Leader Development: A Framework for Decision-Making

The complex nature of war demands a core of leaders who can make sound and timely decisions. Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication (MCDP) 1: Warfighting, states, “war is not governed by the actions or decisions of a single individual in any one place but . . . involves near-countless independent but interrelated decisions and actions being taken simultaneously throughout the organization.” This requires a framework that can develop, inform, and guide decision-making. Leader development provides such a framework, and is essential for command and control,” for without it, “campaigns, battles, and organized engagements are impossible.”

Leadership

MCDP 1: Warfighting is clear, the “[h]uman will, instilled through leadership, is the driving force for all actions in war.” Therefore, the primary effort of the Marine Corps must be to produce the most capable, lethal leaders the world has ever known. Leadership is hard work though and must be developed like any other skill. According to General John A. Lejeune, the 13th Commandant of the Marine Corps, leadership is “the sum of those qualities of intellect, human understanding, and moral character that enable an individual to inspire and control a group of people successfully.” This is how the Marine Corps defines leadership. The simplicity of the definition makes it memorable. Its powerful influence makes it actionable. This framework is how capable, lethal leaders are developed.

Intellect

The first variable in General Lejeune’s leadership framework is intellect. Developing a leader’s intellect is critical to decision-making because it facilitates command and control and generates tempo necessary to outpace the enemy. To build a leader’s intellect, education is required.

In his initial guidance to Marines, General Eric M. Smith, the 39th Commandant of the Marine Corps, said, “[e]ducation makes us more adaptable; adaptation builds advantage; and advantage leads to victory on the battlefield.” In publications such as Warfighting and Learning, education of the force is “a primary responsibility of command,” and helps leaders prepare for the unknown.

Unfortunately, the value of education is not shared through the force. This is problematic because values influence behavior, behavior shapes character, and character creates culture. The Marine Corps cannot proclaim to have a culture that values education when the behaviors of the force indicate otherwise.

Data from staff noncommissioned officer promotion boards indicate that hundreds of promotions have been withheld due to a lack of professional military education (PME) completion. When leaders choose not to engage in education it hinders the development of decision-making, which, in turn, impacts the readiness and lethality of the force. To address this critical vulnerability, a better human understanding is necessary.

Human Understanding

The second variable in General Lejeune’s leadership framework is human understanding. Warfighting emphasizes that the human dimension is central to war. By developing human understanding leaders increase their knowledge base to inform decision-making and gain a tactical advantage. In Training and Education 2030, the 38th Commandant of the Marine Corps, General David H. Berger, said, “[t]he most important warfighting advantage we have is the mental and physical endurance of our Marines, and their ability to make better decisions under pressure than our adversaries.” To obtain that advantage, warfighters must understand human responses to pressure. To maintain that advantage, warfighters must influence human responses to either build strength or exploit it. Done well, this protects the force while increasing lethality. The importance of human understanding is why General Berger directed an analysis of stress effects on mental health. The concern with more analysis, however, is that the Marine Corps will generate new data with no guarantee that it will produce greater understanding.

In 2007, a force-level working group analyzed the effects of stress on warfighters, leading to the development of Marine Corps Tactical Publication 3-30E: Combat and Operational Stress Control (COSC). However, tactical-level decision-makers are largely unaware of these findings so understanding is incomplete and the information is not being implemented. With new studies underway, conditions are set for duplicative service-level efforts to be met with tactical-level inaction. But leaders do not need to wait for new data. The truths from 2007 are still relevant today.

For example, COSC principles provide structure for building strength in warfighters within four human domains: body, mind, spirit, and social. This “total fitness” model is how resilience is built. Recent studies indicate that resistance training has emotional effects that rival conventional antidepressants and psychotherapies (body); reading influences brain chemistry that diminishes negative emotions and heightens self-worth and self-esteem (mind); spirituality connects a person with purpose and values that have beneficial effects on physical, social, and mental health including greater longevity and quality of life and less depression, suicide, and substance use (spirit); and a sense of belonging is one of the most important traits for resilience development (social).

Using COSC principles, leaders gain human understanding that can be used to cultivate meaning and purpose as well as inspire action. Perhaps that is why PME is undervalued. Many Marines perceive PME as nothing more than a procedural requirement that lacks meaning and purpose. It takes leaders to establish purpose, influence values, and drive behavior for character building.

Moral Character

If intellect builds decision-making, and human understanding informs decision-making, then moral character guides decision-making. General Lejeune’s final variable of leadership is moral character. In his 2018 Marine Corps Gazette article, Navy Captain Dan Stallard, Chaplain Corps, reminds leaders that the nature of war is connected with the spirit of the warfighter through the intangibles of morals and morale. He explains this relationship by describing morals as right and wrong behaviors, while morale is influenced by one’s attitude toward those behaviors. From this perspective, an individual’s moral character not only helps guide decision-making but also affects an individual’s emotional response toward behaviors—a powerful motivator that drives action.

This belief was reinforced in General Berger’s 2019 initial planning guidance when he stated, “the Marine Corps developed its warfighting spirit and character in the values of honor, courage, and commitment.” In 2023, General Smith said, “our actions in and out of uniform must always reflect our core values.” Then, in the 2024 revision of Sustaining the Transformation, Marines are reminded that “a foundation of character based on the institution’s core values and principles will continue to earn the reputation of the Corps and rise to meet the future needs of the Nation.” These shared values guide decision-making and build character. However, a declaration of shared values does not mean shared understanding or application. For that to occur, Rear Admiral Carey H. Cash, Chaplain Corps, United States Navy, and Chaplain of the Marine Corps, believes values must be connected to a clear moral vision and then reinforced by habit development discussions and character education.¹

The service has created the conditions to guide decision-making efforts. These values become the left and right lateral limits that keep warfighters on target. The Marine Corps simply needs to operate within them. This is important because decisions made apart from values lead to leadership failure. When leaders engage in unguided or misguided decision-making, the number of leaders throughout the force is reduced due to consequential legal and administrative actions. Value-driven leaders are force multipliers who directly affect the ability to conduct command and control. Without these leaders, no form of operational, tactical, or emerging concept brilliance matters.

Further, misguided decisions impact lives—sometimes with dire consequences. Chaplain Stallard believes that the influx of destructive behaviors among service members has a direct correlation with the moral health and morale of individuals. Education is required to avoid these pitfalls and develop moral character. Thus, moral character cycles back to intellect development and education to reveal the full value of General Lejeune’s philosophy as a timeless, reinforcing construct that creates a decision-making framework to address the complexities of war and life.

Looking Forward

Leader development, which develops decision-making, is far from a simple endeavor. Combined with the complex nature of war, leadership becomes a matter of life and death. That cost is too high to ignore, and it demands the proper development of leaders and their decision-making abilities. General Lejeune’s leadership philosophy simplifies the endeavor by providing a framework that will develop leaders equipped to inspire and instill human will while coordinating warfighting actions. This enables military forces to place leaders in positions for the independent, interrelated decisions and simultaneous actions necessary for effective command and control. General Charles Krulak once said, “missions will require them [Marines] to confidently make well-reasoned and independent decisions under extreme stress.” Through deliberate action to instill General Lejeune’s philosophy in every leader, the Marine Corps will create a core of strong, capable, lethal leaders empowered to make sound and timely decisions to overcome any challenge.