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by an overcompensation of the body t0 regain lost Vitamin D by dietary and ultraviolet means.
Vitamin D is also required for calcium absorption in the intestine.
As a result of recent studies, the characteristic decreasing levels of Vitamin D explain a 50% decrease !n Ur'ne calcium excretion, as seen 'n patrols and several weeks into the Post-patrol or recovery period. The 'll effects from retained calcium include calcifications of the kidneys— kidney stones.
The overall health of nuclear submariners is not affected by the submarine environment, but studies 1'ke these have identified specific groups at risk—such as older males, l°r whom some kind of supplementation is needed. A vitamin supplement for submariners should be Provided, both for health and for enhancement of performance in environments that lack sunlight.
Another problem faced by nuclear submariners is a significant drop in activity levels while underway. Decreased activity in submariners not only reduces overall Productivity but also results in defective carbohydrate metabolism. In one study, insulin and glucose values were measured in 58 submariners with five or more Patrols, and also 58 non-submariners. A relationship between serum glucose and insulin for classifying defects in carbohydrate metabolism is indicated, because 55% of the submariners exhibited some type of defect.
Exercise appears to play an important role in the maintenance °f normal carbohydrate metabolism in these subjects. Non-submariners reported engaging in significantly more exercise than submariners. An inverse relationship was observed between amount of exercise and the severity of carbohydrate metabolic defects in the subjects. There was no significant difference be- tvveen submariners and non-submariners with regard to glycosylated hemoglobin or fasting glucose. However, notably higher serum glucose levels occurred one and two hours following the glucose load in the submariners. The submariners also exhib- lted a profound delay in the return of insulin levels at two hours after the glucose load.
Studies report a significant drop in activity by submariners while under way. Strict exercise regimens and vitamin supplements are imperative for crew productivity.
The study indicated that when the number of subjects with normal carbohydrate metabolism and the total number of those with carbohydrate defects are compared, 55% of the submariners exhibited defects, in contrast to 45% of the controls. The conclusions are that submariners possess a shift toward glucose intolerance, resulting from increased peripheral insulin resistance and, therefore, a tendency toward the development of defective carbohydrate metabolism. This increase in insulin resistance results more from decreased exercise among submariners than from increased carbohydrate intolerance associated with obesity, since the submariners were found to be no fatter than the controls.
Another study of submariners quantified an observed drop in physical conditioning. The activity levels of 44 submariners were monitored before and during a fleet ballistic missile submarine patrol. These levels were determined by use of a pedometer worn on the hip. Readings were obtained daily and recorded as miles walked. This reduction of more than 50% in activity is responsible for the physical deconditioning observed during the course of a 40 to 70- day submergence period.
Increased physical fitness will produce a more vigilant and productive worker. Exercise regimens on board submarines will reduce weight fluctuations and promote the reduction of the development of defective patterns of carbohydrate metabolism in submarine personnel. A combined vitamin supplement and exercise regimen would result in more healthy and fit submariners and, consequently, a more productive and efficient work force.
Ensign Hardee graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in May. He will report to Nuclear Power School, Orlando, Florida, in July.
Does the F/A-18 Need WSOs?
Ensign Kurt Kochendarfer, Ll.S. Navy
Since the conclusion of the Cold War and the subsequent downsizing of the U.S. armed forces, the Navy has consol- ■dated forces and employed single platforms for multiple roles. This has especially been apparent in the aviation community, where limited funding has prevented the acquisition of new aircraft. As older platforms such as the A-7 and A-6 are phased out. their roles must be filled by the newer F/A-18s, which are designed to be employed in both fighter and attack roles. With the purchase of 1,000 F/A-18E/Fs, the navy aviation community will use this platform for many years into the future.
Estimated to see first flight in fiscal year 1996 and operational employment by the year 2000, the F/A-18E/F will carry the Hughes APG-73 radar. According to an article in the Asian Defence Journal, the APG-73 “will enable the fighter to act as an airborne radar picket and shoot down aircraft at stand off distances” and will “dramatically improve the pilot’s situational
Capstone Essays
Marine Corps two-seat F/A-18Ds have been a successful platform for years. Should the Navy learn by example and add a second seat for a weapons and sensors officer?
awareness through its unique non-cooperative target recognition (NCTR) more, which incorporates sensor fusion technologies to identify hostile airborne targets up to 300 kilometers away.”1 In addition, “monopulse radar designs such as the APG- 73 can be clearly shown to provide superior performance compared to other radar implementations such as the sequential lob- ing used by the APG-68” but this “monopulse design requires additional processing.”2 Other avionics upgrades will include the high-capacity mission computer and increased electronic- countermeasures capabilities. Mechanical improvements will increase fuel capacity, wing area, and weapons capabilities—all of which will combine to send a flood of information into the cockpit. Although the F/A-18E/F cockpit has been ergonomically redesigned, the addition of a weapons and sensors officer (WSO) would greatly reduce the pilot workload during multirole missions.
An article in U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings reviewed the F/A-18’s performance during the Gulf War and described the high flow rate of information during a mission and the need for pilot alertness:
► “Most ordnance deliveries were made at supersonic speeds, as was egress from the target area.”
y “Two Hornet squadrons launched seven Walleye II and eight Walleye I television-guided glide bombs.”
► “Night ingress was similar [to day], but delivery tactics differed primarily because the forward-looking infrared radar (FLIR) required more time in the run. . .
► “Hornet pilots inherently train for two missions on the same sortie: air-to-air and something else.”3
A Hornet pilot’s attention is focused on much more than just the task of flying his aircraft, but a WSO would change that. A second seat in the Hornet platform would add a second set of eyes as well as someone to double-check the pilot during flight. Most important, however, the WSO would reduce the pilot’s workload and enable him to return his focus to the aircraft rather than weapons delivery. This is especially important in light of the Hornet’s multi-mission capabilities for which the aircraft is required to deliver various air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons in short spans of time.
Why not stay with single seaters? Because the capabilities of the new technology cannot be exploited completely by one person, for starters. In addition, missions are becoming more demanding. Fortunately, the two-seat F/A-18F provides a readymade solution; all the Navy has to do is buy some.
The service plans to employ these aircraft well into the 21st century. The F/A- 18E/F have been designed for expansion and upgrade as technology progresses. Where the pilot may be able to handle the workload of a current model C/E, he may not be able to do so comfortably in ten or 20 years. The Marine Corps has been flying all-weather two-seat F/A-18Ds for years; they proved quite successful during Operation Desert Storm and have since been operating out of Aviano, Italy, in support of operations over Bosnia. Do the Marines know something the Navy doesn’t?4 A WSO seat designed into the cockpit today would save expensive refitting in the future.
One argument against the use of a WSO in the Hornet is the cost required to train and outfit each aircraft with two crew members. An article in Proceedings addressed this issue. “Cost savings from a single-seat cockpit [would mean] fewer air crew to train and pay.”5 The expense of providing pay and training for 2,000 crew members would consume a considerable portion of the Navy’s budget. Many have argued that this is an unnecessary expense because current single-seat Hornets are in operation and the pilot workload during a mission is not great enough to warrant the cost of training a WSO.
Should all models of the F/A-18 platform be outfitted with a WSO? In my opinion, they should. Today, the F/A-18 pilQt is capable of handling combat missions without the use of a WSO; the same may not be true tomorrow. The Navy will procure F/A-18E/Fs through 2015. The A-6 is currently being phased out and replaced by the E/F. In its service life, this aircraft will see the phaseout of—and ultimately replace—the aging F-14 Tomcat as the Navy’s primary air interceptor. It is interesting to note that each of the platforms that the F/A-18E/F will replace is outfitted with a second crew member. If the Tomcat and the Intruder, with their simplistic 1960s and 1970s technology, are incapable of accomplishing their missions without the use of a second crew member, how can the F/A-18, with its vast array of sensors and electronics, accomplish the missions of both these aircraft with a single operator?
Crew members of the A-6, and eventually the F-14, could retrain for a fraction of the cost to train new pilot NFOs. It is not enough to examine the need for WSOs based on the Hornet’s missions and capabilities at this time; the Navy must consider what the needs will be in 25 years. The addition of a weapons and sensors officer to the F/A-18 platform would be a worthwhile long-term expenditure.
'“F/A-1 8C/D Hornet: RMAF’s Other Alternative?” Asian Defence Journal, April 1993.
’Ibid.
’“Desert Storm,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, September 1991, p. 87.
"See “Marine Air: There When Needed,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, November 1991, pp. 63-70.
’“All Strike Fighters for the Air Wing,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, February 1993.
Ensign Kochendarfer graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in May. Following temporary additional duty in Russia for the Cox Fund, he will report to NAS Pensacola, Florida, for flight training.