NOTES ON INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS FROM FEBRUARY 5 TO MARCH 5
Prepared by Allan Westcott, Professor, U. S. Naval Academy
UNITED STATES
Treaties Submitted to Senate.—Appearing in person before the Senate on February 10, President Harding submitted the seven treaties resulting from the Conference on Limitation of Armaments. The President's speech closed as follows:
Frankly, Senators, if nations may not safely agree to respect each other's rights and may not agree to confer if one party to the compact threatens trespass or may not agree to advise if one party to the pact is threatened by an outside power, then all concerted efforts to tranquilize the world and stabilize peace must be flung to the winds. Either these treaties must have your cordial sanction or every proclaimed desire to promote peace and prevent war becomes a hollow mockery.
Your Government encouraged and has signed the compact which it had much to do in fashioning. If to these understandings for peace, if to these advanced expressions of the conscience of leading powers, if to these concords to guard against conflict and lift the burdens of armament, if to all these the Senate will not advise consent, then it will be futile to try again.
Reported Out of Committee.—On February 25, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee reported favorably to the Senate all the treaties growing out of the Conference, with the exception of the two Chinese agreements. The only modification proposed was the Brandagee reservation attached to the Four Power Pacific Treaty. With this reservation the treaty was later ratified. The reservation follows:
The United States understands that under the statement in the preamble, or under the terms of this treaty, there is no commitment to armed force, no alliance, no obligation to join in any defense.
Yap Treaty Ratified.—By a vote of 67 to 22 the Senate approved without reservations the agreement with Japan relating to the island of Yap. There was an adverse vote on a proposed amendment providing that the United States should be sole judge whether or not the Japanese Government maintained radio communication on the island in accordance with treaty provisions.
British American Oil Agreement,—
After several months of negotiations, British and American oil interests have reached a basis of agreement on their conflicting claims to the virgin oil fields in the five northern provinces of Persia—to which the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey received a concession several months ago—and will form a new joint British and American company for equal participation in the development of the fields. It is learned that only the details of the agreement await settlement.
Sir John Cadman, technical adviser to the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and chairman of the Inter-Allied Petroleum Commission during the war, returned to England a few days ago after representing his company in the prolonged negotiations over the claim to the undeveloped oil fields.
In these conferences, which have been going on since December, the Persian Government was represented by W. Morgan Shuster, fiscal agent in this country, and by Mirza Hussein Khan Alai, the Persian Minister. The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey was represented by A. C. Bedford, chairman of the board; E. J. Sadler of the directorate, and other officers of the company.
The five provinces covered by this contested concession are Mazanderan, Ghilan, Azerbaijan, Azrabad, and Khorassan, covering several hundred thousand square miles in the northern section of the country. The British company has been operating its oil fields in the southern part of the country for many years and a few years ago bought up the northern concession from a native of Georgia, whose claim, however, had not been ratified by the Persian Parliament. The Standard Oil's more recent concession was ratified by the Parliament. No company has undertaken development there.
"While Northern Persia is entirely wildcat territory, no wells having been drilled there, geologists who have examined the country say the northern provinces are underlaid by the same clear sand which is so prolific in Southern Persia,'' says The National Petroleum News. "Also, there are seepages of oil at various places in the northern provinces, so it is regarded as highly probable that oil resources as valuable as those in the southern part of the country will be developed in the north.—New York Times, 25 February, 1922.
PLANS FOR EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT
Premiers Meet at Boulogne.—On February 25, Premiers Lloyd George and Poincare held a brief but very successful conference at Boulogne, clearing away many difficulties in Anglo-French relations. Among other things it was decided that there should be a conference of foreign ministers on the Near Eastern question at Paris during the second week in March, and at the same time another in London on plans for the economic conference at Genoa. Further decisions are given below.
Anglo-French Alliance.—After the Boulogne Conference Premier Lloyd George declared that the terms of the proposed Anglo-French Alliance were practically settled and that the agreement would be signed before the meeting at Genoa.
It is understood that the treaty of guarantee by which England pledges herself to come immediately to France's aid in case of unprovoked attack by Germany and to support France in enforcing German disarmament will run for twenty years instead of ten, as originally proposed, and that there is in addition the important change that England and France pledge themselves to act in accord in case of trouble on the eastern frontier of Germany. This, of course, means that England and France promise to protect Poland against attack by Germany—a considerable victory gained by France for her protégé.
Doubling the term of the treaty naturally adds to its value for France. It now bears a strong resemblance to the proposed three-cornered agreement among France, England, and America which was never ratified, except that there is a time limit.
From the world-wide standpoint the alliance grows in importance from the circumstance that France and England cannot act together with regard to Germany without being in accord on other international questions affecting them. It is not to be expected that the two nations will be in perfect harmony on the Rhine and in discord at the Dardanelles. Conclusion of the alliance will justify the hope that the two big allies will at last find a common policy on reparations and in Asia Minor.
America has an interest in the Franco-British Alliance. It has been the case ever since the Paris Peace Conference that with England and France as rivals, America's entrance into world politics on a real scale meant that she would hold the balance of power. The close partnership between England and France changes that and puts us on a different footing.
It is not to be supposed that the new alliance will bring unmitigated joy to every Englishman or Frenchman who breathes the breath of life. Not at all. It is a partnership of many difficulties inherent from centuries of political rivalry. It is a partnership which has been decided upon as the next best thing to an association of the- Allies and the United States to restore world stability, America made impossible the first choice of England and France. They now turn to the second-best choice.—New York Times, 27 February, 1922.
Genoa Conference Postponed.—At the Boulogne meeting the Entente Premiers agreed that the date of the Genoa Conference should be postponed until April 10, with the possibility of further postponement.
Early in February Premier Poincare sent a note to Great Britain calling for a strict definition of the agenda of the proposed conference, insisting especially that each nation taking part should definitely accept the conditions laid down in the invitation; that there should be no attempt to alter the Versailles Treaty; that recognition of foreign rights and rights of private property on the part of the Soviet Government should precede recognition; and that the Genoa Conference should be postponed. The decisions on these points reached at Boulogne are summarized as follows:
As it stands the result is chiefly negative. The peace treaties signed in France are not to be brought into question. A revision of the Versailles Treaty and other treaties negotiated by the entente powers is thus ruled out, but the various treaties of Poland, the Baltic States, and Russia are not considered binding by those who did not participate in their negotiation. The reparations question is also not to be disturbed. It will be left to the reparations commission, probably after the meeting of finance ministers at Paris. The League of Nations will be associated with the Conference. This means that the disarmament question will be left to the League. Experts will examine technical matters at London and the Genoa Conference is provisionally fixed for April 10.
Another negation is that participation of the Bolsheviki in the Conference will not imply immediate recognition of the Russian Government. It is understood that the Russian war debt will be set aside. Particularly would it be absurd to place the burden of the Koltchak and Denikin campaigns, which were financed by the western powers, to the account of Russia.
M. Poincare obtained a definition of the engagement to abstain from aggression. It does not mean that coercion cannot be employed against Germany.
Small States at Genoa.—In negotiations with Great Britain over the Genoa Conference, France made the proposal that Jugo-Slavia and other small states of Central Europe should be included in preliminary discussions. While England did not consent to this suggestion, it is evident that the smaller states will play an influential part in any general economic settlement at Genoa. Tzecho-Slovakia, under the strong leadership of President Masaryk and Foreign Minister Benesh, is supported not only by the "Little Entente" alliance with Rumania and Jugo-Slavia, but also by the Polish-Tzech accord of November, 1921, and the recent Austro-Tzech economic treaty. Furthermore, the proposed conference on March 12 of the foreign ministers of Poland, Latvia, Esthonia, and Finland may bring the Baltic States into this combination to promote the common interests of the small powers. Only Hungary and Lithuania are excluded.
Such a combination, however, is likely to serve its own interests primarily, rather than those of France or the Western Powers. Nor can it lead to a general Danube Confederation, in view of the exclusion of Hungary, and its fundamental purpose of mutual defense against Magyars, Germans, and Russians.
Reparations Agreement.—At the Boulogne Conference it was agreed that the question of German reparation payments should be referred back to the Reparations Commission. On February 28, the Commission reached an agreement with Germany subject to ratification by the powers concerned, in accordance with which Germany will pay this year a total of 720,000,000 gold marks in cash and 1,450,000,000 gold marks in kind.
While this arrangement was not accepted with enthusiasm in Germany, the Government on February 15 nevertheless secured in the Reichstag an open victory over the Junker opposition led by Hugo Stinnes. On that date the Reichstag by a vote of 230 to 185 upheld the Government in its firm measures for suppression of the general strike.
LIMITATION OF ARMAMENTS
Plans for Ten Year Truce.—Prior to the Boulogne Conference, the European press announced that Premier Lloyd George had "a great plan" for a ten-year truce throughout Europe, based on an agreement of European nations to respect each other's frontiers, abstain from aggression, reduce land armaments, and devote themselves to economic reconstruction. What resulted at Boulogne was apparently a decision to leave the question of reduction of land armaments to the machinery of the League of Nations.
The League of Nations Commission on Disarmament met in Paris during the third week of February. It was decided that the commission should continue work on a schedule of military requirements of league members for defense and colonial needs, should meet again on July 15, and then prepare draft proposals for land disarmament to be submitted to the League Assembly in September.
It was decided that the best method of approaching the question of national control of the manufacture of arms and munitions would be to suggest to league members ratification of the Convention of St. Germain on this subject. The questions of noxious gases in warfare and revision of international law were left to await detailed reports of the work done at the Washington Conference.
Opening of World Court.—The formal opening of the Permanent Court of International Justice at the Peace Palace in The Hague on February 15 was attended by Queen Wilhelmina and a large assemblage of diplomats. Dr. Gaston da Cunha, the only representative of the Council of the League of Nations present, pointed out that, whereas all previous efforts to establish such a court had failed, the existence of the League had made it possible. Dr. B. C. T. Loder, president of the Court, spoke of the appropriateness of Holland as the seat for the court, in view of its past history and devotion to international law.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
Irish Election Postponed.—At a meeting of the Ard Fheis, or Sinn Fein National Convention, on February 21, a compromise was reached between the factions for and against the Anglo-Irish Agreement, providing:
- That the Convention should adjourn for three months and that no elections should be held in the meantime.
- That the Dail Eireann should continue to meet regularly in the interval, but that no division should be regarded as a party vote requiring the resignation of the Provisional Government.
- That when an election was held, both the Anglo-Irish Agreement and the Constitution for the Irish Free State should be presented to the voters at the same time for their approval.
This compromise in some degree jeopardized the Agreement, since it put the drawing up of the Constitution into the hands of the Sinn Fein, and gave opportunity to opponents of the Agreement to organize their attack. A vote in the Dail on February 28 gave the Collins-Griffith party the narrow majority of 56 to 50.
Following the Irish decision to delay ratification, Irish and English Cabinet members held a conference in London on February 26. It was decided that, in spite of the delay, the British Government should proceed with consideration of the Agreement in the House of Commons. Efforts were made and defeated in House committees to amend Article XII of the Agreement, relating to boundaries, so as to protect Ulster. Article XII provides that a commission of three members, one each for North and South Ireland and one appointed by the British Government, shall settle the boundary "according to the wishes of the inhabitants…so far as may be compatible with economic and geographic conditions." Mr. Winston Churchill declared that any attempt further to define or limit the scope of the commission would be certain to defeat the Agreement.
Rifts in Coalition Government.—Weakening of the Liberal-Unionist coalition which has so long supported the Lloyd George Government was emphasized during the first week of March by a letter from Premier Lloyd George to Unionist members of his Cabinet declaring his intention to resign unless he could be assured of unwavering support from the Unionist Party. "Die-Hards" in this party, led by Sir George Younger as head of the party organization, had opposed the Government's Irish policy and in general shown a tendency to break away from Lloyd George's leadership. On the other hand, the Premier by his letter indicated an inclination toward the creation of a new "center" party recruited from both Liberals and Conservatives and standing between extreme Tories and Radicals.
On March 4 Mr. Austin Chamberlain asserted the loyalty of Unionist cabinet members to the Premier so long as he was willing to lead the coalition.
Stronger Policy in India.—Speaking in Parliament on the situation in India, Premier Lloyd George explained the state of unrest there as a result of the spread of western liberal ideas throughout the East, in China as well as India, and declared that the practical application of these ideas would, as in China, "shatter the country into warring fragments." The present agitation in India is partly explained also by Mohammedan chagrin at the overthrow of Turkish power in the Near East. Establishment of Egyptian independence will in some measure satisfy Mohammedan interests, but is sure to be followed by similar demands for India.
In the meantime the Indian Nationalist Party decided in February to suspend temporarily their policy of civil disobedience.
Measures for Egyptian Independence.—After waiting in vain for the establishment of a responsible ministry in Egypt, the British Government on February 28 issued a unilateral statement again declaring the basis on which it was prepared to grant Egyptian independence. These terms were practically the same as in previous declarations:
First—Security of the communications of the British Empire in Egypt.
Second—Defense of Egypt against all foreign aggression or interference, direct or indirect.
Third—Protection of the foreign interests of Egypt and protection of minorities.
Fourth—We are prepared to make an agreement with the Egyptian Government in a spirit of mutual accommodation whenever a favorable opportunity arises for the conclusion of such an agreement. But until such an agreement satisfactory to ourselves and to the Egyptian Government has been concluded, the status quo will remain intact.
In his speech in Parliament Premier Lloyd George added that "foreign powers are not concerned, and we propose to state this unmistakably when the termination of the protectorate is notified by us."
On March 1 a new government was established in Egypt under the moderate Nationalist leader, Abdil Khalek Pasha, with the purpose of at once renewing negotiations for ending the protectorate.
ITALY AND SOUTHERN EUROPE
Facta Heads Italian Cabinet.—After a brief effort to carry on the Italian Government with a reorganized cabinet Premier Bonomi finally resigned on February 18. His successor was Luigi Facta, a former follower of Giolitti, who entered office on February 25 with a cabinet drawn from all constitutional groups except the Nationalists and Fascisti. While Facta is himself a Liberal, the Catholic party is even more predominant in this cabinet than in the one preceding.
Fascisti Capture Fiume.—On March 3, a band of Italian Fascisti temporarily gained control in Fiume by attacking the government headquarters with cannon and forcing the surrender of President Zanelli, head of the Fiume Free State. Hostilities between Croat and Italian factions in the city were renewed. An Italian cabinet member was sent to investigate the situation, in view of its threat to the friendly relations between Italy and Jugoslavia established by the Treaty of Rapallo.
Pope Pius Crowned.—Cardinal Ratti upon his election to the papacy took the name Pius XI, and on February 1 was crowned in St. Peter's as the two hundred sixty-first Pope.
King Strengthened in Spanish Crisis.—A cabinet crisis in Spain was brought about at the close of January by the action of the War Minister in removing high military officers for public criticism of the conduct of military affairs. Upon the threat of the military juntas to eject the War Minister unless he resigned within forty-eight hours, the Cabinet appealed to the King and later presented their resignations. The crisis ended with the restoration of the Cabinet, a strengthening of the King's prestige, and a blow at the power of the army juntas in Spanish politics.
NEAR EAST
French Support of Young Turks.—Correspondence between the British and the French Governments over the Near Eastern question was published in the middle of February in a British White Paper. In this correspondence the British took the ground that the Angora Agreement constituted a direct violation of France's obligations to her allies by practically recognizing the Angora Government as sovereign in Turkey, and by surrendering to that Government territory which had been conquered by British troops and turned over to France only as a mandatory power under the supervision of the League of Nations. The French denied that the agreement constituted a recognition of the Nationalists, and conceded in principle that all agreements relating to Turkey should be subject to readjustment in a final settlement.
In the absence of Allied agreement upon a common policy in the Near East, it appeared probable that the Greek Government would evacuate Anatolia in the spring rather than face a renewed Turkish offensive backed by the support of France and Russia. A mission from the Angora Government to the Western powers left Constantinople on February 28, with a schedule of demands calling for almost complete restoration of Turkish control in Thrace and Asia Minor, including Allied evacuation of Constantinople and the Straits.