In some occupations it happens that the good attained by them is not seen at once, but only when the effects are traced to their sources do we find the meaning of the work. Sowing wheat, for instance, seems at first waste of grain; traced further, it is found that the operation feeds nations.
This is true of astronomy: more curious at first sight than useful, the observations duly recorded and tabulated, have made the civilization of the world what it now is.
Greenwich Observatory is a foundation upon which England's commerce is built. Heroism, skill, devotion, could do little without tools to work with; and without Nautical Almanac and sextant, commerce could never have reached its present importance.
Commerce carries abroad religion, civilizes cannibal isles, exchanges the products of labor, takes abroad the things which are not needed at home, and in their stead brings articles of necessity, of convenience, or of taste. Commerce breaks down the barriers of prejudice which separate nations; and these prejudices subdued, it attacks the physical obstacles which stand in its way. It cuts down hills, and fills up valleys; it tunnels mountains, and bridges rivers; it builds harbors, and for its peaceful and beneficent purposes creates all the facilities which make it so immense in its proportions, and so powerful a means of spreading community of interest, and hence tolerance and good feeling amongst nations.
The work of Observatories blends so intimately with modern navigation, that no cargo can be exported nor brought home except through its agency. No wheat, no cotton, no tobacco, can be exported except under the safeguard of astronomy. No books come from abroad except under the protection of astronomy. No traveler risks his life upon the ocean without the tutelage of astronomy. No missionary of religion, or of science, or of useful knowledge, ventures to leave his own shores except with the help of astronomy.
All this, to one who does not at once admit what I have said, seems like mere rhetoric, and it may be worth while to find out, as well as we may, the real money value of this science.
Before astronomy lent its aid to navigation, the freight and insurance charges were enormous. It is known that old voyages were long, tedious, dangerous; that the vessel instead of sailing directly to her port, crept along the land, groped her way through shoals, skirted the coasts, and painfully, like a blind man, felt her way along shore with lead and look-out, never knowing exactly where she was; never knowing how dangers not in sight bore from her position; not knowing exactly where her port was upon the earth, relatively to other ports.
If the difficulties, and dangers, and duration of voyages, were inordinate, the profits were also inordinate; and if the insurer asked huge premiums, the insured could, out of his high gains, well afford to pay them.
In Shakespeare’s Tempest we read—
"There were such men
Whose heads stood in their breasts ; which now we find
Each putter-out of five for one will bring us
Good warrant of."
This refers to the custom which obtained with travelers going into distant lands, of putting out money to be returned five for one, when the traveler should come back to claim his pledge. If he did not return, the whole sum belonged to the lender.
In this sentence Shakespeare makes the insurance five for one; but let us suppose it only one for one above the present rate, and let us see the gain to the United States, in a single year, from the uses of astronomy as applied to navigation.
The imports into the United States in 1877 were, in part,—sugar, $90,683,826; coffee, $53,634,991; tea, $16,181,467; and the total imports amounted to $492,097,540. Exports for the same year were, in part,—cotton, $181,403,415; wheat, $69,308,119; tobacco, $32,312,529; the total exports,$ 658,637,457. Thus it will be seen that the ocean commerce of the United States alone, amounted to the sum of $1,150,735,087, in a single year; and if the entire commerce of the maritime nations be considered, the aggregate value will dazzle the imagination.
I have estimated that the rate of insurance would, without the aid of astronomy, be only one for one, or on our whole exports and imports, $1,150,735,087 This sum now actually saved to the country, would, if applied to the purpose, in two years pay our whole national debt.
This result is so stupendous that, beyond the sublime, it seems to reach the ridiculous. Men smile at something so far beyond their received opinions. But it is to be remembered that all astronomy is to be invoked to give the present results.
Columbus had some kind of astronomical tables, or, as we should call them, some kind of Nautical Almanac; for he had means of measuring roughly the sun's altitude, and of deducing the latitude from his observations. Such tables had existed long before the time of Columbus.
The solution of the problem of differences of longitude was attempted in early times, dating even from the time of the ancient Egyptians; but the results obtained were very inaccurate. The first comparatively accurate theoretical solution of the problem may be said to date from the discovery by Galileo of Jupiter's satellites and his tables of their motions. In practical accuracy, Galileo's tables were worthless.
While the theory of this method is perfect, its practice is even now far from being so, since the power of the telescope, and the clearness of the night, come in as quantities not readily estimated.
The tables used before Greenwich Observatory was established, were those of Tycho Brahe or of Kepler, which were so erroneous that their use would entail an error in the resulting longitude of some 900 miles.
It is not to be wondered at that charts were erroneous. A shoal or island 900 miles out of position would be hard to find.
Navigation is now so precise that a vessel may start from New York for Australia, and, seeing no land until off her port, run boldly for the harbor, sure of her position in relation to it.
In my own experience, when I first went to China, we were boarded about 6 o'clock in the morning by a pilot, who immediately upon coming on deck changed the course some three points to the westward. I said, pointing to the direction we had been steering, Hong Kong is there. "No," said the pilot, “it is there," persisting in his opinion. I concluded he might have just lost sight of the land and that the "John Hancock" might have drifted a few miles to the westward at night. I acquiesced.
We made the land in a little more than an hour, and then the pilot hauled the vessel up to the course she had been steering before he came on board, I remarked to him—"I was right, you see, in saying how to steer for Hong Kong." "Oh," said he, "you have been to Hong Kong before." When I said, "no I never was in Hong Kong," evidently he did not believe me, and the fact must have seemed miraculous or false. A man who never was in Hong Kong comes from America and points to the direction of the Island he has never seen, more accurately than a pilot who has just left it! In such a case, one could more readily attribute falsehood than accept a miracle.
I have not spoken of the intellectual uses of astronomy; of how, as it reveals to the imagination and to demonstration the infinite expanse of creation, it enlarges the scope of men's faculties, and heightening their comprehension of the Creator, brings them into closer communion with Him.
I have referred only to the prosaic money value of observatories. Without these, the antipodes could not have become familiar channels of traffic. The throng of travel and the burden of commerce could never have risen to their present greatness. Civilization would have been much slower in its diffusion. Colonization would have been deferred and retarded in its march. Without observatories, steam, as applied to navigation, would have lost much of its value, since, as direct voyages could not be made for lack of accurate charts, and from the uncertainty in the navigator's position, a ship load of coal would not have sufficed for a long voyage.
The Naval Observatory, when requested, takes observations upon stars used by the surveying parties of the government, in order to fix the latitude of certain points. These stars are frequently, and perhaps generally, those not near the best explored parts of the heavens, and are therefore those whose place for nice modern work, is not known with all desirable accuracy. In finding the latitude by Talcott's method, pairs of stars are selected, each one as nearly as possible equidistant from the zenith, and respectively north and south of it, and not far apart in right-ascension. So many conditions attach to the proper selection of pairs, that any star which suits in position and magnitude must be taken as one of a pair; and if, as too often happens, the star's place is not exactly known, the Observatory fixes it, and furnishes the positions to the surveyor, who is thus enabled to determine his latitude with the utmost precision. Without these observations, the geodesy of the country would be more tedious and less exact than it now is.
It thus appears that the public land sales are dependent upon the determination of the boundary meridians and parallels, in which work the Naval Observatory is an efficient and active coadjutor.
The work of Lieut.-Commander F. M. Green, assisted by Lieut.-Commander C. H. Davis, in fixing the longitude of places in the southern part of Europe, and in South America, is very useful, as giving a greater precision than has heretofore been reached in regard to places, not only where the observations are taken, but to all others dependent on the first as prime meridians.
To this work, so useful to the commerce and geography of the world the Naval Observatory contributes its part, first by giving time-signals to England, thus enabling our longitude to be carried to Lisbon, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, &c.; and next by star observations for zenith telescope work.
The English have less faith in telegraphic longitudes than ourselves; and thus we have, so far, been pretty much alone in this field, in which we have attained valuable results.
The Coast Survey has need of special observations, which can only be made in a fixed Observatory, where instruments of the largest size and of the greatest exactness are employed.
We have given star determinations to Lieutenant Wheeler, of the U. S. Engineers, employed in exploring and mapping the regions of the far west.
Miscellaneous stars, observed with the Meridian Instruments of the Observatory, for the use of other scientific departments of the government.
For Army Engineers…548
For Coast Survey…588
For Lt. Comdr F. M. Green…232
For Transit-of-Venus Commission…101
Total…1469
The observations of these stars have been nearly completed, except about two hundred for the Coast Survey; but the whole number of different observations will average about three for each star, making about four thousand four hundred observations. To these should be added the number of observations of clock stars, circumpolar stars for azimuth, and the nadir observations which are necessary to the reduction of the work—fully six hundred; making five thousand observations in all.
To do this work properly, would require, at least, four trained observers and computers, and two extra computers, one entire year to prepare the results.
All the extra work here enumerated has been performed within ten years, indicating that one-tenth of the labor of three-fourths of the working force of the Observatory has been devoted to the direct assistance of other departments.
The Naval Observatory has also assisted in the determination of the longitude of the following stations, the observations of thirty different nights being devoted to this work in 1877 alone.
At the request of the U. S, Coast Survey:
Cambridge, Mass.; Island of St. Pierre ; Savannah, Ga.; Key West Fla.; St. Louis, Mo.; Columbus, Ohio; Nashville, Tenn.; Harrisburg, Penn.; and for the boundary line between New York and Pennsylvania; Hale's Eddy, N. Y.; Wellsburgh, N. Y.; and Great Bend Village, Penn.
For Army Engineers:
Austin and Carlin, Nevada; Detroit, Michigan; and Ogden, Utah.
At the request of the Directory, the Observatories at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Penn.; and at Princeton, New Jersey.
It is thus seen that the Naval Observatory is really national in its scope of labor, as well as international by its cooperation in nautical astronomy.
DISCUSSION.
Prof. Newcomb. I would like to ask one or two questions which the paper just read by the Admiral, brought to my mind. Did not Prof. Airy, at one time, make a calculation of the money value of each observation of the moon? I have an idea that I have seen a statement that he did so, and fixed the amount, but I have never heard anything authoritative on the subject. Perhaps the Admiral could enlighten us on this point?
Rear-Admiral Rodgers. You would know about that better than I.
Prof. Newcomb. Perhaps some other gentleman knows whether he made such a calculation, and whether I am right in my impression?
Lieut. Schroeder. I have heard the same, somewhere, but cannot now recall it.
Rear-Admiral Almy. The name of Prof. Airy brings to my mind some incidents, very interesting, which I think are closely connected with the subject of Naval Observatories. I recollect, that many years ago, I was ordered to the Depot of Charts and Instruments, located on Capitol Hill in 1842. The Government had rented a lot of ground, and two rooms in the house, from Lieut. Wilkes, who owned the property, and had put upon it a small building for protecting and working the Transit Instrument. There was a small three or four inch Transit Instrument mounted; also, a small three or four inch Telescope, and under the charge of Lieut. James M. Gillis, who was, at that time, very deeply interested in his work, and most indefatigable in his observations. A series of Magnetic Observations was also being conducted.
I do not know whether it has a history or record of its observations as a Naval Observatory, now in possession of the Government, or not; but I am sure it left a history as a Government Nautical Observatory.
Lieut. James M. Gillis generally had several young officers associated with him in his labors, and had matters so arranged that by one relieving another, a regular watch was kept, and in this way the observations were almost continuous. I recollect very well on one occasion Mr. A. A. Low, of New York, a prominent and intelligent East Indian Merchant, and at that time President of the Chaii.ber of Commerce of New York, came to the Observatory at the time I happened to be on duty there, and he remarked that he had Just come from England, where he had visited the Greenwich Observatory, in which he felt a great interest; that he had there met Prof. Airy, who at that time was connected with the Greenwich Observatory, and until Prof. Airy had told him, he had no idea that there was such a thing as an Observatory in Washington. He told us that the Professor gave him much information concerning the observations taken in Washington, but Mr. Low, not willing to admit his ignorance on the subject, did not care to say much. The Professor told him that some very valuable observations had been sent him by Lieut. Gillis, which proved of great service to him, and he spoke of this little observatory we had in Washington in most complimentary terms, and he also spoke in high terms of Lieut. Gillis who had sent him such a large number of valuable observations taken here.
It was in 1842 that I became attached to this little observatory. The appropriation of $50,000 was made by Congress about that time to erect what was then called a "Depot of Charts and Instruments" to be located where it is now. This was the beginning of the present U. S. Naval Observatory and most of the gentlemen present here to-night know the result. I must say it is pleasant to me to recall these incidents and I think it of interest to all Naval Officers to take part in these observations.
In the Summer of 1842, Captain Wilkes returned from his Exploring Expedition, and required the use of the two rooms and the ground, for his own particular work, which involved the necessity of moving.
The Navy Department rented a large double house which had a good sized yard and garden, known as the "Forsyth House," located on the south side of Pennsylvania Avenue, near 24th Street, N. W., and nearly opposite to the Columbia Hospital. This had been the residence of the Hon. John Forsyth when Secretary of State in the administration of President Van Buren.
To this place the Charts, Chronometers, Magnetic Instruments, and the all-important Meridian Transit, and the little Telescope were removed, and good service performed for two years under the superintendence of Lieut. M. F. Maury, U. S. N., assisted by a corps of young Naval Officers.
About the time of removal from Capitol Hill to the "Forsyth House," Lieut. Gillis was detached and ordered to Europe to select and purchase the necessary Instruments for the new Observatory and then returned to superintend the erection of the buildings. In due course of time the Instruments arrived—were mounted and adjusted, and in the Autumn of 1844, full possession taken, and work commenced in the building known as the U. S. Naval Observatory. This has continued ever since with most creditable and useful results, conferring honor on the country and distinction upon its several Superintendents and Officers associated with it.
One thing I shall say in regard to Naval Observatories, and it is this, that officers who waste a great deal of time aboard ship and at stations, always apply themselves and become quite industrious when they arrive at an Observatory. I know it has been my own experience. It has always proved very interesting to me, for there is something about it which is highly attractive and instructive.
I had made a cruise at sea, during which time this Observatory had been constructed and the instruments set in place, and upon my return I was ordered there. I remained about fourteen months and during that time, I must say, that I performed very laborious duty. Lieut. Sands was there then. I well remember that we had to sit up all night every other night, and many a morning I did not get home until day was breaking. Still I became very much interested as also did the other officers. There were four of us in one room, each seated at his desk in a separate corner, and we have worked for hours together without saying anything whatever. So intently were we engaged in our work, that we never thought of conversing.
At that time the present Admiral of the Navy, (Porter) took very great interest in this institution. He had charge of the Equatorial and made many inventions from time to time in connection with it. He made many splendid drawings of the heavenly bodies, and until then I had no idea that he could draw so well. I mention this fact to show the amount of interest we all manifested in these observations and the improvements that followed one another.
Prof. Newcomb. I think it is generally believed that Admiral Almy was one of the first officers engaged in marking longitude by telegraph. It is thirty odd years since this was first done, and as there are so few now living who assisted in this matter it would be very interesting indeed if the Admiral would be kind enough to tell us how it was done in the beginning.
Rear Admiral Almy. It would not take long to tell just how we did it, and I shall do so with great pleasure. Prof. Walker, known to most of the scientific gentlemen of the day, and the public generally, as the publisher of "Walker's Almanac," was appointed to the Observatory at the time when Mr. Bancroft, then Secretary of the Navy, took such a great interest in this matter. Correspondence was then opened with persons at Baltimore, where a small observatory was located, at the time, to assist in the undertaking. When we had arrangements completed. Prof. Walker and myself worked one transit instrument together all night. I recollect that he asked my opinion on the subject, and talked frequently about it, and I remember very well the interest I felt in it; and spoke of what a grand thing it was. I told him I was only too glad to cooperate with him. We, however, got to work, I taking the transit observation, he marking the time. The telegraph had then been brought to the Observatory, for the first time, and as the stars passed the meridian I would notify him when he would mark it down and telegraph it, whilst they were marking down the observations and telegraphing them in Baltimore. Thus it was that the longitude between Washington and Baltimore was first correctly ascertained and it proved very successful. I believe that I took the first transit observations that were ever taken to establish the difference of longitude by telegraph. I do not know that any one had previously made observations in that way. This was performed in the year 1840. I think a full account of this achievement was published in "Walker's Almanac." I tried to ascertain if there was anything on record or an account of observations taken at that time, but was unable to find anything.
Prof. Newcomb. The Chronograph was not in use then, I believe?
Rear Admiral Almy. No sir; it was not.
Rear Admiral Rodgers. How did you arrange the transit observation? Did you touch the wire when the star passed and Prof. Walker touch the telegraph?
Rear Admiral Almy. Yes sir. And I think the reason that there is no record of these observations is, that at that time there was no publication touching upon this subject.
Prof. Newcomb. The Admiral has spoken in his paper of some means that Columbus had for ascertaining the difference of longitude by the stars. I do not know whether the incident is authoritative, but it is said that Columbus on one occasion, when troubled by the natives, told them that if they did not behave themselves better the moon would disappear, and on the night following there was an eclipse of the moon. Now Columbus must have had some means for ascertaining this fact, or else it was quite an opportune occurrence.
Rear Admiral Rodgers. He certainly had some table for ascertaining that fact.
Prof. Newcomb. I suppose there was an Almanac at that time, supposing this incident to be an established fact.
Not quite connected with the subject of the paper read before us to-night, but remotely connected with it, is a circumstance that will, perhaps, interest every one here to-night. I understand to-day that Prof. Stinger, Director of the Russian Observatory has concluded to come over here this summer to examine the great telescope at the Observatory, the object being to have one manufactured that shall surpass it. The Russian Government has already voted an appropriation of two hundred and fifty thousand roubles for the purchase of a telescope, and negotiations are now being carried on with different makers for its construction. They have not yet concluded who shall do the work, but their idea is to have one party do a portion of the work and another do the other part. The polishing of the glass, which is the most difficult part of all, is not yet definitely settled, but they are inclined to have it done in Munich; yet before final arrangements are made, the Professor, after coming to Washington, will go from here to Cambridge and see what sort of a bargain he can make with Clark and Sons.
Prof. Harkness. It is exceedingly gratifying to see gentlemen, occupying such high positions in the Navy, looking back with pleasure to the period before the war, when they were connected with the Naval Observatory. During the War, Naval officers were engaged with other things, and in order to carry on the work of the Naval Observatory, many civilians had to be employed. There was plenty of money for such purposes then, but now economy is the order of the day, and once more naval officers take their places at the Observatory. Some of the gentlemen say they like the work; that it is interesting and attractive to them; while others assert that there is a certain routine to learn, and after that is known, and the methods of observing are acquired, the same operations are repeated day after day. The whole work of the world is done just in that way, and yet I do not see any other mode of accomplishing it. An officer, navigating a vessel every day over the same course, gets only a certain amount of knowledge; and yet there was a time in the life of the most eminent man of the age, when he worked just in that manner, going over the same ground day after day. The men who spend months upon algebraical and arithmetical operations, and think they are learning nothing, find subsequently, when they are surveying or navigating a ship, and strike upon problems outside the ordinary routine, that they have gained a vast amount of information which they could not have acquired if they had not gone over elementary principles so often. They discover that when they encounter difficulties under different circumstances, without being in a position to have access to books, this knowledge is of the utmost value. In that way the Naval Observatory may confer great benefits upon the Navy, and the Naval officers stationed there will obtain instruction that cannot fail to advance them in their own profession.
In the present age fighting is becoming a science. What chance would a navy, fighting in the old fashioned way, stand with one availing itself of all the appliances of modern science? Take one of Nelson's ships, for instance, commanded by Nelson's officers, and put her into a fight with our modern vessels, and the result could not be doubtful,—the old fashioned ship of the line would surely go to the bottom. Scientific instruction is of the utmost importance, and I repeat, that I am greatly gratified to see officers, old in the Navy, recalling, with pleasure, the incidents of their youthful service in the Naval Observatory, and I hope that we younger officers will also look back in later years in the same manner.
Lieut. Longnecker. I would ask Admiral Almy if there was ever a history written of the Observatory from its original foundation up to recent years? I have looked around for such a history, but have been unable to find it.
Rear Admiral Almy. I am not aware that there is such a book in existence. I think it would make a very interesting paper and this discussion may have a tendency to bring about such a matter.
Rear Admiral Rodgers. I think we have one at the Observatory. It is put in the form of an appendix in one of the volumes containing observations tor the year 1875.
Lieut. Longnecker. But what I refer to is a history of the Observatory, the founders, appropriations and how gotten through and by whom, details of the progress of the Institution. I have seen the pamphlet referred to by the Admiral, issued as an appendix of the volume of 1875 containing observations made in that year, but when I say a history I mean the details in connection with the institution from its foundation, how it originated, etc.
Rear Admiral Almy. I think it originated about the time Capt. Gillis was in charge himself. It occurs to me that there is a Congressional volume containing the first report. After Lieut. Gillis had completed his work of erecting the Observatory, mounting the Instruments &c., &c., he made a report, which was a very interesting one. It contained a history of the appropriations made from time to time, his visit to Europe, the selecting of instruments, how they were constructed, what they cost, how mounted and in fact everything connected with that part of the institution. He made the report to the Secretary of the Navy and a call was then made on Congress for it. Accordingly a certain number of copies were ordered to be published and I suppose there are copies on file in Congress now.
Lieut. Longnecker. I think it would be a good idea to buy a copy of that kind and place it with the other books we now have in our possession for the use of the Institute. It certainly should be in our collection.
Rear Admiral Almy. I think I have this volume; I know I did have it. I now recall a very interesting event connected with the mounting of the instruments and the purchasing thereof. Lieut. Gillis deserved a great deal of credit for everything connected with his work. I know myself he had to work very hard to get the appropriation through. The instruments he purchased at the time were excellent ones in those days and we made great progress with them in our labors, lie mounted them all successfully, I think, except the Nautical circle. I know that he used sulphur in the cement and it had the effect of blacking everything and consequently the instrument could not be kept clear or clean. But finally another cement was used and it was mounted perfectly. After that it worked well. I just mention this as one of the little incidents connected with this matter.
On motion of Lieut. Longnecker, the Chairman tendered the thanks of the Institute to Rear Admiral Rodgers, for his interesting paper.