When President George W. Bush spoke at the U.S. Naval Academy's commencement last May, he noted it was "a good time to reflect for a moment on the things that change and the things that never change." Many things have changed since the end of the Cold War, including the illusion of invulnerability that was tom down on 11 September. We continue to face dangers, but they are more diffused and less predictable. In such a world, the United States still requires what the President called "a forward strategy for freedom"—with the Navy-Marine Corps team integral to that strategy. Last year, the modest premium the nation pays for this kind of insurance proved to be a wise investment.
Operations
The Corps' knack for anticipating the nature of future conflict and developing the requisite capabilities was evident again in 2001. While naval expeditionary forces are designed to protect our interests as far forward as possible, they must be prepared to respond when the United States itself comes under attack. Following the shocking use of the nerve agent sarin in the Tokyo subway system in 1995, the Marines weighed that requirement and soon created an operational unit called the Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (CBIRF) to respond to acts of chemical and biological terrorism. The readily deployable "consequence-management" capability came in handy in October 2001 during Operation Noble Eagle, when anthrax contaminated government facilities and post offices in and around the U.S. capitol. Within two hours, the CBIRF, commanded by Colonel T. X. Hammes, gave assistance to federal and municipal agencies. Marines and sailors rendered around-the-clock support for two weeks on Capitol Hill, clearing equipment and decontaminating affected offices.
Within a month after the 11 September attacks, the Corps established a new antiterrorism unit, the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade (Anti-Terrorism) [4th MEB (AT)]. It will help organize, train, and equip rapidly deployable units to prevent, deter, and respond to terrorism worldwide. The brigade combines a new specialized Anti-Terrorism Battalion with Marine security guards stationed at U.S. embassies abroad, Fleet Anti-terrorist Security Teams, and the CBIRF. The reorganized brigade is commanded by Brigadier General Douglas V. O'Dell. Commandant of the Marine Corps General James L. Jones attended the reactivation ceremony at Camp Lejeune, accompanied by many former commanders of the brigade—including Generals Al Gray and Carl Mundy, the 29th and 30th Commandants, respectively. "Activation of the 4th MEB (AT) puts the world on notice," General O'Dell noted pointedly at the ceremony breaking out the unit's colors, "there will be Marines guarding our nation with increased vigilance and an attitude." Although its missions and capabilities continue to evolve, the brigade became fully operational on 1 December—and, in short order, deployed forces to secure the reestablished U.S. embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan.
Operation Enduring Freedom
The Marine Corps' contribution to Enduring Freedom began with one of the traditional missions that each Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable) [MEU (SOC)] prepares for during its predeployment training: a tactical recovery of aircraft and personnel (TRAP) mission executed by the California-based 15th MEU (SOC) under the command of Colonel Thomas D. Waldhauser. Mission planning began 20 October to recover an Army UH-60 helicopter that had crashed in Pakistan after returning from a sortie against Taliban forces. While inbound, the TRAP element exchanged fire with unknown ground forces during a refueling stop and returned to the Peleliu (LHA-5). On the 24th, with additional air cover and security forces, the mission was completed without incident. The MEU's aviation element was back in combat on 3 November, when its AV-813 Harriers conducted close air support missions in Afghanistan.
In late November, the 15th MEU was joined by the 26th MEU (SOC) led by Colonel Andrew P. Frick, who was embarked in the Bataan (LHD-5). Along with their amphibious ready groups (ARGs), they were organized into Task Force 58, under the command of Brigadier General James N. Mattis. Task Force 58 performed the kind of deep-strike mission embodied in concepts such as "Operational Maneuver from the Sea." Tasked on short notice as part of Operation Swift Freedom, General Mattis and his subordinate commanders quickly tailored a strike force in six CH-53E Sea Stallions and deployed it 400 miles inland to a site southwest of Kandahar, Afghanistan. On 25 November, the Marines established an austere forward operating base and dubbed it Camp Rhino. Using the base and its limited airfield to bring in reinforcements, Task Force 58 conducted mobile "hunter-killer" patrols with ground and aviation units to impede fleeing enemy forces. The exceptional flexibility and operational reach demonstrated by the Marines stunned many outsiders. But it surprised no one familiar with the Corps' tradition of innovation—and General Jones's endeavors to extend that tradition farther and faster than ever.
Task Force 58 also conducted a number of reconnaissance patrols and established blocking positions to deny egress to the enemy. On 14 December, a Marine force took control of the badly damaged airport at Kandahar, thereby enabling the joint commander to safely fly in additional combat forces for subsequent operations in the caves and ravines of the Tora Bora region. Three Marines were wounded by a mine while clearing the airport area.
In addition to the superb work of Task Force 58 and the 200 Marines of the 4th MEB (AT) deployed to Kabul as a security force, the Corps had two fighter squadrons involved heavily in theater operations. The "Thunderbolts" of VMFA-251, from Beaufort, South Carolina, were on board the Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) and VMFA-314's "Black Knights," home based in Miramar, California, flew from the John C. Stennis (CVN-74). These air and ground elements were reinforced later by the arrival of the Camp Pendleton-based 13th MEU (SOC), led by Colonel Christopher J. Gunther, which accelerated its predeployment and special training to arrive in theater in time to relieve the earlier deployed MEUs in late December.
The noteworthy performance of the Marines was not without a price. Seven Marines died when their KC-130R refueler crashed in a mountainous area in Pakistan on 9 January. Colonel Frick delivered a moving eulogy to his fallen comrades from VMGR-352's "Raiders" at a memorial service in theater on 12 January. Then, two more Marines lost their lives when their CH-53E made a hard landing near Kabul on 20 January.
The Marines in Enduring Freedom proved themselves as ready and adaptable as their forebears. The need for strategically agile forces with a broad portfolio of capabilities was revalidated. And events in South Asia have underscored the importance of ensuring access by means of sea bases that permit U.S. forces to operate forward, consistent with political sensitivities and force-protection requirements. However, sea basing is only a means to an end. To achieve operationally relevant objectives, our forces must be able to range throughout the battle space. Although naval expeditionary forces proved they could accomplish this, they were at the extreme operating ranges of their legacy systems. The conflict suggests that ongoing weapon programs—especially those that enhance the mobility and deployable firepower of Marine expeditionary forces—should be pursued vigorously.
More than any other lesson, the value of combined arms in fast-moving and nonlinear expeditionary operations comes through loud and clear. While air power no doubt was essential, operations by special operations teams and Army and Marine units underscored the need for ground forces—to provide terminal guidance for precision-guided munitions attacks on the enemy, if not to maneuver and destroy him. Further, in situations where no cohesive indigenous ground force is available, U.S. ground combat forces must fill the vacuum. As the Commandant pointed out in a radio interview, air power accomplished a great deal, but "its been able to do that because of the link to the man on the ground; if he hadn't been there, in my opinion, we'd still be looking for targets."
Exercises
One of the overlooked lessons learned from Enduring Freedom and the wider global war against terrorism is how existing military relationships contribute to availability of access, facilities, and other support. Vital relationships are maintained throughout the year by regular bilateral and multilateral training and exercises, as well as port calls. In a world where the location of the next conflict is hard to predict and allies are invaluable partners, such military exercises and visits pay huge dividends.
The 24th MEU (SOC), commanded by Colonel Richard Mills, offered an example of the benefits that accrue to the nation through its forward-deployed strategy. Embarked in the Kearsarge (LHD-3) ARG, the 24th MEU sailed from the East Coast and headed straight to a bilateral exercise in Morocco, Exercise Mediterranean Shark '01. The MEU's major components, Battalion Landing Team 2d Battalion, 8th Marines (BLT 2/8), and reinforced Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 266, showcased their respective capabilities 18-20 May at Samar Beach, Morocco. After a brief stop in Croatia, MEU elements embarked in the Ponce (LPD-15) went through the Dardenelles to the Black Sea for their role in Exercise Cooperative Partner in late June. The 14-nation training event—a key part of NATO's Partnership for Peace program—was designed to increase interoperability and proficiency in humanitarian assistance operations. Lieutenant Colonel John Lopez, the commander of MEU Service Support Group 24, noted, "It was an historic event since it was the first time NATO forces landed in the former Soviet republic of Georgia."
While the Ponce laid off Georgia, the other 24th MEU elements headed to Greece for Exercise Alexander the Great, a superb training session with Greek troops that included sustained live firing of crew-served weapons, artillery, and tanks. The MEU shifted next to Exercise Trident d'Or, where it operated with Spanish, French, and Italian troops. During Exercise Albanian Bilat on the island of Sazan in July, the MEU's Marines and sailors were able to refresh urban warfare skills, which came in handy in their next evolution: a month-long exercise in Kosovo during Operation Rapid Cheetah. Acting as the strategic reserve for Kosovo Force, the 24th MEU worked with U.S. Army and allied elements of Task Force Falcon at Camp Bondsteel, conducting patrols and show-of-force tasks.
The Corps' "total force" approach to life is evident even in exercise schedules. Marine reservists from the 25th Marines in Worcester, Massachusetts, sailed to Europe and participated in Exercise Sea Breeze 2001, which featured an amphibious landing and humanitarian exercise near Odessa, Ukraine, 5-17 July. They practiced their field skills and conducted cross training with the Ukrainian Marines and Turkish naval infantry.
Not every exercise occurs in exotic places. Marines of Ist MEB joined with Amphibious Group Three for Exercise Kernel Blitz '01 off the California coast in March. They were joined by more than 15,000 U.S. military personnel from the Army, Air Force, and Coast Guard. In what was billed as the largest exercise in the eastern Pacific, the MEB proved its mettle by planning and executing a brigade-sized landing in a joint operation. The Ist MEB commanding general, Brigadier General James R. Battaglini, took pride in his Hawaii-based Marines and noted, "It is an invaluable experience anytime we get to practice with our Navy counterparts." Later in the year, the Ist MEB command element and more than 2,000 Marines and sailors deployed to Egypt for Exercise Bright Star '01. Linking up with the 26th MEU (SOC) in October, the 1st MEB served as the command element for Marine participation in a wide-ranging training event that involved more than 70,000 troops.
Other deploying units maintained the same intense levels of activity. The 22nd MEU (SOC), embarked in the Nassau (LHA-4) ARG, demonstrated its amphibious prowess during a week-long fire training exercise on Sardinia in February. In addition to an amphibious assault, the MEU conducted a force-on-force exercise with an Italian armored unit. Lieutenant Colonel Gilbert Desroches, commanding officer of BLT 1/8, noted that such exercises gave his Marines the opportunity to do a "full amphibious assault using all the assets of the BLT," while opposing a highly proficient adversary. Later, the 22nd MEU moved into the Adriatic Ocean for Exercise Slunj 2001, where the North Carolina-based Marines and sailors rubbed elbows with veteran Croatian Army troops. From 11 to 22 April, they shared snow, mud, hail, and freezing nights with the Croats in the course of weapon-familiarization drills and cross training.
In the western Pacific, Okinawa-based Marines of the 31st MEU demonstrated their skills during Exercise Tandem Thrust 2001, a 27-day event in Australia's Shoalwater Bay Training Area near Queensland. This annual event brought together more than 18,000 participants from Canada, Thailand, Singapore, the Philippines, the United States, and Australia. The exercise trained regional forces for contingency operations and enhanced the interoperability of the various units involved.
Company L, 3rd Battalion, 8th Marines, traded in surfboards for skis on the island of Hokkaido in northern Japan, where the Camp Lejeune leathernecks participated in Exercise Forest Light 2001 from 20 February to 6 March. The bilateral training gave them a keen appreciation for the cold-weather skills of the Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force.
Elsewhere in the Pacific region, the 11th MEU (SOC) stopped in Dili, East Timor, and conducted a medical combined action program. The MEU arrived in the Persian Gulf in May and proceeded to Kuwait, where it participated in Exercise Eager Mace, a live-fire, combined arms evolution.
From 27 April to 10 May, Exercise Balikatan 2001 in the Philippines was another key Pacific evolution that provided valuable cross training and a chance to refine amphibious techniques. More than 800 Marines from the Marine Air-Ground Task Force Training Command, Twentynine Palms, California, flew in for this combined event.
The annual South American naval exercise, UNITAS, was carried out successfully in October. Camp Lejeune Marines made a series of port visits in the region and conducted amphibious and live-fire training exercises in Peru and Chile.
Programs and Resources
The Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) presented the Marine Corps with a major challenge in 2001. Faced with a new Department of Defense (DoD) leadership team focused on investing in hightechnology, "leap-ahead" systems-such as missile defense and space-based programs-the deck was stacked against the air-ground task forces that are the Marines' stock-in-trade. Initially, DoD leaders seemed opposed to forward-presence tasks and multilateral engagement. The Corps did not contest the need to think anew about future threats and the rapid nature of technological change. However, the Marines continued to view themselves as the nation's general-purpose force in readiness that could provide regional commanders-in-chief with quickly deployable combined-arms teams across the span of conflict.
Aided greatly by General Jones's resolute leadership and the persistent contribution of the small Marine QDR cell led by then-Major General Robert Magnus, the Corps made its case for evolutionary transformation of expeditionary forces. Ultimately, the final QDR report stressed the need for adaptability in the face of asymmetric threats and uncertainty, and it supported the Marine Corps program. General Magnus concluded that the QDR was a firm endorsement of a capabilities-based approach to defense planning. He said the review "enabled our senior leadership to highlight the means by which we sustain that readiness through a continuous transformation process encompassing organizational and operational concepts, plus leveraging both leap-ahead technology—for example, the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF), MV-22, and advanced amphibious assault vehicle (AAAV)—and new uses of legacy systems, such as laser-guided bomb kits on 'dumb' bombs."
MV-22. After an ill-started year in 2000, the Marine Corps' top aviation program got back on track. The tilt-rotor Osprey promises to revolutionize expeditionary operations and dramatically increase the operational reach of Marine (and other) forces. Its superior range, speed, and payload will make it possible to accomplish missions from distances unthinkable with the CH-46 Sea Knight, which dates back to Vietnam. Recent operations in Afghanistan have further demonstrated the immediate need for the MV-22's range and speed.
The program was approaching the milestone for full production until 11 December 2000, when an MV-22 crashed near Marine Corps Air Station New River, North Carolina, during practice night landings. All four crewmembers died—this, eight months after an earlier crash near Tucson, Arizona, that took the lives of 19 Marines. In the aftermath of the December accident, allegations regarding Osprey maintenance records were raised and a series of investigations were initiated to uncover the underlying problems.
The program office and the squadron's crews sat on pins and needles for most of the past year. After review, the MV-22's fundamental design was cleared. Both the DoD Panel to Review the V-22 Program and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Tilt-rotor Aeromechanics Phenomena Assessment Panel concluded that tilt-rotor technology is sound. The mishaps were deemed to have resulted from engineering deficiencies that can be resolved. The blue-ribbon panel appointed by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and chaired by former Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps General John R. Dailey made a series of recommendations regarding funding, phasing, engineering, training, and testing. With respect to alleged maintenance record manipulation, Lieutenant General Raymond P. Ayres Jr., the commanding general of Marine Forces Atlantic, conducted Article 15 (non-judicial punishment) hearings on eight officers. Six of the Marines were cleared; two were found guilty of dereliction of duty and awarded punitive letters of reprimand.
The Marine Corps is aware of the testing and technological challenges the Osprey poses, but remains confident the program will bear fruit and represent a transformational capability. This confidence was confirmed by the decision of Edward "Pete" Aldridge, the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, to move forward with a new test program. The Corps still plans to procure 360 aircraft manufactured by Bell Helicopter Textron and Boeing.
Joint Strike Fighter. The contract awarded in October 2001 to Lockheed Martin moves the nation closer to getting a stealthy, single-engine supersonic strike fighter. The Marines see the short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) JSF as a substantial step forward that combines the basing flexibility and revolutionary features of the AV-8 Harrier with the multimission capabilities of the F/A-18 Hornet. A stealthy aircraft that can take off from an expeditionary base on land or afloat, fly at supersonic cruise speeds, conduct its missions with highly advanced sensors and precision weapons, and return to an austere landing site is well suited to Marine needs.
The JSF provides the increased reliability, survivability, and lethality that naval expeditionary forces will need in the years ahead. Further, the STOVL variant provides operational access to more than three times the number of airfields around the world that currently are capable of supporting Marine Corps tactical aircraft. When JSFs move from sea-based platforms to expeditionary airfields ashore (and closer to the forces they are supporting), they decrease their mission response times by 75% and increase their on-station loiter time by 50%. The Marines plan to buy 600 JSFs, with initial deliveries in fiscal year (FY) 2008.
Fire Support Systems. Marine Corps fire support capabilities are due for a boost in the near term with the acquisition of the Lightweight 155-mm howitzer (LW 155). It is one of a number of programs aimed at rectifying the ground combat element's ineffective and ponderous organic fire support. The LW 155 is needed to replace aging artillery weapons that cannot meet requirements for rapid displacement and expeditionary operations. After initial prototypes had problems, the LW 155 program was restructured to provide additional testing and evaluation. An initial production decision is slated for September 2002, and the initial operational capability (IOC) has slipped to early FY 2005. The Corps plans to buy more than 400 of these new howitzers, although alternative expeditionary fire support systems possibly could change the final equation.
Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle. This program continues to be the Corps' highest ground procurement priority. The AAAV is an armored amphibious combat vehicle crewed by three Marines and capable of carrying 17 combat-ready Marines. It offers high-speed, surface maneuver from ship to shore and rapid movement on land. The vehicle will deploy from ships located over the horizon-25 miles and more-to inland objectives, thereby keeping ships beyond the range of many threat weapons and surveillance systems. The AAAV affords greater survivability, speed, and protection in a nuclear, biological, and chemical environment. It can reach speeds of 20 miles per hour in the water and almost 45 miles per hour on land. Its Mk 44 Bushmaster II 30-mm cannon has an extremely lethal direct fire capability. The AAAV program slipped slightly in 2001, delaying full-rate production. The delay will permit additional operational tests and modifications for prototype vehicles to enhance reliability of the electronic and hydraulic systems. A production decision is slated for FY 2005 and the IOC has moved to the end of FY 2007. Plans to acquire 1,013 vehicles between 2007 and 2017 will-absorb a substantial portion of the Corps' tight modernization budget.
High-Speed Vessel. Sea-based operations require innovative means of intratheater mobility for reinforcements and logistic assets. A fast catamaran provides dramatic increases in speed and tactical flexibility for naval forces. Not surprisingly, the Marine Corps enthusiastically supports the high-speed vessel (HSV) concept and is conducting experiments with various options. Building on the operational experience of the Australian Jervis Bay, the Joint Venture HSV promises to deliver remarkable results.
The III Marine Expeditionary Force in Okinawa has leased a 331-foot commercial catamaran, Austal West Pac Express, to transport Marines and their gear to training exercises throughout Asia. It can carry 950 Marines and 550 tons of materiel—the equivalent of 14 to 17 military cargo aircraft. The Corps' leadership is intent on evaluating the potential of such vessels to support sea-basing concepts for future power-projection missions. "Your imagination is the only limit with this ship:' observed Major General Clifford Stanley, Deputy Commander of the Marine Corps Combat Development Command.
Experimentation
The Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL), commanded by Brigadier General William D. Catto Jr., is the focal point for the Commandant's goal of capitalizing on innovation and exploring the future with war games and experimentation. The MCWL finished its three-phased Warrior Series experiments in 2001. The first, Hunter Warrior, examined power projection operations using information technology and precision indirect weapons in support of dispersed ground units in an extended battle space. Many of the tactics and techniques used in this 1996 experiment bear a marked resemblance to events in Afghanistan. In 1999, Urban Warrior focused on the use of information technology and new tactics in urban combat. The latest series of experiments, Capable Warrior, ended in the summer of 2001. They explored broadband wireless technologies, decision support tools, and collaborative decision-making systems in extended sea-based operations.
In 2001, MCWL work was refocused to ensure it complemented joint experimentation and produced the capabilities needed to support future joint force commanders. To establish a better link to joint requirements, service-specific experiments were rescheduled. Concurrently, in its role as an engine for experimentation and change on behalf of the Operating Forces, the laboratory continued development of tactics, techniques, and technologies to improve the performance of Marine forces in sea-based operations and urban combat. Efforts to satisfy "the customer" included:
An integrated tactical reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (RSTA) system at the battalion level that enhances battle space situational awareness from the bottom up. "Project RSTA" conducted operational evaluations of the prototype Dragon Eye unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) in support of company- and battalion-level tactical requirements. Dragon Eye is a portable UAV that weighs only four pounds and has a range of ten kilometers and a speed of 35 nautical miles per hour. It gives company commanders the ability to see what is down the road or over the next hill.
Dragon Fire, the rifled 120-mm mortar. This prototype expeditionary fire-support system can put accurate and lethal fire out to eight miles and can be loaded internally in a MV-22.
Advanced close air support system software. This is needed to satisfy precision targeting deficiencies identified in past and current combat operations.
Tradition and Esprit
While the Marines rarely allow conventional thinking to get in the way of innovative tactics and organizations, they never fail to live up to their motto, Semper Fidelis, when it comes to taking care of their own and remembering past contributions. This is especially true for those who have made the ultimate sacrifice.
After nearly six decades, the bodies of 13 Marines killed in the famous raid on Japanese-held Makin Island were brought home for burial. They were part of the assault made by the 2d Raider Battalion, led by Lieutenant Colonel Evans F. Carlson, at dawn on 17 August 1942. In the confusion, the battalion withdrew but left behind casualties, who eventually were captured and executed. The Raiders have never forgotten those Marines; an excavation team found their remains in late 1999. They were eulogized by the Commandant as valiant warriors and laid to rest at Arlington National Cemetery on 17 August 2001, 59 years to the day they wrote their own page into the annals of Marine Corps history.
Conclusions
The high order of professionalism shown by Marines in Afghanistan reflects the Corps' devotion to both readiness and innovation. Operation Enduring Freedom confirms the relevance of today's Marine capabilities and also reinforces efforts to improve those competencies by combining new operational concepts, adaptive organizations, and advanced technologies. General Jones captured the essence of this effort this year in a new capstone concept written in "Expeditionary Maneuver Warfare," a concept that truly blends "the things that change and the things that never change."
In his remarks at Annapolis, the President called for a renewed spirit of innovation and said that 15 years from now he could imagine "agile Marine task forces ready to deploy with far greater speed, operational reach, and precision than ever before." If the events of 2001 are any indication, the Marine Corps is well ahead of schedule.