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the
region. A new 179-foot landing cra^ built by Lantana Boatyard (Florida) & came the small navy’s largest ship wh it was commissioned in January l"8 ’ Panama: Once again, Panama—S1
Central America and the Caribbean
During 1987, the United States focused so much attention on Central America and the Caribbean that one might believe that the South American continent is but an uninhabited tail. To be sure, the region is a mess—with San- dinistas controlling Nicaragua and most other governments on the isthmus under attack from guerrilla movements. In the past seven years, however, government successes against guerrillas have outweighed failures. El Salvador has turned the corner: both the guerrillas and extreme-right death squads are on the defensive. The guerrillas in Guatemala have suffered severe setbacks. Grenada was saved from becoming yet another communist enclave. The bad news is that the struggle for the region is not a majority- takes-all contest. The region is the United States’s backyard; an inability to bring about changes in Nicaragua will be perceived as a major weakness.
Perhaps the world’s exasperation with Central America paved the way for Costa Rican President Oscar Arias to receive the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize for his regional peace plan. Basically, the p'an calls for negotiations with guerrilla groups, freedom of the press, and elections. Most of the plan’s “t”s are uncrossed and “i”s are undotted. Everyone has endorsed it in theory, including Ntca' ragua, the Contras, Cuba, and the Unite States, but many have reservations.
Nicaragua: The Sandinistas probabl) had the best year of all concerned. 1° February 1987, they extended the five' year-old state of emergency without much protest from human rights group5’ thus voiding constitutional rights. The Sandinistas received a record 25,000 ton5 of military hardware from the communis bloc. Perhaps sweetest of all, they alC finding their enemies in a state of disar ray. The Iran-Contra hearings expo56 the deep divisions among the Contras an their supporters as well as their milita|T weaknesses. It is difficult to keep an ac curate Sandinista-Contra score. For e* ample, during the first half of the year tv! Contras claimed to have downed eign helicopters, but independent sources can confirm only two. There is no doubt tha the fate of the Contras depends on LI. support.
Honduras: Honduras remains the cen ter of U. S. strength on the isthmus- Since 1983, Honduras and the Unite States have held 16 joint exercises. in volving more than 20,000 troops. Opera tion Solid Shield 87 was a combing amphibious and airborne assault. Late 1987, Honduras acquired ten F-5E an two F-5F fighters from the United State5 and now has the dominant air force in
tak-
to the
, Ps in Africa, most in Angola. Reports Cubans in Afghanistan near the Kabul /Port were probably erroneous. Despite rtcan commitments, Fidel Castro the^ • greater significance to the fate of e Nicaraguan regime, which will con- n^Ue to receive his full support. But all is in *n Para<f*se- Two ranking officers in Cuban armed forces defected dur- U ® ^ year—one, a major with an intelligence background; the other, an air r~e brigadier general. q. C Vincent: Swiftships of Morgan tr1 ,-V' Louisiana, delivered a 120-foot pa- °'b°at in June 1987.
'exico: Mexico is one of the most , onomically depressed nations in the tio^Lphere. In 1988, a presidential elec- ren be held; elections traditionally 4 1 ln economic malaise. Twenty-one
tecjeca'c*ass patrol boats are being refit- ARx"1 ^*ex'co’ with the assistance of strJ^TM Ltd. of Great Britain. Con- 1 ,.5tlon continues on four Aquila-class, Pic ^ ton corvettes laid down in Tam, 0 and Salina Cruz in 1986. The num- SvJS °f elderly ex-U. S. Navy fleet mine- ePers employed by Mexico as patrol
Operation Kindle Liberty in the Gulf of Chiriqui. The U. S. Navy conducted c°astal and riverine patrols and interdichon. There were major demonstrations Against the Panamanian government in Urie- Since then, Panama-U. S. relations have deteriorated.
The long-term fate of the Panama anal, from which the United States is to Withdraw in 1999, is of increasing con- Cem. Although 95% of the world’s ship- P‘ng can still pass through the canal, it now takes 24 hours on average to make ne passage, owing to the volume of the raffic an(j increase(] size 0f the ships. arger ships must pass one at time r°ugh the Culebra Cut, the narrowest Passage. Before World War II, the transit c°nld be made in ten hours. Proposed °lutions for modernizing the canal are expensive and present major technological and ecological problems. The Canal is eginning to lose its competitive edge to !'UPertankers rounding Cape Horn and and routes crossing the United States. El Salvador: Lantana Boatyard of °nda completed six 36-foot patrol craft J°r El Salvador in 1987. Late in 1987, *jrcougar (North Miami) received an Cjner for five 40-foot monohull and five -foot catamaran patrol craft. The °nohulls are for coastal work and the amarans for riverine work; one cata- aran is to be configured as an ambu- nee craft. Twenty more monohulls and n catamarans (five as ambulance craft) ay be ordered later.
Cuba: Cuba still has thousands of troo,
Of
ships are beginning to decline.
Haiti: In fall 1987, both conservative and liberal U. S. politicans called for intervention into the affairs of the ravaged island. Because the political instability is merely a symptom of the worst poverty in the hemisphere, such action without a massive financial commitment would solve nothing. Haiti’s small coast guard continues its decline in material readiness, owing to the unrest and a lack of funds for maintenance and operations.
South America
Dangerous guerrilla movements threaten South American stability, particularly in Colombia and Peru, but the international debt situation is a greater threat to the region and its maritime development. In 1987, Brazil unilaterally suspended debt payments. Major naval acquisitions by Latin American navies are not expected in the near future, with the possible exceptions of Brazil and Chile.
Despite the economic situation, there is a growing possibility that nuclear- powered attack submarines (SSNs) will enter service in a few South American navies by the first or second decade of the 21st century. Argentina and Brazil have plans for nuclear boats, and are likely to cooperate in the development of a compact naval reactor and in the design and construction of a small SSN. Both countries dominate the nuclear fuel cycle, and are developing the industrial capability to build submarines. Other South American navies might not be able to afford a nuclear boat, but alternative air-independent propulsion systems, such as fuel cells, the closed-cycle diesel, the Stirling engine, the Brayton engine, and hybrid nuclear/diesel-electric propulsion, offer less expensive options to acquire more- capable submarines.
Replacing the two South American carriers, the Argentine 25 de Mayo and Brazilian Minas Gerais, is a real challenge to the imagination of naval planners and budgeteers. Both carriers are old and small, but no affordable replacements exist today. If a binational SSN project makes progress, it could lay the groundwork for a jointly developed, indigenous carrier.
Argentina: Three issues have dominated Argentine affairs since the 1982 South Atlantic conflict: the relationship between the military and the civilian government, the economy, and the unresolved Malvinas (Falklands) issue—all of which profoundly influenced the navy in 1987.
Argentina has been a democracy since 1983, during which time the military has supported the elected government. This support has been strained by the trials of former military leaders for human rights crimes allegedly committed during the 1976-80 Urban War against terrorists. When President Raul Alfonsin was elected, he promised trials for these senior military leaders. He made good his promise. In December 1985, nine former military junta members were convicted. General Jorge Videla and Admiral Eduardo Massera received life sentences;
Costa Rican President Oscar Arias received the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize.
others received 4.5-17 years..
President Alfonsin was anxious to end this divisive issue. He signed the Punto Final (final point), which established a 60-day limit for on-going prosecutions. Accordingly, the trials were scheduled to end on 22 February 1987, after more than four years. However, judges interpreted the date as the last that charges could be made, and prosecutors rushed 300 more indictments through—many against midlevel officers. Admiral Arosa, commander in chief of the navy, articulated the navy’s position when he stated that the constitution must be respected, but also said that the navy would not abandon those who carried out their duty during the war against subversives.
Tensions increased between the government and some members of the military. In April 1987, one of the newly accused officers, an army major, led about 80 mid-level officers in taking over the 14th Infantry Regiment barracks at Cordoba. Condemned by the country, including the military leadership, the mu-
sale
Or-
a range of missiles that should be for by the 1990s. A new aerospace firm.
The Jacequay, second of Brazil’s planned class of 12-16 Inahuma-c\ass corvettes, was launched in June. The lead ship is to be delivered this year.
tiny collapsed. Yet within 48 hours an army lieutenant colonel seized the infantry school at Campo de Mayo, close to Buenos Aires, and demanded an end to the trials. Hundreds of thousands of people gathered outside the presidential palace on that Easter weekend in support of the President. Alfonsin proclaimed, “I call on all of you to wait for me here.” Within three hours, the President reappeared, having talked with the rebels and convinced them to surrender.
On 8 June, in an attempt to end the trials, the President signed the “due obedience law,” which absolved those who had acted under orders but not the upper commands who gave the orders. About 50 officers still face trials.
Rumors persist of the probable sale of Argentina’s six MEKO-140 corvettes, being constructed in Ensenada. They are unlikely to be sold unless it would improve the navy’s financial position and stimulate the shipbuilding industry. Land and other assets belonging to the armed forces are being sold to raise funds.
President Alfonsin has proposed moving the federal capital from Buenos Aires to the Viedma-Carmen de Patagones area along the coast of Patagonia in southern Argentina. Like many Latin American nations, Argentina has one megalopolis, its capital. About nine million people live in greater Buenos Aires, dominating the economy of this nation of 30 million people. Such a move would make the capital harder to defend, but would strengthen the national hold over Patagonia and encourage its development. Argentina lost the Malvinas (Falk- lands) in 1832 primarily because the islands were thinly populated, badly defended, and too far away from the capital to resist seizure by a larger European power. Of the three military services, only the navy favors the coastal location for a new capital. The Argentine Navy may relocate its submarine base from Mar del Plata to Puerto Madryn as part of the President’s plan to stimulate Patagonian development.
In 1987, the British clearly indicated that they plan to stay indefinitely in the Malvinas (Falklands). The Mount Pleasant Air Base, capable of handling wide- body transports, was completed for 300 million pounds sterling. Wideawake Airfield on Ascension Island was upgraded for 50 million pounds. British sources project that the defense of the islands will stabilize at 100 million pounds per year. The British declared a 240-kilometer protection zone around the islands, and the local government established a de facto coast guard with two large leased trawlers, a former Argentine oilfield supply tug captured in 1982, and a Domier 228 for maritime air patrol. A British Defence Ministry statement to the Parliamentary Defence Committee declared that a formal Argentine declaration of the cessation of hostilities would not justify removing the zone.
The Argentine Navy held a combined exercise with two Italian frigates in July along Argentina’s southern coast. Argentine units participating were the MEKO- 360 destroyer Almirante Brown, the MEKO-140 corvette Rosales, the TR1700 submarine San Juan, and some Super Etendard aircraft. The navy was authorized to conduct a new recruiting program, signing 3,000 volunteers to three-year contracts. Most naval conscripts now serve in the marine corps and support units; few serve in combatants. Most of these volunteers would probably be assigned to the marine corps.
Naval acquisitions in 1987 include the third MEKO-140 corvette, the Spiro, commissioned in December. While the submarine building program is making little progress—three of four projected TR-1700 boats are in different stages of construction, the corvette program appears to have stabilized at one ship Per year. Four Sea King helicopters were purchased from Agusta Group for $7 million. These were constructed in Italy under U. S. license and are destined pr>" marily for service on board the navy s two Antarctic support ships. Argentina has started to take delivery of EMB-31* Tucano trainer aircraft from Embraer o Brazil.
Brazil: A contradiction even to the Brazilians, Brazil has the largest foreign debt in the Third World ($111 billion): two thirds of its people make less than $2,200 annually; and more families ha'e television than have running water. 0° the other hand, Brazil’s sales of military hardware and aircraft abroad totaled $billion in 1986; Brazil is one of three na tions (with Japan and the United States that supplies more than half of its °"n market for computers; and Brazil has tn most profitable television network ou side the United States. Esperidiao Faisa > a Brazilian social scientist, said: “We are two countries—a developed country 0 50 million inside an undeveloped country of 90 million.”
Brazil’s capacity to produce and exp°r military hardware has reached the P°'n where nations under comprehensive arms embargoes in the Middle East (or else where) must give serious consideration *° Brazilian interests. In the last few dec ades, Brazil has exported tens of thou sands of armored cars to the Middle Eas^ A Brazilian main battle tank, the Al-Fa (“leopard”), an advanced version oft Engesa EE-T1 Osorio, is nearing produc tion. The 43-ton vehicle mounts a Frenc^ 120-mm. gun and was successfully teste against the U. S. M-l Abrams, 1 L French AMX-40, and the British Cha
lenger in Saudi Arabia July-Septembe
1987. The total value of the Saudi con tract is about $3 billion. The Brazil* Al-Fahd likely will be more popular the Third World marketplace than * e more expensive, complex U. S. and E ropean models. Brazil is also develop1*1®
bita Sistemas Aerospaciais (OAS), 'v established in February 1987. .
The Brazilian Navy is trying to aC4u* four Inhauma-class corvettes (12-16 a projected), four Tupi (IKL 209/140 ' class submarines, and four Fairey Marl Tracker-class patrol boats (16 planne All these ships except the Tupis are be* built in Brazil. The second Inhauma u*1' the Jacequay, was launched on 8 J 1987 and is scheduled to be complete 1989. The Inhauma is scheduled for livery in 1988.
Brazil also hopes to acquire four sj-tt>nd-hand destroyer- or frigate-sized v*'Ps> particularly U. S. Charles F.
. dams (DDG-2)-class destroyers, includ- lng their Standard surface-to-air missile ‘‘^anient. Reportedly, the United States uered older types such as Forrest Sher- ^on (DD-931)-class destroyers. A num- er of smaller types mentioned include: . ® S. Knox (FF-1052) class, the Brit- 'sh Type-21, and the French Comman- ant Riviere class. France has offered Seven of the latter for $40 million each.
In the future, the Brazilian Navy will eeking a 5,000-deadweight-ton un-
be
derw,
been actor
forking on a pressurized-water refine Sma" enou8h t0 ^ tnto a subma- • A Brazilian nuclear boat could be Rational by 2010.
s ,. ,e navy, which Hies only helicopters, into *tS general-purpose squadron (HU-1) * two units after receiving three of six 11 r?sPat'ale AS-332F Super Puma and gjv^~355F Ecureuil-II helicopters.This (Qn®s 'he navy five squadrons: two ASW
borne
fen andtWo general-purpose. Brazil has van0rted'y ch°sen the Westland Ad- Cor^d Navy Lynx helicopter for the new
ntain’s Ferranti Computer Systems bn! awar(ted a 1.9 million pounds sterna® c°ntract for a sonar simulator, per- onn8 training for ten students at a time any sonar in use in the Brazilian Navy. bui,^l’s merchant marine and ship- bCj ln§ continue to expand. Iron ore 8 a major export, Brazil plans to con-
,Vay replenishment ship and a polar op- ^at’°ns ship. The project to convert the as,oo Motta into a logistics-support , 'P for underway replenishment has en abandoned, and the ship has been | on the sales list. The navy is to ac- jUlre '2 400-ton patrol boats and 6-8 ’ J-*'ton offshore patrol vessels for °ast guard duties.
the year 2000, the navy will need to Place its carrier, the Minas Gerais. Two Phons are being studied: a 15,000-ton ^-control ship and a 40,000-ton light ,. ack carrier. However, no carrier is b‘oe|y to be built until the future of ship- ard fixed-wing aviation (now under the . ntrol of the Brazilian Air Force) is clar- ed- In addition, design and preliminary . ** continues on an indigenous subma- , e- Two conventional designs are being ^eloped with the German firm IKL. be hlAC-1 is to be the basis for four j^Pfts to be operational by the year 2000; sv ^ ^ *s t0 serve as a test platform for C| erns to be used in an indigenous nu- ^ear attack boat. The Institute of Nuclear esearch at Sao Paulo University has struct two or three 350,000-deadweight- ton super ore carriers by 1990 to get the ore to its primary customer, Japan. A Brazilian shipyard won the international bid for the construction of 50 fishing vessels for Nicaragua, a $7 million contract from the Inter-American Development Bank. A major order for containerships to be built in Brazil was announced in November 1987.
Chile: A notable 1987 naval acquisition was a fourth County-class destroyer from Britain, the Blanco Encalada (ex- HMS Fife), for about $14 million. According to British sources, the four Exocet missiles remained with the ship but the Seaslug missile launcher had already been removed. The new 4,500-ton transport Aquiles was completed by the ASMAR yard at Talcahuano in December 1987. Designed by a Canadian firm, the Aquiles is primarily a transport, but can rapidly convert to a hospital ship. It has accommodations for 250 troops. A combat training center opened at the Chilean Naval War College in 1987, permitting real-time integration of air, surface, and sub-surface forces for gaming exercises. Construction began on a new naval air base in Concon, Torquemada.
While conducting exercises in southern waters, the torpedo boat Tequalda sank a frigate hulk, formerly the Covadonga, with a torpedo. During other exercises in this region, the submarines O'Brien and Hyatt sustained slight damage when they collided during surface maneuvers.
In 1989, Chile will have its first presidential election since the overthrow of
Salvador Allende in 1973. The most loyal supporters of General Augusto Pinochet, who has ruled the country since that time, have been military personnel. The army has been the predominant service since the 1930s, but General Pinochet will need the support of all services to present a united front. Thus, each service likely will acquire major hardware in 1988— 1989.
Colombia: Fighting continues between the M-19 guerrilla movement and the government, the later having modest success. Some raids were conducted against drug traffickers by Colombian troops in 1987. The United States plans to sell six Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters to Colombia for $35 million to help combat the drug dealers. There have been reports that the air force will buy 13 Kfir fighters from Israel Aircraft Industries for $100 million, but no new naval programs were announced in 1987.
Ecuador: A number of riverine patrol craft are under construction for the Ecuadorian Navy. Halter Marine of New Orleans completed two 44-footers, and will supply four more for assembly in Ecuador.
Peru: Peru is engaged in one of the least-understood guerrilla wars, against the Maoist Sendero Luminoso (“Shining Path”). The guerrillas launched their first
Brazil reportedly has chosen the Westland Advanced Navy Lynx for its new Inahiima-c\ass corvettes. Nine Lynx Mk-21s (above) operate from Brazil’s six Niteroi-ciass frigates.
■__
___ Coast
the Venezuela11
Coast Guard was upgraded to
the
guard service. Venezuela is negotiath1-
built in Spain and the fourth in ^ene
zuela. Naval aviation incorporated °n Mitsubishi MU-2 transport.
, An*1'
publications on Latin American topics. llls^-7.
Chile received its fourth British County-class destroyer (ex-HMS Fife)—now named the Blanco Encalada—and retained the ship’s four Exocet missile launchers.
attack seven years ago. Since then, 10,000-15,000 people have been killed. The principal guerrilla stronghold lies deep in the Andes, and the Maoists are now operating in 19 of 25 Peruvian departments. The Sendero is elusive; it makes no attempt to hold territory. Typically, it seizes a village, murders the mayor and others of influence in front of the villagers, and then disappears. The Sendero blacked out Lima’s power several times in 1987. Apparently, the group is making no attempt to seek support among the more traditional Peruvian Marxists, but rather is eliminating less extreme leftist alternatives.
Despite these attacks and inheriting deep-seated economic problems, President Alan Garcia Perez’s new government has had some remarkable successes. Inflation has been cut; an 8.5% growth rate has been sustained; and foreign debt payments were reduced unilaterally. The government’s nationalization of all Peruvian banks was strongly opposed on the ground that it gives the state dictatorial powers over the economy. Peru improved its economy by means of austerity, which included military cuts.
Initially, the refit of the cruiser Al- mirante Grau (ex-de Ruyter) was included among these cuts. The cruiser had gone to Holland for a major refit before President Garcia took office. The Dutch yard continued to work on the ship, and the yard and the Peruvian Government eventually came to terms. A Peruvian crew arrived in Holland in late 1987; the cruiser is expected back in Peru by early 1989. When the Almirante Grau left for Holland, her name was transferred to her sister, the Aquirre (cx-de Zeven Provincial). Grau, Peru’s naval hero, commanded the fleet during the War of the Pacific (1879-81) against Chile, until he was killed. The ex-Almirante Grau (ex- de Ruyter), now known as PM-01, will probably regain her original Peruvian name. Any work not completed in Holland will probably be done at the state- owned SIMA yard in Callao, owing to financial limitations.
Completion of the last of four Lupo- class frigates, the Mariategui, was delayed into 1988 at the SIMA yard in Callao. Two of the class were constructed in Italy, and one other was built in Peru.
The former ministerial positions of War, Aviation, and Navy have been combined into the Minister of Defense. This did not have the full support of the armed services.
President Garcia has described the Sendero Luminoso as “the foremost obstacle to our democracy” and the “greatest threat to the state.” Therefore, military acquisitions during the next few years will be those most useful in a guerrilla war; no major naval acquisitions are anticipated.
Venezuela: Among the most successful democracies in the Western Hemisphere, Venezuela’s prime concerns are guerrilla wars in Central America and Colombia, and regional drug trafficking. As a result, military activities in 1987— tempered by economic reality— responded to those challenges.
During 1987, the Venezuelan armed forces created Unified Command Number 1 to coordinate operations. Along the Colombian border, two unified commands were activated to plan, organize, and execute operations against drug traffickers, guerrillas, and bandits. The army created a new cavalry mechanized brigade, commando units, and electronic warfare units for operations in the frontier area. The navy increased its control over the Gulf of Venezuela with a new coast guard station at Maracaibo. The southern riverine frontier was reinforced with a naval post in the Meta River. At the frontier air base in Santo Domingo, the air force created a new special operations squadron of five Tucano light aircraft and reinforced the Maracaibo base with a squadron of F-5s.
In June 1987, 13 National Guard commandoes were massacred while destroying a cocoa plantation in a mountainous region four kilometers from the Colombian border. A second border incident almost led to war between Colombia and Venezuela. On 9 August, the Colombian corvette Caldas, operating in waters claimed by both nations but traditionally controlled by Venezuela, was intercepted by the Venezuelan missile patrol boat Li- bertad. During the next week, both nations called in considerable reinforcements, including fighter aircraft and submarines. On the 16th, Venezuela called for a full mobilization and apparently was prepared to take military action the following day. On the 17th, the Caldas withdrew under orders from President Virgilio Barco, after petitions for peace from the President of Argentina and the Secretary General of the Organization of American States.
The navy began two major programs during 1987, the first to lessen the navy s dependence on foreign technology. In the program’s first success, scientists at the Central University of Venezuela developed a filtering system for the navy’s two Type-209 submarines from indigenous materials, thus eliminating the need to purchase the filters from Germany. The second program is fleet decentralization- Puerto Cabello will remain the princip3 base. Secondary bases are projected f°r Guanta and another eastern location. The naval base Mariscal Falcon on the Paraguana Peninsula will expand.
A number of large exercises involving the navy were conducted during 19° ’ including the amphibious exercise Salamandra 1-87 in the state of Falcon- Participants included: four modern tan landing ships built in South Korea 111 1982-1984, Urutu amphibious vehicle^ recently acquired from Brazil, and ' marines. Operation Libertador, invo ing more than 50,000 men from Vene zuela’s four armed services, took place April, primarily to improve service coop eration. A new coast guard static opened at Maracaibo. The Venezuela
Guard Command of
Navy, and now has the same status as
fleet, marines, naval aviation riverine force commands. j
Only smallcraft were commission6 during the year. An undetermined nun1^ ber of Polaris-class ultra-fast patrol b°‘“ manufactured in Venezuela entered coa- for four Cormoran 460-ton fast Pa boats from Spain’s Bazan; three will
In July 1987, the British destr0/5 Glasgow and replenishment oiler Old ^ visited Venezuela for the celebration ^ Venezuelan Navy Day, but chose toa chor far from the Naval Academy, w j, activities commemorating the 1982 j° Atlantic War took place. Venezuela one of Argentina’s staunchest supp° during the 1982 South Atlantic Coni 1
Dr. Scheina has traveled extensively in Latin ' n tea, and has written for many Latin and Eur book, Larin America: A Naval History iSic was published in late 1987.