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quire a nice anticipation : drtt vessel:, were settl.ng down. It
* secured to the towing pad and the other ? attached to the 5-inch nylon. Turns were <en on the capstan to ensure positive con- {While paying out the towing cable.
*he Guadalcanal was first sighted at 0930 #h the wind from 060 degrees at 15 knots ^ State One seas, the LPH was lying on a *ding of 015 degrees and drifting slowly '"nwind. The first tug was not due on t e -ne until late afternoon. The Wright r - lested permission to make a practice pass o ^re that all would be ready m the eve c had to pick up the tow because of weathe . Mission was granted, and preparation :fe rechecked on both ships.
The author was faced with a decision on ’I type of approach. Because both vessels -re high freeboard, carrier-configured ships
something less than 20,000 tons displace- <nt, it was estimated that they would sail Unwind at about the same speed- A Mallei approach could not be risked,
lest the upwind ship, in putting off he r to the other, drift down on her A backi g broach would be awkward, and would re
,ta S‘r«a"“oS« a“d some nranen
island°conning stadon on the starboard side, judgment of distance to port is
determinedthat.cou«eof“
070 degrees would be be the latter
degreedSthheaVn?^Ut^ drift slowly sideways mward the Guadalcanal's bow. With the prac- Te completed, the Wright lay to, awaiting the
tUSThearfirsftug announced at 1400 that she tl not arrive until nightfall, and the
^Guadalcanal's commanding the Wnght take his ship in tow. The « ^
StS^sdsw.meas^fully
for 20 minutes using ^ de her pass
^=»ed earlier, and
at fiyie kr50 v?rds lines were passed to the at about 50 yards im^ difficulty.
Guadalcanal s g , i t pxj’s bow,
the Writhes stern cleared the Lm s uu
^ds onAe 'Guadalcanal's starboard (upwind)
low a position which made it possible to bow, 3. P -o harkincr down
I
**? -
sug „ y • A the Wripht could control the ^istanc^between tht^ vessels to permit easier
PaSnnSthe flStandecCkaand fantail, lines were passed according
thread messenger, a 2-incn y >
a" OPr"'er observes, illustrates the importance^ of ensuring that towing equipment is not just stowed and forgotten.
was also a new appreciation for the ilVlP |S
not just stowed and forgotten, and tha' art of using it remains alive in the Fleet.
sea5;
analyses of Soviet activities on the high
nylon, and finally the plow steel towing cable. The towing cable was paid out slowly over the capstan. A wire whip on the towing hawser was necessary to manipulate its weight safely.
The Guadalcanal had the messenger led from the flight deck through her bullnose on the forecastle. The messenger was attached to the shot line and brought aboard the LPH forecastle. The end of the Wright’s 300-yard towing line was shackled to her anchor chain, which was then led out through the bullnose (see Figure 1).
Initially, 30 fathoms of chain were used, a length which was increased to 45 fathoms to provide a proper catenary, and prevent the tow wire from coining out of the water. Allowing 40 yards for catenary, the final towing distance was 350 yards. The LPH was able to veer away from the Wright’s stern, and be towed off the starboard quarter. This was a safety practice, in case the Wright should need to alter her speed in an emergency.
When the Wright received word from the LPH that the hookup was completed, the engineers were given the go-ahead. The Wright moved ahead slowly, increasing speed ten turns at a time on one shaft. Once way was on the ships and the tow cable was riding easily, speed was increased in increments of
five turns on all shafts until an indicated speed of 8-1/2 knots was rung up. Speed over ground was actually about seven knots. Making slow turns as necessary, the Guadalcanal was towed 84 miles with little strain on the towing gear before the USS Kiowa (ATF- 72) relieved the Wright on the next morning.
As the Wright restowed her gear, use the first time since the ship was recoin ^ sioned in 1963, there was the usual seu^ accomplishment for a job well done. *
tance of ensuring that towing equipuie
With increasing frequency, the van1 news media have published reports afl
Much of it has centered on the presence Red naval units in the Mediterranean ^ Not infrequently, the tenor of the coniine" tary on this presence is one of indignat*0 that the Russians should have the gall U, place themselves in a position to imp!*1', upon the image created by the U. S. Si*1 Fleet over the past two decades. Forgot11’1' by or unknown to the authors of these n>an' reports is the fact that Russian naval intere*1' in the Middle Sea date back at least to d'C 1770s, when, for example, the Russian A3' flew over Beirut, Lebanon.
Another favorite theme is to call attend0'! to the cruise missiles carried by a variety 0 Soviet warships and submarines. Such 3 heavy reliance on these winged weapons is 1,1 deed unique to the Red Navy. The type the longest range, nicknamed “Shaddock” & the West, is to be found in both cruisers an® submarines. It is said to be capable of flyh1? some 400 miles to a target. A second “bird), fitted on the Krupnyy and Kildin-classes 0 missile destroyers, can attack targets out 10 about 100 miles. Finally, there is the famo1'5 20-mile Styx missile which, launched fro1*1 Soviet-built, Egyptian-run patrol craft, sank the Israeli destroyer Elath in October 196?- This is, indeed, an awesome array of weapons'
, ^ese cruise missiles are potent weapons, j they are carried by about 40 submarines 20 surface ships. But what about the 9eaP°nry carried by the Kirov, Chapayev, ^ Sverdlov-class cruisers—and the approxi- satelY 100 conventional destroyers in the ^°Wet Navy? In a gun fight between opposite ^bers, how would our ships stack up? j an attempt to gain some sort of insight 0 the answers to these questions, a survey as made of the information to be found in j e 1968-69 Jane's Fighting Ships and the J* edition of Weyer's Warships of the World. e statistics are tabulated as follows:
with some measure of defense against the Soviet cruise missiles. In a ship-to-ship gun fight, what will be the best tactic for the American skipper to employ? There is only one that comes to mind: Seek to close the opponent at the fastest possible rate in order to minimize the amount of damage to be received while the other side has a range advantage. And when the range has closed sufficiently, employ to full advantage the generally greater rates of fire of U. S. guns to overwhelm the target. In a hypothetical engagement between American and Soviet units, all other factors being equal, it wouldn’t
^fhere Installed | Caliber |
battleship |
|
ffeavy Cruiser | 7.T/57 3.9750 |
bight Cruiser | 6750 3.9760 |
destroyer | 5.1750 |
Comparative Gun Ranges
U. S. S. R.
Range ( Yards)
39,000
17.700
30,100
19.700
27,300
or
and, on most
U. S.
Caliber Range {Yards)
16750 | 42,000 |
5738 | 18,100 |
8755 | 30,400 |
5738 | 18,100 |
6747 | 26,000 |
5738 | 18,100 |
5754 | 25,900 |
5738 | 18,100 |
3750 | 14,600 |
.The battleship reigns supreme—but notice I e small range advantage it has over the targest Russian naval rifle, a weapon less
aan half its size. And this same Soviet gun as almost a 33 per cent advantage over its ^Unterpart, the U. S. 8-inch/55, which, in ae rapid fire version, can spew out far more Vve'ght of metal. The 9,000-yard differential P^uld prove to be too much of an advantage.
he slight advantage to be found in the '‘•Herican secondary battery is of small con- ^lation—and this defficiency the Soviets c°rrected in the light cruisers, which are of •tevver construction. Likewise, the Red destroyer has a clear advantage over her poten- tlal Yankee adversary.
. U. S. air power, together with alert combat '^formation center (CIC) teams and quick- action SAMs can provide the United States work. The list taken from the 1968-69 Jane's, shows why:
It can be seen that the Soviet ships have a one- to two-knot speed advantage, and so are free to maneuver as so to maintain their advantage in a gunnery duel—or to haul clear when the situation is doubtful, such as a meeting between a Kashin and, say, the USS Belknap (DLG-26). A fight between these two ships might include the use of SAMs in an anti-shipping role.
It is quite clear that the United States has more to be concerned about than just the sophisticated cruise missiles. A December 1968 study, (“The Changing Strategic Bal- lance—U.S.S.R. vs. U.S.A.”) prepared for the Committee on Armed Services of the House of Representatives, considered improvement in naval guns “is now an impor-
'til,
'in
S)u
^rvic
Sh
c°ast
"eek
H
H
f°rm
Warship Speeds
U. S. S. R. U. S.
Type | Class | Speed | Class | Speed |
Heavy Cruiser | Kirov | 34 | Salem | 33 |
Light Cruiser | Sverdlov | 34 | Cleveland | 33 |
| Kynda* | 35 | IVorcester | 32 |
| Kresta* | 34 |
|
|
Frigate | Kashin | 35 | Belknap | 34 |
|
|
| Leahy | 34 |
|
|
| Coontz | 34 |
Destroyer | Krupnyy* | 34 | Charles F. Adams | 35 |
| Kotlin | 36 | Forrest Sherman | 33 |
| Skoryy | 36 | Gearing | 34 |
Escorts | Petya | 30 | Knox | 27 |
| Riga | 28 | Garcia | 27 |
|
|
| Dealey | 25 |
* Carries surface-to-surface missiles.
tant challenge.” Noting general public unawareness, it stated that modern technology as applied to naval ordnance has resulted in shells that can be fired 30 per cent farther than the ranges now being achieved. Applying this increase to the U. S. ranges in the first table, would make our heavy cruisers the equal of the Soviet heavies in this regard, and would provide a clear advantage in all other categories except in the case of our 5-inch/38 against the Red 5.1-inch/50.
The means by which this marked improvement can be attained is the RAP—the rocket- assisted projectile. It has proved its worth in Vietnam. Five-inch RAPs on a destroyer can out-distance the conventional 8-inchers on a cruiser. Ordnance experts indicate that it may be possible for 16-inch RAPs—fired from the USS New Jersey (BB-62), for instance,—to range more than 100 miles. Such a capability would surpass or match two of the three cruise missiles mentioned at the outset of this article. It should be pointed out, too, that these projectiles would have none of the jet engine or guidance and control problems attendant with the “birds.” Furthermore, the cost per unit would be markedly less.
There are, of course, advantages and disadvantages to both RAP and cruise missiles. The two are not comparable. RAP could not provide a countering system to Soviet SSMs.
What is more important, perhaps, is tha| „ could add a new threat dimension—provid'11’ a potential enemy with yet another defehsl'it problem. As a recent House study points 0 in enthusiastic terms:
If naval guns had a range of 100 mileS’ warfare at sea would undergo drastic change Thus the first country to make the shift t0 RAP naval ordnance will have a significaIlt edge over other naval powers.
FOST WORK-1^ THE THURSDAY MORNING WAP
“Push 'em out Bert . . . boom, boom, boot11’ That's what we like to hear, lad."
-iii
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Av(
'■V|
!i;Jy<
C3Us
■ri%
*-eai
'hei
B
aPp
't’Or
‘He,
the
?a„
lhrc
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TQr
tliff
seci
Sui
Has
Ho,
Hiti
the
Off
He
Sei
| ‘h,
1 tp,
| str 1 sei St; to pt T
V
ti,
These are the words of a gunnery obserV from the staff of Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST), the British Navy’s equivalent to ,1 fleet training group commander. Althoti?'1 not always with such exuberance as “pust1
eHl
%
c°ast
ntries come to Portland, on the south
°f England, for all or part of a seven- Vvork-up. U. S. Navy ships operating
NATO Standing Naval Force Atlan-
Tjerk Hiddes. Closely allied as North neighbors. the Dutch and British Navies
3Ve for
some time exercised together as
ave
/use
j /ates are patterned after the Royal Navy’s
(in?
sive
oU1
for
there
is even more reason
ship’s officers, each getting the
Secti
nr °ut Bert,” FOST and his staff put a ship ;r,r^u§h its paces by providing guidance and *es for a ship to “work itself up.”
‘PS of the Royal Navy and other NATO
> the
'ic u
f ave also trained here. This writer was a v er U. S. exchange officer in the Royal i 'crlands Navy and has gone through a I „ Plete work-up on board the new frigate
partners, and since 1967, Dutch ships the six new Van Speijk-class Dutch
t, -aers,
^ll to train where their type is well known. ritish ships re-commission with new crews ^ i)r,Jximately every two years, so FOST (i rk-up is designed in particular to train t^erri- FOST’s sphere of influence begins with e ship’s preconunissioning shipboard or- National preparation and continues r°ugh schooling to actual at-sea shakedown J1*? Work-up. The Sea Training Work-Up ^‘de is a clearly worded book written to help j, 'Ps prepare properly before they come to H0rtland. It is organized into sections for lfferent
’ /on pertaining to his specialization. The ^ Me includes information on the naval ..3se> training procedures, specific prepara- necessary, pitfalls to avoid, and even (j|nts on the efficient use of manpower during ■ J; busy work-up. For example, executive facers are forewarned that rum should not e lssued until after the ship has secured from ^fieral quarters.
. ^s it is for most operations, preparation is e key to a successful work-up. The ship Ust be in condition before she starts, for her rer>gth and endurance are subjected to a Seven-week test. As in football, it is too late to j^rt making plans after the kickoff, but not °° late to make changes in the plans. In ^Paring for the FOST work-up on board the rM Hiddes, we sought advice from those > had been there. The valuable informa- tl°n helped get the jump on some very difficult problems. Two months before the scheduled work-up, the Dutch liaison officer on the FOST staff visited the Tjerk Hiddes and gave a briefing.
Before going to Portland, the ship and her crew spent several weeks exercising and testing equipment to qualify in the use of new equipment and systems. This might be compared to ships qualification trials (SQT). An ASW SQT and deep water variable depth sonar (VDS) trial were held.
The Medium-range Antisubmarine Torpedo Carrying Helicopter (MATCH) system had an air work-up; for the flight deck crew, it was requalifications, but qualification for the pilot and a new helicopter controller. The qualifying process is a thorough one. Training for flight deck officers (FDO)— there must be two on board—-includes small ship helo operations, and damage control/fire fighting. One of the FDOs is normally a supply officer and the other an engineering specialist or junior line officer. As in the U. S. Navy, the Dutch use senior radarmen or junior officers for helo control. The British, however, have helicopter control officer (HCO) specialists. For HCOs in the Netherlands, there is a two-week course on helicopter flight principles and small-ship helo operations, but emphasis is placed on practicing control with a synthetic trainer. FDOs and HCOs are qualified only after gaining sufficient live experience and demonstrating their ability to an observer at sea.
An officer of the deck must also have a knowledge of helicopter basics, particularly as they affect him during emergency landings. During the qualification week, instruction is given to officers of the deck, and emergency exercises are conducted which include him as well as the pilot, FDO, and HCO. Having good visibility aft from his position on a bridge half a deck higher than the surrounding superstructure, and having his anemometer, intercom to the flight deck, and “permission to land” light switch conveniently located, the captain or OOD is well equipped to direct and observe flight operations.
Ships generally arrive in Portland a week early for a shakedown period. The facilities of the base maintenance party are available if assistance is necessary. The first week is the
cast1
and helicopter control. Engineering
control drills were held for each section- ,
. ai*u
however, it is interrupted by a planned i ^ tenance week. Published on the precee Thursday of each week, the FOST ^
Practice Program sets forth the schedule
Escep
Harbor Training and Defects Week—in the words of our electronics officer, “your training and my defects.” On Monday of the first week, the admiral makes his “walk around,” meets the officers, and addresses the crew. Staff members inspect equipment, check planned maintenance procedures, and examine administrative work. Off-ship synthetic trainer exercises and fire fighting fill in the rest of the day. At night, unplanned exercises, nicknamed the “FOST funnies,” keep all personnel on their toes. On one night, while another frigate, coming alongside to tie up, was having difficulty getting her lines over because of strong winds blowing her off, the ship received the following message:
A serious car crash has occurred outside of Naval Center. Provide fire fighting equipment, cutting equipment, and first aid. Some casualties are suffering from shock.
The duty section was mustered, and the ship sent the required assistance, while the frigate coming alongside made her third, finally successful approach.
While Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST), the British equivalent of a fleet training group commander, provides realistic at-sea work-up exercises for ships of the Royal Navy and other NATO countries (upper photo), the author notes that the actual crash of a Wessex helicopter (lower photo), was not a scheduled part of the "Thurdsay Morning War” which he describes.
Chief Radarman Van Der Ent, /v.Y.V
During the remainder of the week, trainca| continued in nuclear, biological, and che warfare (NBC), fire fighting, ASW, airde
The
landing party exercised at a firing ran=-C)iU,b practiced its ability to quell an angO . ^ during a riot exercise (RIOTEX). The se^'(jie in the tactical trainer introduced some 0 same problems to be encountered the 1° ing week at sea. ^
There are four-and-a-half weeks of t work-up training. After the first fortn's^
The
skan
c°nti
$ta-
biai
;"st,
■■q.s
“>g(
A
hail,
atici
«ith.
ing
all units training in the Portland area. rt for an occasional non-availability of 3>r ^ for a helicopter transfer or staff °Perall.ire officer’s taxi (SOOTAX), most services plentiful. One or two combined antisubm3 exercises CASEXs per day with another night are not uncommon, and sonar-f helicopters are provided readily from
a«ch,
10r> radar navigating out of harbor, and mer participating in maneuvers or transit- 5 a swept channel, before forming a de- tUre screen for the protection of a ship pitying the crown jewels of Fostoria di I th rdarid°. The latter is often the setting for Vy6 ^rst Phase of the “Thursday Morning I b ar’” which may be the mid-term or final Pr°hfem for the ship in charge. If not I . atde problem, it may be the prelude to a . ■I°r damage control, engineering, or NBC I . ercise. At general quarters, battle dress ^ mdes anti-flash-gear cotton gloves and a j.ead sock that covers the entire face except l r lhe eyes, a gas mask carried in a pouch • atlging at your side, and a C02 life jacket. On board the Tjerk Hiddes, the gas masks erc used by all personnel. A well-planned of monitoring radiation was used and °re-exposed persons were rotated during the ransit of a fallout area.
At the end of the first or second sea week m
enti
ling \a _
leal L* Air Station. Portland’s 737 Squadron Jise. ^ r' trains ASW helo crews. Auxiliary ships lit;' ,hCr(fU^Cr homeported in Portland or sent he | p|e . to provide services for underway re- iiid jf^^ltrnent and refueling exercises. They ■job ^*0 used for towing and/or boarding Jons ^tse, The Portland Squadron, which con- |ihe j)|a older frigates (DEs), also takes part in l"- | [i. °f the exercises with work-up ships. stea3rSe number of exercises which involve CQri^ning with other surface combatants is in Sta raSt to rcfresfier training in the United
Iver'teS> during which little formation maneu- |) J*is done. This may be partly explained shi > difference in age and experience of the 1 ttri S Wardrooms. While ensigns and lieu. ants (junior grade) predominate in a U. S. ity r°yer or DE> lieutenants are in the major- ha *n 3 ^l|tch or British frigate and can per- • lJS more easily progress to formation steam- ^ during the work-up.
tj .. typical day may begin, as signaled in the . y movements message, by weighing e ship returned to port for a ceremonial }try exercise. The ship enters the harbor ldl the crew manning the rail, and then Scutes the classic, simultaneous precision arichoring, boat launching, accommodation hder lowering, boat-boom swinging-out Maneuver, while the staff motor launch circles observe. Soon thereafter, Prince Rhurnad- hum of Portlandia is welcomed on board, receiving full honors.
A more shore-oriented exercise, which also uses realistically fabricated situations is the disaster relief exercise (DISTEX) during the in-port planned maintenance week. A combination of the RIOTEX and FOST funnies plus some new situations, the DISTEX includes giving first aid help, evacuating the wounded, feeding the hungry, policing looters and burying the dead. Like the radio stations that use helicopters for reporting traffic, problems, the Tjerk Hiddes used hers to spot bodies, report fires, and keep the command on board advised of the situation at the scene of the disaster. HF, VHF, and UHF radios linked different corners of the area with headquar- ers, and pre-arranged whistle and horn signals were used to report findings or pass general information quickly. Meanwhile, a press conference was held aboard ship to advise the population of the assistance efforts being made.
During the last two weeks the ship returned to sea for more training, which included task unit exercises and testing of the ship’s wartime steaming organization. All this training was to prepare the ship to join the fleet with the confidence that she could meet and adequately cope with most any situation.
To test the results of the work-up. Flag Officer Sea Training, with the assistance of his staff department heads, conducted the final inspection himself. His primary assistant, Commander Sea Training, and the staff department heads normally spend a good part of their time at sea during the training period and therefore were already familiar with the ship’s strengths and weaknesses.
During the final inspection, the battle problem is made as realistic as possible. One or two submarines may be used; aircraft try to penetrate the air defense envelope; PT boats attack; and other frigates simulate firing runs against the ship. After the battle, the observers meet to brief the admiral, who then gives the commanding officer a preliminary critique.
Before departing, the admiral speaks to the crew and appraises their progress. It is FOST’s goal “to send ships away from Portland with their tails in the air.” This is how the Tjerk Hiddes departed for the Netherlands.
iss°9
for
this
is negotiated by a lieutenant commander a term of 30 years. Assume further, that loan is to be repaid (fully amortized) ^ equal monthly payments consisting of P^ cipal and interest. Over a period of 30 Ye the cash outlay for interest only is consider2 in excess of the original $20,000 borro"^( For a comparison of the effect of di»e interest rates, at 1/4 per cent intervals, stu Table I:
By Dr. Leonard P. Vidger,
Professor of Finance & Real Estate,
School of Business,
San Francisco State College
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN BORROWING AND LENDING ON REAL ESTATE
Currently, aggregate mortgaged debt outstanding on all types of real estate approximates $370 billion—exceeding slightly the total gross debt of the United States. The major portion of this credit has occurred in the post-Wond War II period from a modest sum of $45.5 billion in 1945. Each year has witnessed an increase over the previous—a trend which, in the light of emerging demographic and economic forces, promises to continue unabated.
The purchase of real estate for whatever use (residential, business, farm, or vacation) results from the decisions of individuals, whether the property is acquired for themselves or for their business employers. Cost and terms dictating, some borrowers are disposed to incurring more debt than others in real estate acquisitions. On the other side of the bargaining table are those who determine the terms at which money will be lent for investment in real estate. Lenders consider numerous factors before granting a loan to an applicant. In concert, these factors determine the interest rates at which loans will be granted. Borrowers may respond by accepting, rejecting, or negotiating further for debt capital. In short, new loans will be consummated when the terms are acceptable to all contracting parties. Moreover, should lenders desire, they can subsequently sell their mortgage loans to investors, providing prices are attractive. Various developments which may occur between the interval the mortgages were negotiated and offered for sale determine the magnitude of the discount or premium, should any arise.
In financing real estate, much depends upon the cost of capital which can be expressed as the contract rate (the per annum rate
stated in the mortgage bond or Proin!'rate note) or the efective rate (the calculate ^ which reckons factors not stated in the 11 gage contract). Astute lenders and borro\ate having knowledge of all facts, will neg° ^ carefully to maximize benefits in the to high yields and low interest cost, respee0^', The importance and impact of con . rates in financing real estate can be illust by disclosing the total amount of interest will be paid during the period the real es ^ loan is outstanding. For example, ta . $20,000 mortgage loan secured, say ^ j, residential dwelling valued at $25,000) " ’’
Table I
)0-
Total Interest on a $20,000 Mortgage Loa11 Year Term, at Various Interest Rates
Contract | During 30-Year Term | |
Rate of | Total | Interest |
Interest | Interest | Increment |
51% | $20,881.60 | -- |
5! | 22,019.20 | $1,137.60 |
6 | 23,171.20 | 1,152.00 |
6} | 24,334.00 | 1,162.80 |
6| | 25,511.20 | 1,177.20 |
6f | 26,699.20 | 1,188.00 |
7 | 27,905.20 | 1,206.00 |
7i | 29,118.40 | 1.213,20 |
n | 30,346.00 | 1,227.60 |
7f | 31,584.40 | 1,238.40 |
8 | 32,833.60 | 1,249.20 |
e%ht
S'
*ma H01 :)ann ,!jrmc 5s efT, Th 4th
n°te.
I ’' "at 0r irn a cle, Medf ^eru ers at an<d, ^o\v c°mi Cann ofm< I ^ak,
Moj 'st n
W
(ain
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ttion
Vy
I v'rsi 1 °bta ’feci
Most striking is the fact that the amount2 interest involved during the full term U years in this case) of the loan substantia* exceeds the principal amount of $20,000. disparity between the amount of the princip3 and total interest increases with higher 111 terest rates, or from $20,881.60 for a 5£ Pc1 cent loan to $32,833.60 for loans bearing
or'
ate
int
ers-
ate
of
;ly-
ad
It'--
hat
ate
%ht
V*
or,
1. Per cent. Thus, as the lender insists on t?her rate for the use of his capital, the ,Je °Vver should be expected to resist such rj0^an<ds- Unfortunately, however, seldom ;,ia °rrowers quantify the cost of capital in the
- aner illustrated.
0rmed
Consequently, less naval officers are unable to bargain
«eff(
Th
-,vj , c sum actually lent may not correspond lhe amount
ectively as they might otherwise.
i)0 — amuuiii indicated in
. e' This condition may be
the mortgage attributed to
ich
for
his
irs-
biy
:flt
dy
30
er°us factors such as either a deteriorated 9 ''"Proved credit standing of the borrower, cune or rise in the value of property
pj “‘“le or rise in the value of ,n ^ed as security for the loan, or develop- ,.rs"ts *n the capital markets. Informed lend- 5|1(jan<d investors are sensitive to these changes (j revise current interest rates on new loans.
°\vever, existing mortgage loans and prior c*nrtlltments ’uarle to negotiate contracts Dj- 1101 be changed. Sellers desiring to dispose 'Hortgage investments, acquired previously,
No
e adjustments for economic and other de-
°Pments which have made contract interrates obsolete.
^ hen previously negotiated contracts con-
,,1 ‘nterest rates lower than those currently °bta' •
•hoi
th,
ainable, the unpaid principal balances of rt&age loans will be discounted at the time
V(,C>' are transferred between investors. Con- oK -ly’ when current interest rates or yields . atnably on comparable investments have t'ued below those stipulated in mortgage
loans, they will sell at a premium, i.e., the amount the selling price exceeds the unpaid principal balance. Because of the changes mentioned, it becomes necessary to quantify them and express the outmoded contract interest rate as an effective interest rate, or yield. Once understood, the mathematics entailed need not unduly frustrate the parties involved.
Returning to the lieutenant commander’s example, assume that a $20,000 mortgage loan, bearing a six per cent contract rate, is variously negotiated at prices appearing in Table II.
If the $20,000 loan were negotiated at the various prices indicated (ranging from discounts to premiums), the corresponding effective interest rates would be paid by borrowers, and would be realized by lenders or investors. It should be noted that the period the loan is outstanding significantly affects the effective rate. When a discounted loan is repaid before maturity, the yield is higher than if the debt remained outstanding for the 30- year term. Conversely, when the term of a premium loan is shortened, it has the effect of reducing the yield.
• Use of approximation formulas. The effective interest rates reflected in the previous tabic were obtained by employing complex mathematical processes (such as compound interest and logarithmic functions) usually not comprehended by most borrowers and investors.
Table II
Effective Interest Rates (Yields) on a $20,000 Mortgage Loan Negotiated at Various Prices with a Term of 30 Years (6 per cent per annum)
Effective Interest Rate (Yield)
Price )er $100) | Actual Proceeds Exchanged |
| Amortized over 30-year Period | Prepaid at End of 15th Year |
96 | $19,200 | Discounted Loan | 6.39% | 6.46% |
97 | 19,400 |
| 6.29 | 6.35 |
98 | 19,600 |
| 6. 18 | 6.23 |
99 | 19,800 |
| 6.09 | 6.11 |
100 | 20,000 | Unpaid Balance {par) | 6.00 | 6.00 |
101 | 20,200 | Premium Loan | 5.91 | 5.89 |
102 | 20,400 |
| 5.82 | 5.78 |
103 | 20,600 |
| 5.73 | 5.67 |
104 | 20,800 |
| 5.64 | 5.56 |
of f°ur
20,000 - 800 6.39%.
20,000 X .06 X
1,22
= 19,20°
800
30
re-
the
id
the el11
In the event the loan is prepaid at
6.5 ifo
= .06527, or
:th-
iCf
n1
400
30"
Pr-
bl8ijl
20,40°
Y =
= .05723, or .5.72%
outstanding for the full term, the yield ca
V
For practitioners in the business of lending or borrowing on real estate, various published yield tables can be obtained, thus obviating the need to apply complex mathematical formulas and make tedious calculations. Frequently, however, the desired tables are not readily accessible when an investment decision must be made. Two formulas are now discussed. They can easily be committed to memory, and can be employed to determine the approximate effective interest rates on mortgages. Because of some unique factors[1] which are difficult to quantify in real estate finance, frequently more sophisticated mathematics will not yield greater accuracy than this approach.
Simplified formulas to calculate approximate effective interest rates and yields on mortgage loans may be constructed using the following notation:
Y = approximate effective interest rate (or yield) to maturity or prepayment (a decimal expression).
P = face amount or unpaid principal balance of the loan.
r = per annum rate of interest stated in the contract (a decimal expression).
d = amount of discount in dollars.
p = amount of premium in dollars.
n = number of full years and/or fractional years the loan is outstanding.
The formula to calculate the yield to maturity, or date of prepayment, when a mortgage loan entails a discount would then emerge as:
Likewise, to calculate the field on a mortgage loan negotiated at a premium, this formula is modified to read:
• Application of formulas. Let us assume the lieutenant commander purchases a $20,000 mortgage loan at six per cent interest, with a
term of 30 years at 96, or a discount 1 ^
per cent (four “points”). The yield t0 ' C(J turity on this investment would be calct as follows:
Pr H—
n
P - d
= .06388,
It will be noted that, in this instance, sultant yield corresponds with that c*cll'are from more esoteric mathematics. (Comp with Table II.)
xxx me ev cut me xutm io x e o i cr
of the 15th year (and assuming no PreP ^ ment penalty is collected from the borro"_^ the investor would realize the substantl3 , higher yield of 6.53 per cent. The re'lS computations would then appear as:
800
20,0 X .06 + —
20,0 - 800
In this instance, however, more precise me ^ ods of calculation would generate a yiel «t 6.46 per cent, or seven basis points lesS' can be seen from these examples that * much as the formulas developed herein ^ somewhat crude, they have the merit of easily applied. Moreover, the results tained are sufficiently accurate for most n j institutional investors. The overstated >lf^ would be equivalent to an error of one P cent.
Proceeding further, assume the lieuten3 ^ commander purchases the real estate loan $20,400, or a premium of 2 per cent. His vie to maturity would be determined as * lows:
20,0 X .06 -
P + p 20,000 + 400
= .05821, or 5.82%.
If the borrower prepays his obligations to investor at the end of the 15 year, the effect1' interest rate and yield would decline slight’ or:
400
20,0 X .06 - —
20,0 + 400 In the instance where the premium loan 15
(jQ tng from prepayment, the approxima- ./)! formula understates the true yield by six
Pare
N,
'no
Points, or an error of one per cent. (Com- with Table II.) early all naval officers at some time will
Official plan was initially structured.
Ahe rapid rise of home ownership in the ,st-World War II period has created enor- Ij °Us demand for mortgage credit. Although Uncial institutions have been the principal ^ Ppliers of money for house buyers, it should e Uoted that individuals have been figuring
reasingly important in lending money on a Property.
Or
!|^ted is accurate to four decimal places. °'vever, when applied to a shortened term
°unter the problem and complexity of , ?ancing the purchase of real property—- ,^ether it be for a residence, business use, or in °rne'Pr°ducing purposes. An understand" of the factors affecting the cost of credit ~ its calculation will prove extremely val- lQfDle and economical—when negotiating die purchase of real estate. And, because dje duration and rigid contractural terms a'led, success or failure of a real-estate ven- j, e may well depend on how astutely the
•tlC]
real
p°r most naval officers, a portfolio of first Junior mortgages can serve ideally their eds and financial objectives. Like any in- estnient, however, mortgage loans are not ‘mout limitations. With careful selection, m?ny of the disadvantages can be greatly Minimized or eliminated. In those instances . uere a greater risk is entailed, the lender- l^estor can be compensated by negotiating °r a higher yield.
This presentation has endeavored to pro-
Piclorial biography of a lady of steel
MIGHTY MO
by Gordon R. Newell, with Vice Adm. A. E. Smith, U.S.N. (Ret.)
Story of the last battleship, the gallant, noble and Majestic U.S.S. Missouri. Loaded with dramatic pieces. See review in this issue. At most bookstores, $12.95. Or order by mail—you need send no money, Pay on receipt. Satisfaction guaranteed.
SUPERIOR PUBLISHING CO.
P. O. Box 1710 • Seattle, Wash. 98111
vide enlightenment on a technical matter which is often overrated as being too austere. A little time and effort devoted by the layman to master the concepts and simplified mathematics outlined here should prove no more, if not less, exacting than previous discussions in this publication pertaining to the cost of installment credit. For those who persist, whether borrower, lender, or investor, the pecuniary rewards will be large.
THE GERMAN COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE
Twelve years ago, the Federal Republic of Germany opened the doors to the Command and General Staff College of the Armed Forces, (Fuehrungsakademie der Bundeswehr) in an effort to acquaint the officers of their effort to acquaint the officers of their armed forces “. . . with the latest developments in military science and technology, with all the broad interrelated factors which determine the nation’s defense, and with the requirements for fulfilling the defense missions of the armed forces within the framework of NATO.”
The Academy is the highest military educational institution for officers of the armed forces of the Federal German Republic. It contains elements found in the U. S. Army and Air Force Command and Staff Colleges, the Naval War College, Armed Forces Staff College, National War College, and the Industrial College of the Armed Forces.
The Fuehrungsakademie was established in
1957 at Bad Ems (near Koblenz on the Rhine) and was moved to its present location in Blankenese, a suburb of Hamburg, a year later. The Academy can be considered to have a history reaching back to 1810, when General Gerhard J. D. von Scharnhorst established the Higher School of Warfare for Officers. Five years later, the General War College was established, replacing von Scharnhorst’s original institution. The War Academy supplanted the General War College in 1859, and 1872 the Naval War Academy was opened in Kiel.
During World War I, none of the academies were active, and training necessary for staff officers was accomplished through the use of short courses. With all such academies banned after the war, courses were established to train so-called “commanders’ assistants.” These courses were conducted in various locations and remained in operation until the reopening of the War Academy in 1935. As envisioned by General von Scharnhorst, the goal continued to be the acquiring
of both a general and a special education- In 1935, the Air Force attempted to sCP^ rate this goal into its two parts by estabhs . an Air War Academy and an Air Tech11 Academy. This separation proved un'v able, and in 1938, both academies were 1 organized as the Air War Academy.
The academies of the three services °P^r ated on a provisional basis during World II, conducting short courses of various leI1S at several locations, as was done du ® World War I. The exigencies of the 'vartl.I'e. situation dictated the instructional req11 r ments. From 1945 until the establishment the Bundeswehr (Federal Armed Forces! 1956, there were no academies. With buildup of the armed forces, however, the quirement for trained staff officers beca immediately apparent and resulted m establishment of the present Academy- The Academy, as currently organized) directly subordinate to the Federal Min'8 of Defense. Figure 1 shows the internal oh-1 nization of the Academy.
Ihtnirig in October 1970.) The officers standing the Academy are in the grades of lie ' 3— f—
th,____ ______ ; _
r'4ier services. Sizes* of classes vary, the Army having the largest percentage of students, flowed by the Air Force, and then the Navy, Vvhich normally has 14 to 16 students in the c*ass. Usually, there are two foreign NATO students—one U. S. and one French. Additionally, each class is assigned an officer in
, Academy staff is responsible for inaction in the normal command tasks and pr°blems, as well as for organization and cognation of instructional programs required the Commandant. The Central Faculty “composed of both military and civilian per- | s°nnel, who instruct in those areas common j the armed services. Each division, with S exception of the Armed Forces Division, H in addition to the subdivisions shown in 1, a U. S. military officer attached. rhe U. S. Navy officer is a member of the ^Culty of the Navy Division and instructs on j ? tegular basis, while the U. S. Army and I ■ S. Air Force officers function as staff ad- | v*sors. (The ranks are normally commander 3rid lieutenant colonel.)
Course duration at the Academy is, at Resent, two years for officers of all services, phh courses beginning annually during the Crst week in October. (It is planned that all Courses will be shortened to 18 months, be- leutenant and lieutenant commander for 1 Navy, and captain and major for the
the grade of lieutenant colonel or commander as the class officer-in-charge and also the advisor.
Most NATO nations are represented in tl e regular courses of instruction, and many non- NATO friendly nations are represented in a special general staff course. The United States normally has two Navy students and two Army students in the regular course. The U. S. Air Force has at least two students programmed for the course October 1970.
Academic instruction at the A^emy conducted in three areas: general (joint) trainin'* service-oriented training, and supplemental training. General (joint) training, conducted by the Armed Forces Division, includes such subjects as politics history economics, military strategy, warfare management, computer technology, I’do*e? subjects designed to prov.de the students With a hroader edne^onal baek- Ground than that with which they enter, l his frainffig—totaling 576 hours-uses lectures
and guest speakers. includes short
eo„SS «’o ^B""f
ticipation in NATO and national exercises
The third area—service-oriented training
—-makes up the major part of the course. To
Unusually pleasant academic environment is suggested by this classroom building of the Navy Division of the Federal German Command and Staff College which is located in Blankenese, a suburb of Hamburg.
jl ,
IT
mu m,
IIIIII I!
M ‘'-l
y TWO-STAR POSITION FINDING 1970
44444444**
' * *4 *
*4,
PLUS NEW GREAT CIRCLE COURSE COMPUTING GRAPH
★ Position derived mathematically from two sextant
readings
★ Convenient work form avoids trigonometric theory
★ No need to estimate position
★ No mistakes from wrong dead reckoning
★ No need to start with assumed latitude or longitude ★No need to spread out chart; can be done on your lap
★ No plotting and re-plotting of lines of position ★No multiplication or division
★ No additional tables needed
★Precalculated values speed results; high accuracy
★ Choice of 55 brightest pairs of stars ★Special star charts by month and time of night ★Flexible interval between star sights ★Simple adjustment for movement between sights
★ Position achieved without successive approximations
★ Latitude and longitude are read from tables
★ Great Circle Course to any destination between Lats.
55° N. & 55° S. quickly determined without math
ORDER your "Two-Star Position Finding" NOW $10.00 postpaid
Edward Weyer, P.O. Box 175, Westbrook, Conn. 06498
the
English, lessons in French are available foreign naval students are required to municate primarily in German, and so man language classes are provided to them.
During the course of instruction, SP'
he'P
afi
hour5
participation is required. At least two
si°n
of the Staff College’s sport instructor, swimming, volleyball, soccer, and gerier‘ physical conditioning.
for
rite :d 1(1
accomplish its mission of providing the Federal Navy with broadly educated officers capable of performing high-level staff functions, the Navy Division of the Academy uses approximately 2,485 hours of instruction during the two-year course.
Of the time spent exclusively in the Navy Division, most is given over to learning naval doctrine, procedures, and staff work—both NATO —and national. Within these areas, the student examines all facets of surface, submarine, mine, amphibious, and anti-air warfare, as well as personnel and logistics operations and procedures. Supplemental subjects include: nuclear warfare, naval history, naval weapon systems, operations research, data processing, leadership, communications-elec- tronics, and intelligence.
The heaviest emphasis is placed on the military planning process and on command and staff techniques and procedures. The primary method of instruction is the use of planning exercises. Such an exercise might concentrate the students’ efforts on an operation involving surface and air ASW and
convoy escort units, and introduce corn®^ and control problems which could arise tween the support force, escort force, and commanders. Since NATO command r tionships are rather complicated, the e- cises demand the most of the students.
In addition to all of this instruction; ^ students are required to become reasons proficient in English, since it is the princlP NATO language. For those students a^reaflf possessing a good working knowledge^,^
con1'
G&' a week are scheduled, under the supervu
Finally, the students are required to " a research paper (which is later presentee a formal 30-minute speech to the entire Na Division), to prepare staff studies, deh' briefings, and write operation orders.
The bulk of the instruction and assist®^ given the students comes from the Teach11 " Group, a team of officers functioning so>llC what like a staff. This group consists of 1111 operations instructors (including one aviato / and instructors in intelligence, logisdcS’ communications-electronics, and naval b1. tory. Apart from giving lectures in 1111 particular fields, the instructors also brief 1 ^ students before each planning exercise 3,1 then follow through by acting as advisors the student working-groups. The instructed5’ as in any staff college, are also responsible 1. insuring that all instructional material 1 continually updated.
The Fuehrungsakademie has not, and ca1’ not, remain static. New material is constant being added and better methods of instructi0’’ are critically investigated. Both staff officcrj and students are continually seeking ways improving the course of instruction, keep111’ in mind that the end product of the Acadeim must not only be an officer who can functi°n on a staff, but also one who can make valuable contributions to that staff and to his natio11’ as well as to NATO.
Robot Sailer—SKAMP, a Station Keeping and Mobile Platform, was designed for a wide variety of electronic instrumentation to perform oceanographic, meteorological, and intelligence missions. This unmanned, self- navigating, seagoing system can maintain station or sail between points as directed by shore or pre-programming. The craft weighs 1,800 pounds, has a 9-foot diameter, and is 16.6 feet in height.
Gas Turbines For Power— The first four general cargo ships to use the quick-response, high-energy aviation-type gas turbines for primary power, will be built by a West German shipyard. The vessels will be about 800 feet long and will displace 33,000 tons. They will be powered with two gas turbines, which will develop 30,000 s.h.p., giving a 25-knot speed capability. Two ships will be completed in 1970, the other two in 1971.
New Bird—Designated by the Army as the YO-3A, this quiet observation aircraft is 30 feet long, has a wing- spread of 57 feet, and is powered by a six-cylinder, 210 h.p. air-cooled engine which turns a six-bladed wooden propeller. It is manned by a crew of two.
LIT Lift—Boeing design study for a turbo-prop light intra-theater transport (LIT) would also provide improved search and rescue operations through use of its tilt-wing, short take-off and landing (STOL) capability. The proposed aircraft would be able to operate vertically or to fly in a conventional manner, with a 400-knot speed, a 7.5-ton payload, and a range of
1,0 miles.
New Gun—Developed for the Italian and Canadian Navies, this compact, lightweight 76-mm. gun is well- suited for use on gun boats, fast patrol boats, and hydrofoils. The fully-automated feeding, loading, and firing cycles permit an 80-rounds- per-minute firing rate.
Air Cushion—This air cushion landing system (ACLS) test aircraft lifts off after a run over water of about 650 feet. The single-engine amphibian has an air cushion, created by a small auxiliary on-board engine which drives an axial fan, forcing air down through the fuselage into an underside-perforated, inner-tube-like air cushion bag. It is also capable of traveling over rugged terrain, snow, and ice.
asing
her
dbodV
mi'
Notebook
U. S. Navy
s Navy Hospital Ship Converted
{Marine Engineering/Log, June 1969) Many Navy families will remember the hospital ship Haven, which in the middle 1950s served as the dispensary at Long Beach, California. She is now to have a new life as a liquid chemical carrier.
The Haven was sent to Long Beach when naval activities were revived there during the Korean War. Most of these had been deactivated or removed to San Diego following World War II and the splendid hospital was turned over to the Veterans Bureau.
This vessel was one of the last of the C-4s converted to hospital ships for the Navy in World War II and was not commissioned until 1945, as were the Repose and the Consolation. She was laid up in 1967. She lias now been converted again and jumboized at the Bethlehem Steel Company yard in Beaumont, Texas. The existing bow and stern were used
in the conversion, but a new special length from 520 to 665 feet. She under the new name of Alaskan.
s Pesticide Pollution Cited „
{The Washington Post, 17 July 1969) ^ ^
Navy the “worst pesticide polluter'
cies which employ such chemicals on facilities within the Potomac basin. £je
for his conservation and natural resort subcommittee showed the Navy planner
__ 1 At\____ „r :*£■ r>utu° , installations in the basin this year. Reuss
Dieldr111
He added that DDT and Dieldrin have
inU»
their toxic effects for years after applic3 .
Other pollution offenders Reuss listed 1 eluded the General Services Administra with plans for the use of 828 pounds °f * ■ this year, and the office of the Capitol A> ^
Defensive Helicopters Studied
{Aviation Week & Space Technology, 1 Septe!'£, ber 1969) The Navy is studying the possih'*'1 of using helicopters to launch defensive a ■, to-air missiles against high-speed airc'a. attacking surface ships. Initial studies i*11 j missile stands a better-than-even chance destroying a high-speed aircraft armed Wi comparable weapon.
H Lesson Learned From Disaster
th'
loss of the U. S. destroyer USS Frank E. Ei'a,\ in collision with HMAS Melbourne, but it interesting to note that the first reaction a: the initial shock in Washington has been
n'cer a Srs,
Sns, alt I'tti re
**ulta
Now
was constructed and inserted, incre
Will S3»
Henry S. Reuss (D-Wis.) called the
of the
Potomac watershed among government s^.f
Reuss said a survey of pesticide plans
:d 10
use 140 pounds of Dieldrin on its olltc |d
Potomac River fish already have been s
sho"."
to have twice the national average of levels in their tissues.
shown to be the most persistent pestic
icides
common use today, both of them retan
tid1-
tect which specifies the same pesticide f°r 1 on the Capitol grounds.
cate a helicopter armed with a high spe J
i th11
>tu;
V c
Jitter f ther ^tlbou. S rr See
ll0tis a
l?Pla
‘'ere
Sgt
Sy.
sean
lhei
in. s.
*r p
N
^ast
'Utter
'^cre
‘onal
"cuu the F Th three Widgl 'U lat Th Lfass tU0us
Sm
Sri
ITt
Sd
fpe
«arr
^he
f,50i
tleac
of
{Navy, London, July 1969) At the time
writing it is still too early to comment on
ftd
to
call into question the U. S. Navy’s policy o'>i
he
1"’
|fir
de
:es
to
ofi
lid
in I
ffl
in loti? jii-
in-
on
y
hi-
use
Seamanship. Let us go slowly in this area. tHer U. S. Services
U C. G. Names Ships After Heroes
l 1 S. Coast Guard News Release, 9 Septem- l^r 1969) The U. S. Coast Guard’s newest L o-foot cutters will now be named after I °ast Guard heroes. Until now, the 378-foot a tlers have been named to honor former ecretaries of the Treasury, a custom tradi- lonal with the Coast Guard since 1830 when
tl;
15
3ss Douglas A. Munro, who was posthu- °usly awarded the Congressional Medal of
°nor for heroism at Guadalcanal during
r M-
,Cer appointments .... All American naval ,Cers, except warrant and limited duty Cers, have degrees before joining the sere although, of course, Annapolis midship- • 11 receive their degrees and commissions ??ultaneously.
'°w it is being widely advocated that initially all, or the large majority of Royal 9vy officers will have to be graduates, no *-ter what branch they eventually join, .there is a lesson to be learned from the f °ourne-Evans tragedy, ... it is that some must be found to maintain a balance ,>een attainment of academic qualifica- 115 and sea experience .... Before hasten° Plans for all naval officers to be graduates, ^ re are other factors to be considered—
, °ugh these are sometimes slightly derided qay. One is man-management and another
.1Cutter was named for Alexander Hamilton, e First Secretary of the Treasury.
.The first hero names selected for the next , ree 378-foot cutters are Munro, Jarvis, and . idgett. They are scheduled for completion nlate 1971.
The Munro is named for Signalman First 'Vld War II.
. The Jarvis is named for Captain David H. "fvis, winner of a special Congressional '‘old Medal of Honor for leading a three-man P'pedition to save 500 starving men at Point Lafrow, Alaska, in the winter of 1897-98.
40e expedition drove a herd of reindeer over * >500 miles of Arctic ice and snow, in the ead of winter, to reach the stranded whalers.
The Midgett will be named for Chief Warrant Officer John A. Midgett, winner of a Gold Lifesaving Medal for his heroic rescue of 36 survivors from the British tanker Mirlo torpedoed off the North Carolina coast during World War I.
The new 378-foot cutters have a beam of 42 feet and displace 3,050 tons. They are equipped with an 80-foot flight deck for use as a helicopter pad. They are powered by a combined diesel and gas turbine propulsion plant with variable pitch propellers. Dual gas turbines deliver a total of 36,000 s.h.p., allowing a maximum speed of 29 knots. They have a cruising range of 14,000 miles. A 350- h.p. bow propulsion unit aids the cutters in maneuvering alongside docks and in other tight situations. Closed circuit television enables bridge personnel to see what is happening in other parts of the ship.
The Coast Guard already has nine of the 378-foot cutters in commission. Seven are based in Atlantic ports, one at Alameda, California, and one in Honolulu. All are named for former Secretaries of the Treasury. They are replacing former Navy seaplane tenders of World War II vintage.
Merchant Marine
s Port Disaster Study Released
(U. S. Department of Commerce News Release, 18 August 1969) A study to develop a mobile emergency port “package” of port facilities capable of restoring essential functions of disaster-stricken ports, prepared by Bechtel Corporation, Vernon, California, has been released by the Maritime Administration, U. S. Department of Commerce. The availability of such facilities would improve the degree to which the U. S. Merchant Marine would be capable of providing disaster relief and serving as a naval and military auxiliary in time of national emergency.
The study found that a towed barge, using the roll-on/roll-off lighterage concept of cargo handling, makes the most suitable mobile emergency port package based on cost, application potential, and relative safety of operation. The lighterage concept
tati°n t
would include use of a pontoon causeway and pontoon lighters. Helicopters could also help in unloading if available. Cargo ships could dock alongside the pontoon causeway in areas with sufficient water depth. In locations with gradual bottom slopes, the ships could tie up to the barge, anchored in deep water, and discharge cargo onto the barge for transfer onto pontoon lighters ferrying between the pontoon causeway and barge. The barge is envisioned as having a stern ramp to permit flatbed trailers to be driven between lighters and barge.
While the cost of transporting emergency supplies using the mobile emergency port package was determined to be substantially higher than dock-to-dock transportation costs using normal port facilities, it was found to be considerably less than transporting the supplies by air. The study found, for example, that the delivery of 50,000 long tons of break- bulk general cargo 5,000 nautical miles by normal ocean transportation would cost
NAVY MUTUAL AID
ASSOCIATION
Membership Provides $12,000 TOTAL DEATH BENEFITS
$7500 Primary Death Benefit (available from five permanent membership plans)
$4500 Additional Death Benefit
No War Restrictions Membership does not terminate upon retirement, discharge, or release from active duty. Amount of Benefits Not Affected by Increase in Age VALUABLE ASSISTANCE TO BENEFICIARIES (Accredited by VA to represent survivors) IMMEDIATE LOAN SERVICE (Membership accrues cash and loan values) ALL Active Duty Officers of the Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard are eligible to apply Membership over 53,000 Assets more than $110,000,000
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about $3,500,000 and by air transpor1 about $50,000,000. The cost of using ^ number of packages owned and num e ^ assistance missions undertaken, rather distance, because deployment costs are a small portion of the over-all costs. Assn ^ that one package is owned and only °ne
rated cost per 30-day mission -s.
proximately $11.55 million. For three 11 j sions, the respective costs for the no
would be $10.5 million, $150 million, $12.68 million.
und^'
developed areas of the world prone to quakes and hurricanes. It could also be 1 effectively in overseas military resupply °P j ation, and it would be effective in ease ^ nuclear attack on the United States since
Emergency Port Facilities,” is available ^ Publication No. PB 184-810 from the Clear11'^ house for Federal Scientific and Techn,f Information, 5285 Port Royal Road, Spral;
full report is also available as Publication PB 184-348 for $3.00 per copy.
53 Heavy Tankers To Be Built in U.
(Bethlehem Steel News Release, 8 Septet11 1969) An order for construction of the larg try—three 120,000-dwt-ton U. S. flag tal .j ers—has been placed by Atlantic Richn
The three ships will be built at the Bethlel'^ yard, Sparrows Point, Maryland, the 31 nouncement said. j
It was the largest single order ever plaf ^ by a corporation in an American shipyar The three 883-foot long tankers, each with capacity of 940,000 barrels of crude oil, be used to carry Alaskan North Slope crU ^ to points on the west coast of the Umtc States. The new tankers will have a 5,(w
secoi •tembe fitthle! i Hew Pbuilc handl '"tore Elding
I the e 16 120. brtly 1
The
II tan! '‘"tmoi !>ey w <lttes i
lHipp( sys
on
towed system port package depends
the pr°'
sion is undertaken in ten years, then
would be up
costs
ocean, air, and emergency package j
The study found that the mobile emerg1
■enty
port packages would be useful in - ^
%[
^ bri feed. *t, a 11 feet
00^
could operate outside of established P° .,£ The summary report, “Study of M° -
^ T
S.
fee,
feted •e re ant ^nor Visi The
w
fel stand Th °f th, ''’her '•'em ^est s'on 4nd hre : ship copt to b C vess' oftl five
Wh
fit
Thf
field, Virginia 22151, at a cost of $3.00-
N0,
commercial vessels ever built in this co1
U8-
dr
Company with Bethlehem Steel Corpora
“*cl J
ord
dwt-ton greater capacity than the tan1 Manhattan, currently the largest U. S. c0'1'. mercial vessel. The first of the three tanks, is scheduled for delivery in December, 19'"’
ly
Pt,
a depth of 68 feet, and a loaded draft of
(u.
e recipient of the
i Ui
' Second a year later, and the third in Member, 1974.
ethlehem will begin work immediately on ,"ew 1,200-foot-long and 200-foot-wide building basin at Sparrows Point capable handling construction of tankers ranging '"ore than 300,000 dwt tons. The new shipping facility is scheduled for completion lhe end of 1970 and the keel of the first of I1' 120,000 -ton tankers is slated to be laid Ply thereafter.
9 Oe vessels will be single-screw, bridge- tankers with all living and working ac- Prnodations completely air conditioned. "ey will be powered by geared steam turPs developing 26,000 s.h.p., and be
'"tpped with Bethlehem’s centralized con- ^ system, permitting direct control from e bridge of ahead and astern power and Pd The ships will have a breadth of 138 feet, 10 inches, with a speed of 16 knots.
Trophy Won By S.S. African Star
S. Department of Commerce News Re- Pe, 28 August 1969) The SS African Star, Ped by Farrell Lines, has been selected as 1969 American Mer- ant Marine Seamanship Trophy, it was jounced by A. E. Gibson, Maritime Ad- k 'aistrator, U. S. Department of Commerce. | be Seamanship Trophy is awarded in Pjgnition of deeds exemplifying exception- | *y high standards of seamanship and out- fading heroism.
The African Star was chosen in recognition the heroic actions of her master and crew Pen the vessel, with 63 passengers and crew Pmbers aboard, was struck by the MV Mid- Pf Cities, a barge laden with oil. This colli- S|°n resulted in a disastrous fire. The captain Pd the crew of the African Star fought the "re and took part in daring feats of seaman- Sbip that enabled rescue operations by heli- ! fpter, lifeboat, and other assisting vessels be carried out successfully.
Captain Adorian W. Schodle, master of the v'essel, immediately recognized the gravity °* the situation and directed the ship into the dver bank where she was run hard aground, ^hen the African Star was safely aground, Captain Schodle, after giving the required °rders for the general safety, proceeded through the ’midship passageways, which were engulfed in flames, to aid in the search and rescue of surviving passengers.
After assuring that passenger, officer, and crew quarters were evacuated, although injured, he attempted to proceed back to the bridge, but owing to his weakened condition from severe burns on his hands and feet, he had to be carried to the bridge where he could command. Although subjected to repeated fainting spells from the severity of his burns, he continued directing and encouraging his officers and crew in the rescue of survivors and in the firefighting. Refusing offered medical assistance, fearing that pain- relieving drugs might impair his ability to make sound judgments, Captain Schodle continued for over five hours to provide his ships with leadership and inspiration.
s Poland Builds Most Fishing Vessels
(Fairplay, 29 May 1969) The remarkable growth of the Soviet merchant marine has largely overshadowed another Soviet bloc maritime phenomenon, Polish shipbuilding. Today, Poland is the world’s largest builder of fishing vessels, ranking ahead of Japan and West Germany with one quarter of the world production. This country also stands seventh in ships exported, 669 vessels of all types having been delivered to 19 foreign countries in the last 19 years. And despite the fact that three out of four vessels are exported, the not inconsiderable Polish merchant marine is virtually all home-built.
Shipbuilding is confined to three seaports: Gdansk, the former free city of Danzig; Gdynia, nearby, which Poland had to build when Danzig was denied her after World War I; and Szczecin (Stettin), in what was formerly Baltic Germany. Propulsion units, mostly Sulzer, Fiat, and Burmeister and Wain diesel engines, are built under license in Poznan (Posen), some 150 miles inland.
Russia is Poland’s biggest shipbuilding customer, with almost 80 per cent of her cargo vessels and almost all fishing vessels going to that country. Every fifth Russian fishing vessel seen on the high seas is Polish-built. Another standard type built for the U.S.S.R. is a 6,000-ton timber carrier. Poland’s second biggest shipbuilding customer is Communist China—every sixth Chinese vessel being
Board approval of its request for operatl ^ differential subsidy on the proposed N°r Atlantic European service. u.
In fact, the ship line is so intent on esta^( fishing good relations with the governn that it has offered to forego subsidy on ^ riage of military cargoes—the controvers* so-called “double subsidy.”
The fine’s subsidy application asks operating differential subsidy on trade r°l ,
-*rtU
for itcs
and East’
with°llt
Polish-built. Other major customers have been Brazil (16 ships), Indonesia (27), India (9), and France (27 trawlers).
s Largest Tugs Go To South Africa
{Marine Engineering/Log, August 1969) The world’s largest tugboat, Oceanic, owned by a foremost Hamburg, Germany deep sea towing and salvage firm, will be stationed at Cape Town, South Africa. The Oceanic and a sister ship, the Arctic, were specially constructed to serve the giant tankers which will run between the Persian Gulf and Bantry Bay, Ireland, and possibly to a proposed refinery at Matthias Point, Maine.
The ships are each 284 feet long, equipped
with two Deatz diesel engines providing 17,500 b.h.p. to give a speed of 22 knots. A double set of hydraulic towing winches, each with a pull of 60 tons, have drums holding 6,560 feet of special 7^-inch towing wire, which can be reeled in within 45 minutes.
The crew of 25 will all be specialists in towing and salvage. Ample accommodations will be available for shipwrecked persons as well as a fully-equipped hospital.
s Land-Bridge Right Sought
(Alan Z. Forman in the Baltimore Sun, 17 September 1969) The attempt by Matson Navigation Company to obtain an independent ocean freight forwarder license is part of the West Coast ship line’s effort to “put together an integrated transportation system,” the firm’s director of government relations acknowledged.
J. R. Kuykendall, the Matson official, said in an interview that the license would enable the line to construct a viable “land-
bridge” for movement of cargo bet" European and Far East ports.* , u.
In its request filed with the Federal > time Commission, which issues ocean • 0( eign freight forwarder licenses on the kaS1jbj. financial responsibility, willingness and a ^ ity, Matson indicated that the license "° , “help assure that the land-bridge COIlf will become viable.” u,e
But Matson currently operates only 011 ,
West Coast of the United States, prim3^ in intercoastal service to Hawaii. The ^ waiian service is the “backbone of our op tion,” said Mr. Kuykendall, followed b> trade between California and Japan.
For the land-bridge to become a rea • jv Matson is banking on Maritime bu . ' cat'
5, 7, 8, and 9—the North Atlantic- trade route 29—Pacific Coast to Far on which it currently operates government assistance.
Foreign
@ U.S.S.R. Operates Large Air Force (
{Flight International, 14 August 1969) So'|C Military Aviation Forces (SOVAF) now opfl^ ate some 10,250 combat aircraft, apart u° , nearly 1,000 naval types. It is also estimat£ by the CIA that the Soviet Union has ab°11 900 ICBMs in service, plus 750 IRBMs 11 Eastern Europe. About 80 SLBMs are 3^° believed to be in naval service.
As the first-generation deterrent f°rC^ Long-Range Aviation now operates about 1 Myasishchev MYA-4 “Bisons,” 50 Tupob' TU-20 “Bears,” 40 “Bear” tankers, 200 supef' sonic TU-22 “Blinders,” and 600 or so TtJ-1 “Badgers.” Tactical Frontal Air Ariu*“ (faa) operate nearly 3,000 ground attac
*See also G. D. Saunders, “Land Bridge: From Sc‘ to Shining Sea,” pp. 44-51, July 1969 ProceediN°s'
faced %
f\\°V^ev "brew'er” bomber/recce types. The p. a^So have their own transport and sup- '‘lement, including helicopt ae air-defense
;ers.
organization operates
*bi
27"x 60" ^ 14%" TALL 2V2" THICK
raft, with obsolescent types such as MIG- 19s, YAK-25s and IL-28s now being re- by MIG-21S, SU-7s and transonic
one-third of Soviet military aircraft, a nearly 50 per cent of total fighters, with h. lrrcnt complement of some 3,000 combat including MGI-21F/PF day and AWF, an, SU-9 “Fishpots,” YAK-28 “Firebars,” ‘‘n | uP°lev TU-28 “Fiddlers,” reinforced by , alosh,” “Guideline,” “Goa,” “Gainful,” ^nef,” and “Griffen” SAMs.
\| being introduced into service are the “pj 3 MIG-23 “Foxbat” and the Sukhoi | ^ aS°n A” intercepters. About 1,500 trans- airrraft provide logistic support, with Per ^ntonov AN-12 accounting for about 50 S|Cent of the total. These are now being 10 PP^mented by the massive AN-22, and ,04Crate aiongsi<le IL-12s, -13s and -18s; TU- 8s S’ ’"^s and -124s; and twin-turboprop AN! Mland '24s' Several hundred MI-4s, MI-6s, 8s and MI-10s are also in service. rpj *le Independent Naval Air Fleet is being Vp tl.0rced by the introduction of the recce 5nri'°n dle t<®‘son’” known as the 201-M, <<*.. (be transfer of large numbers of TU-22 arelnders” from SOVAF control. The latter for re'ecluiPP‘ng a force of about 300 TU-16s aant>-shipping strike. Also in naval service „ue So>ne 50 TU-20 “Bear C” and a similar 2j"n^cr of torpedo-carrying IL-28s. Two ’b0-ton helicopter carriers each operate ^ out 30 KA-20 “Harp” and KA-25 “Hor-
AsuC” ASW rotorcrafh and the remaining force includes 50-plus Beriev BE-6 flying- g ats> now being replaced by the turbo-prop te ~12 “Mail,” and about 100 MI-4 helicop- j rs- All Soviet training is done on YAK-1 Is, Delfins, MIG-15UTIs, MIG-21UTIS, and '^UTls. Multi-engined instruction is given a IL-14s and IL-28US.
Moskva Watches For Polaris Subs
j °tdat und Technik, January 1969) Surveil- tpllCe °f tf'e Polnris submarines in the Medi- . rranean does not surprise military experts : Washington, according to American
^0hrnalists. They would likewise “not be brprised,” if Soviet “research vessels” which
are among other things effecting hydrographic missions, should soon lay down location devices in the Straits of Gibraltar which could serve to keep track of the passage of American Polaris submarines.
The Soviet helo carrier Moskva carried out various tasks during her cruise in the Mediterranean even though this was confined to the eastern part of the sea. It is thought, however, that the Moscow or her sister-ship the Leningrad will return to the Mediterranean in order to concentrate on tracking the Polaris submarines.
In the ASW exercises of the Moskva, both destroyers and Badger (TU-16) aircraft took part, both of which are equipped with corresponding gear. The Badgers bore Egyptian insignia, but the pilots carried on talk in Russian.
gj 30 Soviet Speed Boats to Cuba
(Soldat und Technik, January 1969) The Soviets have very quietly been arming the Cuban Navy with Osa- and Komar-class speed boats “at the very doorstep of the United States.” Both the 205-ton Osa and the smaller,
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They note that Marshal A. A. Grech ^ Soviet Defense Minister, earlier this y appointed Vice-Admiral Sysoyev as
in
one of a number of handpicked
men
lacefl
Defend
Marshal Rodion Minister in 1967.
as
nap
fleet’5
officers. This parallels the Soviet increasing deployment to the Mediterran the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, and Caribbean in 1969.
Soviet naval officers have also been ma
king
le,
the Soviet Navy, and naval air force follow their movem1
ents
vve
aff
large'
clearly meant as a deterrent against
off
lis
78-ton Komar class are equipped with the Styx-type rocket with which the Egyptians sank the Israeli destroyer Elath in 1967.
s Soviet Naval Maneuvers Watched
(John K. Cooley in the Christian Science Monitor, 30 August 1969) British Royal Air Force aircraft based on Cyprus and other Western planes and ships are keeping a close watch on Soviet naval maneuvers in the eastern Mediterranean.
Western naval experts here estimate that about 63 ships, the largest Soviet fleet ever assembled outside of Russian home waters, are taking part.
The Russian force began 24 August to concentrate in two main areas: between Cyprus and the Syrian coast and south of the island of Crete.
The Soviet Union’s biggest ship, the 18,000- ton helicopter carrier Moskva, is using many of her estimated 30 helicopters in antisubmarine exercises.
Besides the Moskva, the force is reported to include four Kresta- or Kynda-class guided- missile destroyers, six other destroyers, up to ten submarines, support ships, and electronic intelligence trawlers or “spy ships.”
The Naples-based Maritime Air Forces Mediterranean Command (MARAIRMED), formed last November of British, American, and Italian aircraft, co-ordinates the allied surveillance effort, conducted mainly from the big Royal Air Force base at Akrotiri, southern Cyprus.
Western analysts here fully accept the theory that Moscow’s naval arm is rising in importance as an instrument of Soviet policy.
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Bamberg, West Germany
!----
the
eat
commander of the Black Sea fleet vjet Odessa, the official home port of the Mediterranean force. Vice-Admiral Sys°
shal Grechko has installed since he rep
Malinovsky
f the
The “main political directorate o Soviet armed forces and navy,” the n
Communist Party’s control organ, has to include more and more high-ranking policy statements in public. For exatnP Moscow Radio broadcast an interview Captain Alexander Bolshakov, cornrnan ^ of the cruiser Grozny, a regular line unit o . Mediterranean force. Captain Bolshakov s no Western ship could move undetected ' ‘Our submarines, s*11” with a watchful eye,” he added. “When ^ meet seamen of Soviet merchant ships |l good to hear them say that they now fee| * cure in the neutral waters of the Med> ranean and that the American ships will n^ now dare to engage in provocations aga" Soviet merchant ships.”
There is a permanent Soviet naval p1 ^ ence of two or more ships anchored in harbor of Port Said, near the Israeli lines
the Suez Canal’s northern end. They
scale Israeli air strikes or shelling of the p1 They did not, however, prevent the Israe from heavily damaging the fresh-water call|| which feeds the city with its drinking aa industrial water during last month’s Ara Israeli artillery and air battles.
The favorite maneuver area of the RuSS>a submarines is the Aegean Sea, where 11 . Greek Navy has primary responsibility unO NATO arrangements. .
Early this year, the NATO council decidct| to form a new “on call” Mediterranean afllC naval force using mainly destroyers and stroyer escorts.
Research and Development
^ Wings, Hydrofoils In Sub Concept
ceanology, 4 September 1969) A Navy pro- ?ram of concept formulation for modular *;et submarines, stressing the safety features . a detachable minisub, has produced ideas "eluding wings and a tail section for greater ^ability while running submerged, and rentable hydrofoils for greater speed on the Efface.
L. Friedman of the operations analysis ! Section, Office of Naval Research (ONR), Cufrently is involved in weighing the proactive functions of a new generation of fleet Sllbrnarines. Friedman said that this will Pennine how many jobs can be automated, j^ncj the crew size, which in turn will be the as‘s of the weight requirements. He expects to arrive at a crew of 25, compared to a crew
about 100 on the present ballistic submarines.
The chief of ONR, Admiral Thomas B. 'ven, U. S. Navy, has reviewed the project ar>d pronounced it worthy of continued effort. riedman also said the technology required 0r all of the possibilities under consideration c°uld be developed within ten years.
Involved in different approaches to the Problem are Westinghouse Electric Corp., and Lockheed Missile & Space Co. Lockheed ls performing a research and development study, Westinghouse is examining relationships of payload to displacement, costs to savings, and noise signature possibilities.
Drawings done for Friedman show a fleet submarine with retractable legs or hydrofoils Under the wings. This would allow the sub- • Utarine to sit on the bottom while the escape chamber, an area at the bow where all the crew would live except during maintenance excursions to the after part of the vessel, would bf' discharged. The chamber, powered by batteries, could be used as a reconnaissance vehicle, with a range of around ten miles.
53 'Mattress’ Slick End To Slicks
(The Washington Post, 27 July 1969) A highly absorbent “floating mattress” might provide an answer to the growing world problem of how to rid the seas of oil slick, accord- lng to Israeli claims.
Fishing boats have been operating on the
Sea of Galilee ever since Biblical days. Recently hundreds of them towed large mattress-like rafts made of a spongy, flexible substance that soaked up the oil contaminating the lake’s surface. It is claimed that the “mattresses,” after being squeezed out, can be used again.
The opportunity for a major trial of the new method came after Arab saboteurs blew up the trans-Arabian pipeline running across the Golan heights. Thousands of tons of oil oozed along the River Jordan and spread out over the waters of Galilee. Israel’s water planning authority were deeply worried. The lake is the principal source for the national water system.
If the pumps and irrigation system were inoperative, then drinking and irrigation supplies might be jeopardized as far south as
the Negev Desert. ....
As in many other countries, od-stained beaches have become an increasing nuisance to holiday-makers in Israeli during the past ten years. Wherever giant oil tankers called, fish died.
A month earlier, some of the top officials of the Israeli water planning concern Mekoroth attended an interesting, but at the time largely academic, demonstration.
Alliance Cesarea, an Israeli polyester plastics plant, whose main product is a type of foam rubber, claimed to have developed a vastly improved method for removing oil from the sea’s surface.
After a year’s work, one company came up with the “floating mattress” idea. The company demonstrated it in the open Mediterranean first, to experts from the government, port authorities, oil companies, the fishing industry, and the tourist department.
The plant produces a spongy, flexible substance called polyurethane. It is specially treated to increase its capacity for absorption.
Large mattress-like rafts are made of the buoyant substance and pulled by boats across the contaminated surface, soaking up the oil. With the help of the water authorities, the army, the local fishermen, and people from the Galilee settlements, whose fields were threatened by the oil, about 600 mattresses of the new material were rushed to Lake Tiberias from Cesarea, which is situated on the Mediterranean Coast.
bate
the
toward national security.” Boiled down, statement of Pentagon policy indicates th patriotism, more than militarism, is the S°. of JROTC—a policy accepted by the top 1,111 tary officials.
Asked what benefit a JROTC graduate Is t0 the Navy, Vice Admiral Charles K. Dune3”' U. S. Navy, Chief of Naval Personnel, said- I believe the main benefits are really t0 improve his citizenship and, hopefully to g‘ve him an initial motivation toward the Navy- He may enter the Navy as an E-2, but the main benefits are, as I said, citizenship and some initial motivation.
General
53 High School ROTC Expanded
(Richard Homan in The Washington Post, 3 August 1969) While college ROTC programs come under intense attack from anti-war demonstrators and campus activists, the nationwide high school ROTC program has quietly been growing by leaps and bounds.
It already has three times as many units as the college program and by 1972 will have a larger enrollment, with a quarter of a million high school cadets. Like the college program, the Junior ROTC in high schools is directed and subsidized by the Pentagon.
The students are uniformed, study military sciences for three years, and drill. Training, of course, is less rigorous than in college, there are no summer camps, the high school program is less expensive and its graduates are not given military commissions.
In a period of close budget scrutiny, when it is forced to lop off spending requests for weapons, ships and planes, the Defense Department supports rapid expansion of the Junior ROTC program, which was enlarged to include all four services in 1964.
Because of higher priority demands, the schedule for full implementation of the JROTC program has been stretched out two years—with all services expecting now to reach their statutory limits in 1973 instead of 1971.
The JROTC program will cost the Defense Department about $5 million this year. By 1973, the Navy alone expects to be spending $4.3 million. By contrast, the Navy now spends $2.3 million a year on its college ROTC program but the Army spends $28.7 million.
When Congress enacted the ROTC Vitaliza- tion Act of 1964, it established a JROTC program for the Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. An Army program was already in existence, with units in 295 schools.
Congress set a limit of 1,200 units—650 for the Army, 275 for the Air Force, 245 for the Navy, and 30 for the Marines. By fall, about 850 units will be operating and the services hope to reach 1,200 by 1973.
This year, 144,400 high school students were enrolled in JROTC. The goal is 250,000. By contrast, 268 colleges have ROTC units this year and 284 will have them next year—-
with a total of 220,000 college students tak111^ part. Pentagon officials say both progr311^ could grow faster if the money to supP0 them became available.
The official Defense Department justify tion for the high school ROTC program is “since a major portion of the Federal budge is for the purpose of national defense a'’ since all young men are subject to poSS1. , military service, it is considered benehfl‘ that our high school students, as the futu taxpayers, voters and soldiers of Amet* have an opportunity to learn about the basl elements and requirements for national sC curity and their personal obligation as An*e^ ican citizens to participate in and contri
Nearly all of the JROTC units are in pttb*lC schools. Fewer than 10 per cent are in priv3l<j or military schools. Units are distribute1 throughout the country on a quota syste'n based on population density.
The Navy, for example, has establishe quotas for each state, ranging from 22 California and 17 for New York to one in ' of the smaller states.
Instructors are generally retired officers 1,1 NCOS who receive their retirement pay p^llS a supplement that brings the total to the salary they would receive if they were 0,1 active duty. The service and the school each pay half the supplement.
Uniforms, except for shoes, are furnished by the military service. The schools furnish normal classroom materials and the services loan special science classes and drills. The approximate cost to the Navy of setting UP and operating for a year a 170-cadet unit >s $38,350. Because of re-use of equipment, the cost drops to about $17,500 in later years.
[1] For a discussion of these factors, see the author’s Selected Cases and Problems in Real Estate, (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1963). pp 193-194.