, 1921.
New Airship "Napoli" is to Eclipse "Roma."—The giant airship Roma, which Italy sold to the United States Government, is looked upon as such a great success that the Italian air authorities are building another on much the same lines, only bigger and better, profiting by experience. It will be called the Napoli or Naples, and probably will be the second of a large fleet of air monsters.
The Roma measures 34,000 square meters; the Napoli will be 54,000. Like the Roma, the Napoli will be of the semi-rigid type. Her shape will be much the same as the sister airship though more elongated.
As in the case of the Roma, the car will be in the steel beams of the ship. It will hold a commandant's cabin with all necessary instruments, a passengers' cabin, a dining room, lounges and a kitchen run with electricity.
At the rear of the ship will be terraces for the passengers to admire the scenery at their ease.
There will be 12 Spa motors of 300 horsepower each, Italian designed and constructed. They are to be set tandem, and may be repaired and even changed, if needful, during flight.
The Napoli will be able to carry a hundred passengers. With only four of its engines working its speed is expected to be 43 miles an hour.—Aerial Age Weekly, 5 December, 1921.
"Helicopter" Flight.—In an interesting article in the London Observer Major C.C. Turner comments on Helicopter flight as follows:
Experiments with Helicopters—machines with horizontal screws giving vertical ascension—are being carried on in many countries, and in Great Britain, the United States, and France are helped by the government. The results of late have been far more encouraging to the inventors than were those obtained before the war, and there is no doubt that the great progress in aerodynamics due to aeroplane research, especially under the stimulus of the war, is helping the helicopterist.
References to Helicopter experiments are often sensational. It is made to appear that vertical flight is what the whole aeronautical world is breathlessly awaiting; that it will revolutionize flying, since it would enable machines to land on flat roofs and to hover over an enemy. Yet upon consideration one seriously doubts whether even complete success with the Helicopter would make much difference; although one would not go so far as to say that experiments are without scientific value.
Criticism of the Helicopter usually takes the form of pointing out that, if the engine fail, descent will be as vertical as the ascent and a hundred times as fast. The criticism is met by the assurance that the Helicopter whose engine fails may descend slowly, which was proved in England and elsewhere with large-scale models some years ago. Admittedly there are mechanical difficulties in ensuring the rotation in the right direction, under the pressure of the air, of the propellers in the event of engine stoppage; but the difficulties appear to have been overcome by certain experimenters.
Another difficulty is that of securing horizontal speed and direction. This has been solved, theoretically, by a slight inclination of the axis, so that the screws rotate in an inclined plane when, it is claimed, very great speed is attainable. The preservation of balance is another problem which, however, has in theory been solved in more than one way, always, however, by mechanism admittedly complicated. Practical proof has not yet been given; and one cannot but fear that this and other elements of the Helicopter proposition will demand a toll of damaged machines and, perhaps, of life.
M. Damblanc, discussing the experiments at a meeting of the Royal Aeronautical Society, had to admit that a descent with engine stopped would be at the rate of about 10 miles per hour; and this, of course, in vertical contact with the ground to a machine weighing half a ton or more, would mean serious risk of wrecking; it would certainly call for a very remarkable shock-absorbing contrivance, which would be very heavy. And, if under the influence of wind, the descent were aslant the difficulties would be increased.
None of the helicopterists can yet claim that balance could be so nicely preserved in the last 100 feet of descent, where the air is so often "uneven," as to make the landing perfect. Still more disturbing is the thought that the engine might fail at so low an altitude that the fall-checking action of the propeller could not take effect.
The aeroplane, on the other hand, lands on a gentle gradient, so that even high speed is, within limits, no danger; and wind makes it easier by reducing the ground speed.
On the whole proposition, including that of the conversion of power expended into useful work done, it would seem that the aeroplane must have the best of the argument. Perhaps the difference between the two may be likened to the difference between using wheels in mechanical traction and attempting imitation legs
As regards performance, there remain some serious drawbacks to the Helicopter. M. Damblanc, one of the foremost workers, has to admit that the utmost height attainable by his design would be about 5000 feet, and that as that height was approached ascent would be extremely slow and would call for the sacrifice of all impediments. If this, indeed, be the limit, the prospects before the Helicopter, whether for war or for commerce, are gloomy. Of course, we must assume that, as in the aeroplane, the limit of to-day will be surpassed to-morrow. But any important development in power, yielding more thrust in proportion to weight, would benefit the aeroplane quite as much as it would the Helicopter.
Of reported Helicopter experiments may be mentioned those of Berliner and of Hewitt and Crocker in America; the combined aeroplane Helicopter of Pescara, the Spanish inventor, which ascended to 3 ½ feet the other day; Mr. Louis Brennan's machine in England; and the work of Mr. Ellehammer, the Danish aviator who flew an aeroplane as long ago as 1906. The first helicopterist to be injured was M. de Payer, who broke an arm last year, and is said to have ascended to 400 feet the other day, his machine then being wrecked. Then there is the Petroczy Helicopter, which in its first experiments has been held captive on a cable; and it is suggested that it might supersede the kite-balloon, being equally good for observation purposes without offering so big a target or requiring to much space or field equipment.
The aeroplane, meanwhile, is steadily being improved, especially by means of the new high-lift wings. And high-lift wings that could be varied during flight, especially in conjunction with propellers of variable pitch, would greatly increase the range of speed, enabling very fast machines to land slowly and in small spaces.—Aerial Age Weekly, 28 November, 1921.
Aid Ecuador's Aviation.—France and Italy have entered into an agreement with Ecuador with the object of organizing and developing that country’s military, maritime, postal and commercial aviation, the Department of Commerce was advised November 17 in a consular report from Guyaquil.
The agreement provides for the establishment of aviation missions in Ecuador to aid in the development of aviation.—Aerial Age Weekly, 28 November, 1921.
Improved Paris Air Services.—The sale of British machines to a French aviation company for use on London-Paris services is a distinct achievement on the part of the British aircraft industry. The Grand Express Aeriens, who are the purchasers, have this week taken delivery of a new type Vickers-Vimy aeroplane. This machine, which is fitted with two 450 horsepower Napier "Lion" engines, will carry 14 passengers, and at the designed speed of 130 miles per hour the trip between London and Paris should be performed in one hour and 45 minutes. If rumor can be credited, this British machine is the first of several which are being acquired by the same company.—The Engineer, 11 November, 1921.
Flying in Fog.—Experience has made it quite clear that until a satisfactory device for enabling the pilot of an air machine to fix his position in foggy weather has been produced regular aeroplane services are impossible. Wireless direction finding has done something to simplify the problem, and much interest has been aroused by the claims made for the Reid indicator. The apparatus consists of an upper row of lamps controlled by a mercury device, a lower row controlled by a gyroscope, and an air speed indicator. It is asserted that by means of the signals given by the lamps and indicator it is possible for the pilot to obtain all the information which will enable him to fix his position during fog with practical accuracy, so that point-to-point flying can be undertaken with the certainty of reaching destination. The air speed of the machine, rate of turn, direction of sideslip, and movement necessary to preserve correct course are all recorded for the information of the pilot. As the result of experiments extending over a period of 18 months, those associated with the new device, which is being manufactured by Vickers, Limited, recommend its use with great confidence.—The Engineer, 11 November, 1921.
Examination of Navy Reserve Officers.—The following memorandum concerning examinations of reserve and temporary officers for commission in the line of the U.S. Navy, which was prepared by the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department, is of interest:
1. The following tabulation shows in chronological order the sequence of events connected with the examination and recommendations for commission of certain reserve and temporary officers for commission in the line of the navy under Act of June 4, 1920:
August, 1919—Director of Naval Aviation sent letter to commanding officers of all air stations, commanders air forces, stating that examinations would be held and directed commanding officers to start classes of instruction.
June 4, 1920—Congress passed Act H. R. 13108, authorizing transfer of temporary and reserve officers to permanent rank or grade for which they might be found qualified.
August, 1920—Bureau of Navigation issued a circular letter to the service stating examinations authorized above would be held starting May 16, 1921.
May 16, 1921—Examinations started.
Oct. 6, 1921—Bureau of Navigation published a list of temporary and reserve officers found qualified for permanent commission, as follows:
Recommendation of Examining Board.—The following Was the recommendation of the Examining Board:
Number who took the examination, 1651
Number who failed to finish, 21
Number considered for commissions, 1630
Number recommended for commissions, 931
Number recommended for Ch. Warrant and Warrant Grade, 370
Number not recommended, 329
Total 1630
Percentage recommended for commissions, 57.1 percent
Percentage recommended for Ch. W. and W. grade, 22.7 per cent
Percentage not recommended, 20.2 per cent
Total 100.0 per cent
Number of temporaries who took the examination, 1192
Number of reserves (Classes 1, 2, 3, 4) took examination, 194
Number of reserves (Class 5-Flying Corps) took examination, 244
Total 1630
Number of temporaries recommended for commission, 694, 58.2 per cent
Number of reserves (Classes 1, 2, 3, 4) commission, 85, 43.8 per cent
Number of reserves (Class 5) rec. for commission, 152, 62.3 percent
Spencer S. Wood,
Rear Admiral, U. S. N., President
Benjamin C. Bryan,
Rear Admiral, U. S. N., Member;
Robert W. McNeely,
Captain, U. S. N., Member.
2. From the above it is to be noted that the number of officers of Class 5, reserve (aviation officers) who were recommended for commission by the Secretary of the Navy is higher than any other group of officers taking these examinations.
3. Examinations as held were competitive in nature, similar to examinations held for entrance to the Naval Academy. The examinations were held at the same hour and date all over the world, and examination papers were forwarded to Washington, where they were marked by the Naval Examination Board. Candidates who were unable to be present at the examinations at the hour and date named, due to sickness or other cause, were not permitted to take another examination, this in view of the fact that the examination was of a competitive nature.
4. The Act of June 4, 1920 (H. R. Bill 13108) authorized the admission to the line of the Regular Navy, in the permanent grades or' ranks for which they might be found qualified, of 1200 officers, 500 of whom could be aviation officers (Class 5).
5. Examinations were given in all professional subjects of which a knowledge is required of line officers of the navy. The law requires, very properly, that all officers, including aviation officers, should qualify in regular line subjects. It must be realized that a naval aviator, in addition to being able to fly, must have a thorough knowledge of navigation, a sufficient knowledge of seamanship, a thorough knowledge of gunnery and weapons used in airplanes, bombs, naval ordnance, spotting and a certain amount of international law in case he should land in a foreign country on a foreign shore. He should understand a certain amount of electricity in order to communicate, as well as for the safety and operation of his plans or balloon. These subjects are necessary, owing to the fact that the majority of naval aviators are later returned to regular duty as line officers. Class S officers were given the special privilege of omitting one of the following subjects: navigation, steam engineering, ordnance and gunnery, electricity—and were permitted to take in its place a special examination on aviation subjects. It is a notable fact that quite a number of the class 5 officers did not elect to take their own subject—aviation—and also that a number of them failed to pass in this subject. It will be noted that eleven and a half months elapsed from the time notice was given that the examinations were to be held and the time of holding the examinations, so that they had ample time to prepare themselves. It is true that the bombing experiments took up much time just before the examinations, but had these officers taken advantage of opportunities to study, it is believed that nearly all of them could have passed. At the stations where they were compelled to study, nearly all passed. For instance, at Howden, England, all the reservists and temporaries passed. At San Diego 63 per cent passed, and at Pensacola 57 per cent passed.
6. The aviation questions were prepared by qualified aviators, and the papers were marked by aviators. Great weight was given by the Examining Board to reports on fitness, and the action of the Examining Board was most liberal.
7. Subjects covered by the examination were: Navigation, engineering, ordnance and gunnery, seamanship, international law, military law, electricity, aeronautics, navy regulations.
8. The following was the result of the aeronautic examinations:
Of temporaries 58.2 per cent passed
Of reserves— Classes 1, 2, 3, and 4 43.8 per cent passed
Class 5 (aviators) 62.3 per cent passed
Of 244 Class 5 aviators—39 took line examinations, voluntarily omitting aeronautic examinations.
205 took aeronautics.
Of 205 aviators who took aeronautics—81 aviators failed in aeronautics, their own specialty.
Of 31 temporaries who took aeronautics—17 temporaries failed in aeronautics.
Note.—The questions in aeronautics were made up by officers now in Bureau of Aeronautics and were marked by three qualified aviators.
The officers who, through no fault of their own, were prevented from taking the examinations, will be given an opportunity to take an examination.—Aviation, 14 November, 1921.
ENGINEERING
New Electro-Magnetic Clutch Has Been Developed For Diesel Engine Drive.—A new electro-magnetic clutch has been developed which, operating on a hitherto unused principle, and when used in conjunction with the Diesel type of engine, affords a speed flexibility equaling that of the reciprocating steam engine. This clutch fulfills the requirements of a positive yet completely elastic drive and is a unique correlation of two oppositely applied forces, each producing powerful torques induced and brought under perfect control by the application of a most insignificant amount of external electric energy.
The drive has no sliding parts, is extremely small for power transmitted and is applicable to any range of horsepower. This new type of clutch transmits power entirely through air gaps, and there being no mechanical contact between the driver and driven, wear and deterioration are eliminated. It is capable of remote control and can be operated at any fractional speed from zero to full engine speed. The power required to operate the clutch at full load is but a small fraction of one per cent of the power transmitted. In one instance 525 horsepower required 256 watts, equal to .065 per cent. One of the outstanding features of the clutch is that on direct drive or full speed it is magnetically locked, which ensures perfect synchronism and no slip with a high pull-out torque.
The diagram on this page shows the detailed construction of one form of a complete embodiment of the clutch. The exciting coil in the driving element induces an intensive magnetic flux which passes through the teeth embedded in non-magnetic current conducting rings. The driven ring constitutes a closed secondary circuit similar to the rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor, which gives high torque at all fractional speeds. The flexible short steel coupling to the extreme left, which may or may not be employed as desired, secures complete freedom of alignment.
In the problem of transmission of power on board ships gears offer a simple solution, but gears have never been successful with reciprocating engines, particularly where the pinions are integral with, or are solidly locked to, the heavy revolving masses of the engine crank shaft with its characteristic crank effort impulses. No amount of pains to smooth out the peaks by flywheels or other devices have proven successful. Engineers therefore, have resorted to electrical drives, which though they attain in a measure the object of most efficient speed for both engine and propeller, have several drawbacks. They are very heavy, the controls are decidedly extensive and intricate, the first cost is high and they suffer great efficiency losses. In the case of the oil engine the problem is simplified over the turbine in two ways—first, the speeds are lower and, second and more important, the oil engine is capable of full and quick reversal.
It is just here that the new powerful electro-magnetic clutch steps in with its air gap drive, and offers a complete solution.
It permits complete latitude as to propeller shaft speed regardless of the engine speed, the clutch being designed and organized to allow a degree of slip or fractional driving for definite periods.
It constitutes a perfect complement to the oil engine, filling in any deficiency that the latter may have in maintaining extremely low crank shaft speeds.
The second major function of the clutch, where Diesel engines with gear drive are used, is that of allowing the pinion with its slight mass moments to become an entirely separate entity with all the advantage of complete and yielding flexibility, with no thrashing possible even when receiving the most powerful torques. This makes comparatively inexpensive gears available, the clutches being low in cost and the efficiency exceedingly high. This reduces the oil-engined ship propelling equipment to a few rugged parts, giving reliable performance at very much higher efficiency than the electric drive with only a fraction of its cost and weight.
This electro-magnetic clutch, which will revolutionize methods of transmission of power, has three outstanding features.
(1) For the first time in engine-room practice, it affords complete torque-wise elasticity and freedom. This latter achievement is of far reaching significance inasmuch as it brings to the engine the possibility of complete freedom of design as to crank shaft speed by rendering gearing between a reciprocating engine and the tail shaft for the first time entirely practical and dependable. Also for the first time, outside of the full electric drive equipment, it is possible to eliminate the transmission of the large rotating moments of the engine without interfering with the transmission of useful torque. The torque, smoothed out completely and robbed of its heavy pulsations and irregularities, is thus passed on to the gear and tail shaft entirely free from concussion.
(2) Another outstanding feature of the clutch, never heretofore achieved, is the "squirrel cage secondary" operating through pure induction, which allows continuous slipping at any fractional rate, without excessive temperature rise. Thus the clutch supplements the engine completely at all fractional speeds below the stable operating speed of the engine.
(3) The clutch operates as an automatic emergency disconnecting device, permitting the instant breaking away from the large mass moments of the engine and allowing the propeller to "stop in its tracks," whenever it encounters an obstacle whose resisting force exceeds the available maximum pull-out torque of the clutch.
This clutch has been developed and is manufactured by the Sperry Gyroscope Company of Brooklyn, New York.—Nautical Gazette, 26 November, 1921.
Empire and Power Alcohol.—The Imperial Motor Transport Council of delegates from Empire governments has just held a conference under the auspices of the Empire Motor Fuels Committee. The discussion which took place turned mainly on the present position relating to customs and exercise restrictions and as to suitable methods of denaturation. The Council, which includes representatives of British India, Australian Commonwealth, Union of South Africa, British Columbia, Quebec, and the Crown Colonies, decided to request the various governments concerned to take the necessary action in connection with the subjects mentioned in order to facilitate the production and distribution of industrial and power alcohol throughout the Empire. A recommendation was also made that each Empire government should consider the advisability of putting forward at a future conference proposals regarding the adoption of common methods of and formulae for the denaturation of alcohol. It is hoped that the work of the Council will bear fruit. The need of doing everything possible to promote the use of Empire alcohol is quite obvious. The age of liquid fuel is being ushered in.—The Engineer, 11 November, 1921.
Operating a Direct-Current Motor on Increased Voltage.—To take care of an emergency, it is sometimes necessary to operate a motor on a higher voltage circuit than the machine is rated for. Under such circumstances in order to reduce the voltage to the proper amount for the motor, a resistance box is placed in series with the machine. Suppose, for example, a motor rated no volts and 20 amperes, is to be operated on a 250-volt circuit. With the normal load on the motor and the voltage adjusted to no volts at the motor terminals, the voltage drop across the resistance box would have to be 250 — 110= 140 volts. The resistance necessary for this condition would be volts ÷ amperes = 140 ÷ 20 = 7 ohms. With normal load the line voltage would be divided into 140 volts across the resistance box and no volts across the motor terminals, as indicated in Fig. 1. Inasmuch as the voltage drop across the resistance box varies directly with the current, it will be seen that any variation of current will change the applied voltage to the motor. This has the main objection of changing the field strength of the motor as well as causing a change in speed due to the change of voltage on the motor. For example, take the extreme condition that would be obtained at starting. Let it be assumed that the resistance of the armature for this particular motor is 0.5 ohm. The total resistance in the circuit is 7 + 0.5 = 7.5 ohms, and the starting current that would flow when the circuit was closed is total volts ÷ total ohms =250 ÷ 7.5 = 33.4 amperes. This value of current would give sufficient startling torque for ordinary cases provided the field had full strength. With 33.4 amperes flowing in the circuit, the voltage drop across the resistance box would be 33.4 X 7 = 233.8 volts. This leaves 250—233.8 = 16.2 volts across the motor terminals, which would not give sufficient field strength to start the motor under any appreciable amount of load. To avoid this difficulty the field should be connected in series with a separate resistance box to the 250-volt circuit as in Fig. 2. The resistance value could then be adjusted to give normal field strength, which would remain constant regardless of the load conditions. The value of this resistance can be determined only after first measuring the field resistance. However, it will in all cases be of comparatively high value.
Disregarding the inefficiency of the scheme of using a resistance box in series with the armature for voltage control, there is an additional objection; namely, a change in speed if the load changes. Such a change would vary, depending on the character of the work the motor was doing. Under a condition of the load falling to such a value as to reduce the amperes to ID, then the voltage drop across the resistance box would be amperes X ohms= 10X7= 70 volts. The voltage on the motor is 250 — 70=180 volts. This might cause the speed to rise to an undesirable value. If the load was removed entirely, the no-load current would be approximately 5 per cent of the normal load current, or one ampere. The voltage drop across the resistance box would then fall to 7 volts, giving 241 volts on the motor. The rise in speed might be of such value as to produce dangerous mechanical stresses in the armature, or pulley, and the commutator might also arc over. Under such a condition it would be necessary to insert more resistance in the armature circuit. At no-load conditions the resistance would be equal to volts drop across the resistance ÷ amperes = 140 ÷ 1 = 140 ohms. An adjusting feature would have to be provided in the resistance to change the values between 140 ohms and 7 ohms as the load came up to normal. This would require the constant attention of the operator, and in case of a belt flying off or breaking under full load the motor might be damaged before the operator could adjust the box. If the motor was connected by gears or direct-connected to a shaft driving a pump or similar load, then as the speed increased the load would increase also, which would tend to keep the speed from reaching an excessive value. The actual increase of speed in such a case would depend on the character of the work and would lessen to a certain extent the need of the operator's attention. Under such conditions it should be kept in mind that this arrangement is generally anything but satisfactory.—Power, 29 November, 1921.
"Tampa's" Remarkable Stopping Accomplishment.—The United States Coast Guard cutter Tampa, first vessel of its kind to be electrically equipped throughout, has arrived at New York after a fast voyage from San Francisco via the Panama Canal. Captain W.J. Wheeler reported a remarkable accomplishment made by the Tampa. He said the ship had been brought from full speed ahead of 15 knots, to a dead stop in less than the length of the vessel. This is more than three times better than the record made by any previous cutter and was attributed to the ease of control made possible by the electric drive.
Steam-driven cutters have usually been brought to a standstill in not less than three boat lengths. This feature of quick stopping adds considerably to the maneuvering qualities of the ship and is a factor of much importance to revenue vessels.—Nautical Gazette, 19 November, 1921.
Effect of Shallow Water on Speed of Ships.—During recent years, considerable attention has been paid to the effect of shallow water on the speed of ships, observes Mr. Harold E. Yarrow. In a fast vessel the wave-making resistance varies materially with the depth of the water through which she is moving. Formerly it was generally accepted that in shallow water the speed was reduced, but trials with a destroyer over a course where the depth of water varied demonstrated that this was not altogether true. This vessel was about 220 feet in length, having a displacement of 400 tons on a draught of approximately 6 feet.
When traveling at 30 knots it was found that the speed was unaffected, providing the depth of water was not less than 180 feet. In shallow water the resistance increased, as was expected, causing a corresponding decrease in speed, and at a depth of about 90 feet the speed was reduced considerably, while the wave at the stern was observed to be very high. When running, however, in still shallower water, with a depth of about 30 feet to 50 feet, the speed increased, and for the same horsepower it was between one and two knots higher than when the vessel was running in deep water; at the same time the stern wave had almost disappeared.
During these trials the inclination of the vessel varied considerably. When the stern wave was at its highest and the resistance at a maximum she settled down at the stern, and in shallow water, with very little stern wave, she approached an even keel. By means of various spirit levels suitably arranged to indicate the trim of the boat, it was found possible to ascertain approximately the depth of water in which the vessel was running.—Nautical Gazette, 19 November, 1921.
Home-Made Oil Separator.—In many plants there are a number of low-pressure traps discharging hot water heavily laden with oil. Usually, both the water and oil are wasted unless the installation is of sufficient size to justify the installation of a filter and purifier, in which case the heat in the water is recovered and the oil may be used again for certain purposes.
At small expense an oil separator can be made from two tanks or barrels and some pipe fittings, which will speedily pay for its cost in the saving of cylinder oil alone, besides adding materially to the hot-water supply.
Such an installation is shown. The operation is as follows: The oil-bearing hot water comes from the traps into the tank A, where some separation takes place and the oil rises in the current of water and passes over the baffle. The funnel opening is just even with the water level in this tank, so that the agitation caused by the incoming water splashes the top layer of oil and water into the funnel and hence into the pipe leading to the storage tank B. The remainder of the water in tank A passes out through the siphon pipe from the bottom and carries no oil to the hot well. A hole is drilled at the upper end of this pipe to prevent siphoning out too much of the water at once.
The oil overflow carries some water over into the tank B, where the oil remains in a strata at the top and the water passes out through a siphon pipe similar to that in tank A, but smaller. Both siphon pipes should be large enough so that at no time is it necessary for them to be more than half full.
The oil level should be watched in the glass and some drawn off before the gage fills; otherwise the action of the system is automatic. This salvaged oil is usually of good quality and may be used again for many lubricating purposes or even for steam-cylinder work if filtered.—Power, 15 November, 1921.
NAVIGATION AND RADIO
A New Map of Universal Interest.—A new base map of the North Pacific Ocean on the transverse polyconic projection has been prepared by W. E. Johnson, Cartographer of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey of the Department of Commerce, and is now available for distribution. It is published in clear form and convenient size (dimensions 14 by 41 inches) for desk use. (Map No. 3080, North Pacific Ocean, scale 1:20,000,000, price 25 cents.)
This map is designed primarily as a base on which statistical data of various special kinds may be shown. In consequence of this purpose only features of major importance are shown on it and these features are emphasized to an extent not possible on a map which contains the vast amount of detail usually included.
In addition to the foregoing specific value, this map is of general interest at present as showing the relation between the United States, its possessions, and the Far East and as including those areas around which present problems in the North Pacific Ocean are centered.
This map represents the acme of scientific precision combined with simple practical utility. It extends from New York and Panama to Singapore and Calcutta, from Alaska and Siberia to the Hawaiian Islands and includes a part of South America and a portion of Australia. Through its lateral center it extends over 180°, or more than half way around the earth.
The distinctive feature of the map is that these localities are here pictured in practically their true relation as to distances, areas, and comparative angular direction of coast line. It will thus serve to correct the erroneous impression that we have all received from the usual representation of this region on Mercator charts and maps which greatly exaggerate areas and distances toward the poles when compared with their equatorial equivalents, and to the eye present the general continental coast lines out of their proper angular relation to one another. This is not a criticism of the Mercator projection for use in navigation, but merely of its use for purposes for which it is not adapted. In fact, if the Mercator projection were transversed just as the polyconic has been, the result would be only slightly different.
The problem of representing any considerable portion of the ellipsoidal form of the earth on a plane surface is not readily dealt with, or, in other words, is intractable. Always some desirable features must be sacrificed in order to incorporate those of primary value to the problem or area at hand. In the present instance, the property of true scale along a great circle tangent to the forty-fifty parallel of north latitude at the central meridian of the map was chosen. This great circle is approximately the shortest distance between San Francisco and Manila, and in close proximity to it lie practically all the important points of interest, such as the Panama Canal, Mexico, our Pacific Coast, Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Japan, and the coast of China. This is accomplished through the use of the transverse polyconic projection, which is the regular polyconic or American projection turned from its normal vertical axis to a lateral great circle axis. This is an involved and laborious operation, but the resulting advantages are well worth while where areas of this nature are presented and accuracy is desired.
Both the vertical and lateral axes are straight lines, true to scale, and represent the shortest distance (great circle) between their extreme points. From these central lines the scale gradually expands toward the corners of the sheet where the maximum error occurs, thus quite a wide band of small scale error is preserved through the lateral center wherein lie the majority of the important cities, commercial areas and trade routes of this region.
This system of projection was devised by Ferdinand Hassler, who was the organizer and first superintendent of the oldest scientific government bureau, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. This projection was computed and constructed by C.H. Deetz, Cartographer, U.S. Coast and Geodetic -Survey.—Aerial Age Weekly, 28 November, 1921.
Variation Observations.—The yacht Carnegie, making a magnetic survey of the earth for the Carnegie Institute of Washington, is now nearing the end of its 65,000-mile voyage. In addition to the survey for practical purposes, the staff of the yacht is making observations of a purely scientific nature. These observations include the measurement of the amount of electricity in the air and of the amount of radium in sea water. The whole study is in the field of terrestrial magnetism and the chief object is to determine as closely as possible the nature of magnetism, and how its effects and changes may be measured and predicted. The Carnegie is an entirely non-magnetic vessel, constructed and equipped with virtually no iron, steel or other magnetic substances. She is a sailing vessel having a small auxiliary engine capable of making four knots. The engine and galley stove are of brass and the anchors of bronze. In the building of the hull only locust spikes were used.—Tech- Engineering News, December, 1921.
High Intensity Beacon on Staten Island.—The Sperry Gyroscope Co. has erected a high intensity vertical beacon at Tompkinsville, Staten Island, about 100 feet in from the shore and 1000 feet eastwardly from the great Municipal Ferry Docks connecting with South Ferry, Manhattan. The light will be vertical over this spot, gradually waving between 10 and 15° each side of the vertical, making four beats a minute. The Lighthouse Commission is issuing a circular requesting observation on this beacon. Pilots of the U. S. Air Service are requested to make observation at the first opportunity and report to the Chief of Air Service as to the observation possible under the various weather conditions existing over Staten Island.—Aviation, 28 November, 1921.
Wireless Telegraph Developments.—It was a somewhat remarkable feat which was carried out from the new American wireless centre at New York a few days ago. The message sent out by the President of the United States expressing his hopes of continued peace throughout the world was received wherever suitable apparatus had been installed. The new radio centre on Long Island is the most important of the kind that has yet been constructed, and when the whole of the equipment is in place it should be possible to conduct simultaneous communication with five different parts of the world. Transmitting apparatus is to be provided for both Transatlantic and Transpacific ranges, and the equipment has been designed to make provision for the inevitable development of Transatlantic wireless telephony. Important developments are also projected in Australia, where it is understood the government is likely to enter into an arrangement with the Amalgamated Wireless Company for the erection of a high-power station capable of direct communication with both the United Kingdom and America. The experimental stations of the company have been able to give direct communication with New York and European stations for some time past, but the new station would enable a regular commercial service to be provided. It is reported from Australia that the company named would probably operate the new station under government supervision, although the company would be quite prepared to finance and operate the station itself, or to sell its rights to the government.—The Engineer, 11 November, 1921.
Signal to Japan.—The American Navy's powerful radio station at Annapolis has been in direct communication with Japan, exchanging wireless signals with the powerful new Japanese station at Iwaki, 8000 miles distant. Annapolis had made many previous attempts to reach Iwaki and failed; and the connection this time was obtained accidentally. A naval operator, while calling San Diego, received a faint signal on San Diego's wave, but found it to be from the Japanese station. Naval experts were astounded that the connection had been made, and now attribute it to atmospheric conditions, since subsequent attempts to reach Iwaki have failed.—Tech. Engineering News, December, 1921.
ORDNANCE
The Biggest Bomb in the World.—At the recent meeting of the Army Ordnance Association at Aberdeen Proving Ground an opportunity was afforded those present to see the latest development in aircraft bombs—the 4000-pound Demolition Bomb, probably the largest bomb in the world. It is doubtful, however, if many members of the association, not to mention the general public, whose impression has been gained in motion pictures, fully appreciate the great size or destructive power of this super bomb. It measures 13 ½ feet in height (from fins to nose). It is nearly 2 feet in diameter, and has an actual weight of about 4300 pounds, of which approximately 2000 pounds is high explosive. So far as is known, no other country has produced a similar weapon of such size.
It was designed by the Aircraft Armament Division in the Office of the Chief of Ordnance, for use by the largest bombing aircraft in the attack of naval vessels of the most modern battleship type and in raids against great munition plants. Careful consideration was given to all results obtained in previous experimental work, and in the design are embodied all the latest improvements. Although constructed to penetrate without deformation or fracture the usual targets against which it might be used, it is not constructed to go through heavy armor. In addition to being made strong enough to withstand impact, the case is proportioned to hold as much explosive as possible, for it is mainly upon the amount of explosive carried that the destructive effect of the bomb is dependent. Fuses in the nose and tail of the bomb have been designed to give either instantaneous action or delayed action, permissible delays ranging from a few hundredths of a second up to several seconds. Taken as a whole, the bomb may be considered the most powerful and efficient weapon of its type yet produced.
In the test the bomb was carried in the air by an American-made Handley-Page, and in order that the airplane might lift this great weight it was stripped of all its extra military load, the fuel tanks were but partly filled, and the pilot, bomber, and one mechanician were the only ones allowed to make the flight. Taking off with such a load was in itself a dangerous venture, and added to this was the hitherto untried experiment of releasing so much weight at one time from an airplane. Capt. Norbert Carolin, the pilot; Sergt. Stewart Smink, the bomber; and Corp. Louis Averitt, the mechanician, deserve great credit for undertaking the initial flight with this bomb.
The observers witnessed the test from the main front of the Proving Ground, about 2000 yards from the point over which the bomb was dropped. As the airplane approached the bomb could be seen very clearly suspended in position under the fuselage, and when released it dropped in perfect flight, nosing down slowly with fins guiding it on its curved path through the air. Asked later concerning the effect of the release, the pilot stated that the airplane shot up about 20 feet, but this was no worse than a bad "bump," often encountered in flying.
When the bomb struck the ground, great masses of earth, debris, and smoke were hurled hundreds of feet in the air, and several seconds later came the tremendous crash of the detonation. A delay of a few hundredths of a second was used to allow the bomb to penetrate the ground to form a crater, thus limiting the distribution of fragments from the bomb case and eliminating the possibility of any one of these fragments being projected as far as the observing party, which might have occurred had an instantaneous fuse been used. The blast from the detonation was largely smothered by the formation of a crater, and some of the observers were disappointed that the effect from the detonation was not appreciably felt, but when the smoke and dust had cleared away the power of the bomb was shown by the immense crater formed. A hole 19 feet deep and 65 feet in diameter was blasted in the earth.—Army Ordnance, November, 1921.
Spotting Instruments.—Orders have been received for the design and manufacture of two artillery spotting instruments for Coast Artillery and two similar instruments for Field Artillery, for test. These instruments will be designed for use by an airplane observer and will permit him to determine immediately and without any calculation, the distance of the fall of a shot from the target, as well as the mathematical bearing of the same relative to the target. This information will be sufficient to enable necessary corrections to be applied at the gun.—Army Ordnance, September-October, 1921.
New Electric Gun.—An electric cannon based on the fact that a conductor carrying a current will travel across a magnetic field has been developed by a Frenchman. A model of the gun has been built and gives a muzzle velocity of 200 meters per second to a 50-gram projectile. Since the gun windings are used but a fraction of a second, huge amounts of current can be employed. Further details can be found in the Revue Generale de l'Electricite.—Tech. Engineering News, December, 1921.
MISCELLANEOUS
World's Future Oilfields Are of Vast and Incalculable Extent.—In a paper on the future oilfields of the world read before the Institute of Marine Engineers, Mr. George Howell said that the vast regions in the environs of the Mackenzie River and other parts of the Dominion of Canada as well as Athabasca and Alberta were known to be more or less petroliferous and well worthy of more intense development. The oil is of a high grade paraffin base in certain regions and of an asphaltic base in others.
In the lower part of California new fields are being opened up every day. The Mid-Continent fields in North America are disclosing new oil sands; some have been discovered at a lower level than the deepest wells sunk, while in certain other fields valuable intervening oil-containing sands have recently been discovered.
The whole of the northern portion of the Indian Empire is possible for new oil fields; the flanks alone of the Himalayas will afford much to interest the petroleum engineer. Burmah is only in its infancy as an oil producing region.
Afghanistan and Persia are countries practically unexplored in the geological sense for oil. The engineers of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. have done much to add to our knowledge of future oil supplies, but, comparing the size of the region, the explored area is quite small to what will be disclosed when the more extensive examination of the ground has been undertaken. The south sections of the shore line of the Caspian Sea, particularly in the neighborhood of the Elburz mountains, travelling northwest by way of Enzali, give ample evidence over great tracts of country that they are of a petroliferous character.
Russia's oil futures are vast. Not more than lo per cent of the petroliferous regions have been worked for oil. The Trans-Caspian provinces, the areas west of Baku, south of Grozni, as well as that in the vicinity of the Black Sea, offer also future fields for the supply of oil.
Additional oil fields are to be found in Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, the Argentine, Ecuador, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru and Guiana. The four first named countries offer substantial possibilities since they include areas in which both geological and structural conditions are suitable for oil accumulation.
If we were to take a retrospective view of the oil fields producing the 100,000,000 tons or more annually of petroleum products which are being consumed to-day, we should find that not more than lo per cent of the total available supply has been extracted from them. Further, we should ascertain that as a matter of fact, a well drains only one-third of the potential supply, and that under certain conditions the greater part of the remaining two-thirds can be mined by shafts and galleries much in the same way as coal mining. In Pechelbronn, Alsace, from two to five times as much crude oil was extracted by mining in the manner indicated than had already been produced from the same bed by boring.—Nautical Gazette, 3 December, 1921.
Explosion in Dutch Vessel.—A serious explosion, due to an accumulation of gas, occurred November 9 in the Dutch submarine K-4, in Colombo harbor. The submarine was en route for the Dutch East Indies. Two of the crew were killed and one was injured.—Naval and Military Record, 16 November, 1921.