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By Admiral Frank B. Kelso II, U.S. Navy
Effective offensive and defensive mine warfare underlies— literally—the success of littoral military operations. With a renewed focus on the threat and a reorganization of the mine warfare command structure, we can now ensure command of the sea—from the air, the surface, and below.
We recently relearned some hard lessons—how mines can frustrate even the most powerful of naval forces. During Operation Desert Storm, Iraq’s extensive minefields all but stymied a planned amphibious strike to liberate Kuwait. The U.S. Navy itself used naval mines to cut off the Iraqi Navy’s access to the northern Persian Gulf. This series of events showed us the clear need for a comprehensive Mine Warfare Plan.
Mine warfare is a complex and dynamic area of naval warfare that requires long-term commitment to research, intelligence, fleet tactical development, integrated training, and realistic joint exercises.
The U.S. national security and military strategies rest upon our ability to use the seas freely, and maritime superiority continues to be the most critical aspect of those strategies. The United States must be able to control the seas in peacetime, crisis, and war; maritime superiority is the key to safeguarding global sea lines of communication with our trading partners and military allies, and to ensuring our ability to influence events and project joint military power to distant theaters of operation in support of our national interests.
Our experiences in peacetime crises, regional conflicts, and global war have taught us that mines present a formidable threat to our ability to achieve and maintain sea control and project power; moreover, it is a threat that demands a coordinated and comprehensive response. Recent estimates indicate that the former Soviet Navy mine arsenal alone includes as many as 250,000 to 450,000 weapons. Along with other military equipment, many of these mines may eventually go to Third World states so that the former Soviet republics may obtain hard currency to shore up their failing economies. Add to that a world mine inventory numbering perhaps in the hundreds of thousands, held by more than 40 states, and the full dimension of this undersea threat to U.S. and allied interests comes into sharper focus. The potential threat of mines to the movements of
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troduction into naval operations more than 200 years ago. The average bottom mine, for example, is a cylinder 21 inches in diameter and no more than six or seven feet in length. Many have warheads of 1,000 pounds or more. Almost any surface vessel—including merchant ships and small boats as well as dedicated minelaying craft—can lay mines clandestinely, and many types can be laid by submarines, aircraft, and helicopters. Bottom mines can sit in water ranging from the surf zone to many hundreds of feet offshore; they often become buried in bottom sediment, making them virtually undetectable. Some mines also come coated with anechoic materials or materials to accelerate marine growth, making detection a much more arduous task. Deep-water rising mines can be deployed in depths of several thousand feet, extending the threat well beyond the continental margins. Moored buoyant mines, suspended
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reventing mines “from being put into the water in the first place” is t e most logical aspect of mine countermeasures—here, the mines of the captured Iran Ajr in 1987 never presented a threat.
unng Operation Desert Storm, however, Iraqi mine danger areas (MDAs) were factors in deterring U.S. amphibious operations.
U.S. Navy ships and submarines and to the commercial oceanborne trade carried on by practically all maritime nations is indeed global in scope and complexity—and demands a clearly focused mine countermeasures effort.
In a sense, mines are the true stealth weapons of the 1990s and beyond. They have been such since their in
in the water or free-floating on the surface, are extremely difficult to detect and avoid.
The probabilities of mine detection and avoidance and of minesweeping and neutralization thus become uncertain, even in the best of situations. There is a premium on comprehensive intelligence and offensive mine countermeasures—the most effective of which is to prevent mines from being put into the water in the first place. The capture of the mine-laden Iran Ajr by U.S. forces in September 1987 during Operation Earnest Will (U.S. protection of U.S.-flagged tankers in the Iran-Iraq War) is an excellent example of proactive mine countermeasures. Such offensive actions clearly complement the difficult and dangerous mine countermeasures operations—sweeping, hunting, and neutralizing mines—of our airborne, surface ship, and explosive-ordnance-disposal-diver assets. Good intelligence is vitally important, because it provides critical information about the location and extent of minefields and the types of mines in them.
Offensive and defensive mining are often-overlooked facets of U.S. mine warfare capabilities. During Operation Desert Storm naval aircraft conducted the first U.S. °ffensive mining action since the Vietnam War. On 18 January 1991 the U.S. Navy laid mines at the mouth of ihe Khawr Az Zubayr River near the Kuwait-Iraq border to isolate Iraqi port facilities and naval bases at A1 Basrah, Az Zubayr, and Umm Qasr. Eighteen aircraft from ihe USS Ranger (CV-61), including four A-6s carrying ^k-36 Destructor mines, executed the mission. Of the 48 atines carried, 42 were laid successfully at four locations.
One aircraft suffered a failure of its release mechanism and had to divert to Bahrain; one A-6 Intruder was shot down after laying its mines—testimony to the operation’s danger. Current plans also envision the tactical use of mines in defensive operations to protect flanks or important ports.
During Desert Storm, we operated closely with Coalition mine countermeasures forces. In future crises and conflicts we may not have such capable allies. Because we are certain that the mine threat will not diminish, we must maintain the capability to conduct independent mine countermeasures operations.
A Well-Structured Mine Warfare Plan_________________
We have closely scrutinized the Navy’s requirements for effective mine countermeasures forces and concepts of such operations. Our experiences in Operations Earnest Will, Desert Shield, and Desert Storm began to shift emphasis from global conventional war to regional con icts and crises. The dissolution of the Soviet Union has given this shift an even greater impetus. U.S. national security interests—which include supporting allies, ensuring t e safety of U.S. citizens and overseas concerns, and maintaining unimpeded access to markets and resour^es throughout the world—are grounded in our unfettered abi - ity to use the seas. In terms of our highest priorities, then, we have addressed the following requirements ,n Mine Warfare Plan presented to Congress in spring 199 •
>• A single flag officer responsible for and possessing the authority to direct our mine warfare efforts, including operational control of mine countermeasures forces
- The resources to improve the readiness of existing mine warfare forces
- Mine countermeasures training, exercises, and personnel development programs that will enhance current op-
Mine Warfare Reorganization
One of the most critical lessons of the Navy’s participation in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm was the compelling need to reorganize mine warfare within the Navy’s operational and administrative command struc-
“When you can’t go where you want to, when you want to, you haven’t got command of the sea. And command of the sea is a rock-bottom foundation for all our war plans. We’ve been plenty submarine-conscious and airconscious. Now we’re going to start getting mine-conscious—beginning last week.”
erational capabilities and provide a cadre of highly skilled and motivated mine warfare people
- The resources and platforms necessary to provide lift, support, and command and control for our deployed mine forces
- The problems of conducting efficient, effective, and speedy mine countermeasures operations in the very-shallow, surf-zone, and craft-landing-zone environments in support of amphibious assaults
- The necessary resources to improve existing mines and enhance mine-delivery capabilities
The critical initiatives and programs that we will emphasize in the coming years specifically address command reorganization and relationships, mine countermeasures training, and mines and programs for deep-water, shallow-water, and very-shallow-water/surf- zone/craft-landing-zone environments.' We are convinced that the plan and programs we have in place today and will pursue in the future will make effective use of scarce resources to meet real needs in an uncertain and still-threatening world.
ture. The reorganization entails two principal elements: to place all mine countermeasures forces under the operational control of a flag officer who has no other collateral duties and to provide for deployable group mine warfare commanders and staffs who are ready for rapid movement to overseas mine-crisis areas.
These goals came to fruition in January 1992 when Rear Admiral John Pearson, Commander, Mine Warfare Command, assumed operational control of all U.S. mine warfare forces from his headquarters in Charleston, South Carolina. At the same time, Mine Groups One and Two were established as the Navy’s tactical experts in mine warfare. Our plans call for the collocation of all surface—- and possibly airborne and explosive-ordnance-disposal— mine-countermeasures assets, as a means to sustain the renaissance of mine warfare throughout the Navy.
Training and Personnel Plan
In addition to the continued training of mine warfare personnel at the Fleet and Mine Warfare Training Center and our intention to integrate mine warfare more fully into fleet, joint, and combined exercises, several specific aspects of our current and future training programs and systems deserve special discussion. We are convinced that these elements will contribute to the strong foundation for our future capabilities.
First, we must continue to study and exploit potentially hostile mines. This effort helps us understand how they function, determine their lethality, and develop effective counter tactics and systems. Recognition is a fundamental aspect of our capability; without it, our mine countermeasures forces would in a sense be operating in the dark, putting themselves in jeopardy.
Next—and related to mine exploitation—we have put in place a program to acquire and maintain sufficient numbers of versatile exercise mine systems for fleet training and assessments. We can program these systems to emulate any known influence mine—including data derived from our exploitation of foreign mines—and use them to assess the effectiveness of equipment and tactics. It is also a cost-effective aid for all related operational training.
Finally, we are acquiring the AN/SSQ 94 combat systems trainer in a phased modular installation on board all Avenger (MCM-1)- and Osprey (MHC-51)-class ships. This provides us the capability for on-board training of individual systems operators or the entire combat systems team. The SSQ 94 modules include the AN/SLQ 48 mine neutralization system, the SSN 2 precise integrated navigation system, the AN/SQQ 32 minehunting sonar, and the MHC AN/SYQ 13 navigation/command-and-control system. The addition of this capability brings mine countermeasures on-the-job training to an equal footing with all other naval warfare areas.
From another perspective, we know that mine warfare must be better understood throughout the Navy to ensure its future success. In addition to the training and exercise initiatives intended to integrate more completely mine warfare tactics and operations into the operating forces and the mine courses offered at the Fleet Mine Warfare Training Center, the Navy must be better educated in this complex warfare area. I have asked the Commander, Mine Warfare Command, to assess how mining and mine countermeasures subjects are taught at the U.S. Naval Academy, the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps/Officer Candidate School, Surface Warfare Officers School, Submarine School, Naval Postgraduate School, and the Naval War College. To reach our goal of having the total force understand the importance of mines and mine countermeasures, we need to tailor an appropriate mine warfare curriculum for each level of naval education. In addition, We are working vigorously with the joint staff to inurease the awareness of joint officers about mine warfare s Unique requirements.
Mine Warfare Technology Development Program
This program provides the resources for U.S. Navy basic research for mine and mine countermeasures technology Initiatives; it also supports research in mine delivery systems and improved mine effectiveness. The program places a high priority on technologies and concepts for shallow and very-shallow-water/surf-zone/craft-loading-zone mine countermeasures. Specific technologies and concepts include: shallow-water sonar performance; magnetic systems; rapid mine-clearance and obstacle-breaching systems, such as improved-efficiency distributed explosive net arrays; a semiautonomous underwater vehicle for clandestine, rapid, shallow-water mine detection and neutralization; a mobile underwater mine neutralization weapon; shallow-water air and surface influence sweep methods; and mine hard-kill techniques. We are investigating new mine delivery systems for both aircraft and submarines, and advanced mine sensor technologies with specific applications for regional conflict.
International Cooperation
The U.S. Navy’s mine warfare efforts have benefited from an active international data-exchange program, an ongoing dialogue that is important because allied navies have advanced mine-warfare—particularly mine countermeasures—programs and capabilities. The United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan are notably capable in mine warfare. In addition to numerous formal mine-warfare data-exchange agreements with foreign navies, we have adopted the following several foreign technologies and systems for our mine countermeasures force:
- A French mine classification system is incorporated into the AN/SQQ 32 minehunting sonar
>- The Osprey (MHC-51)-class minehunting ship is a variant of the Italian Lerici-class mine-warfare ship
- We continue to acquire the British versatile exercise mine system
- We acquired two Swedish semiautonomous acoustic/ magnetic remote mine countermeasures systems for Operation Desert Storm
In the future, we will continue to seek the significant leverage derived from close cooperation with our allies and friends on mine warfare programs. We must take full advantage of foreign expertise and excellence in mine warfare as we work together to respond to the ever-evolving mine threat.
Mine Countermeasures Requirements
While experiences and lessons learned from Operations Jesert Shield and Desert Storm strongly indicate that we nust emphasize and enhance our mine countermeasures :apabilities in shallow waters, we must not allow our exsting capabilities against deeper water mine threats to an >uish. Accordingly, while we are exerting a concerte e 'ort to deal with mine threats in water less than 200 teet leep to beyond the high-water mark on the shore, we wi dso continue to support programs and systems to counter nines in deep water. These range from improvements t iur existing surface and airborne mine neutralization sys- ems to completely new technologies and systems intended o permit high-speed surveillance of wide areas to deter- nine the presence and extent of mines.
Mine Requirements
U.S. strategy requires both offensive and defensive mining. As in Desert Storm, we need mines that we can lay in planned minefields or use tactically to support the operations of our surface ships and submarines. The Navy also requires mines that can be targeted against surface ships or submarines, laid in deep or shallow water, and laid by both overt and clandestine means.
The tactical use of mines in support of regional conflicts will impose difficult requirements: shallow-water submarines; great diversity of target types and operational environments; flexibility in mine deployments and timing of fields; and a need for high volumes of weapon deliveries within short periods of time. We will also need 24- hour-a-day mining operations and greater operational flexibility in target detection devices to account for the wide variety of anticipated target types and signatures in future conflicts. We may also need to address the requirement for enhancing mine delivery capabilities from our submarines and for quickly sterilizing our own mines in order to respond to the unpredictable flow of battle.
Conclusion
I cannot overemphasize the fact that both mines and mine countermeasures constitute fundamental building blocks of naval power. We cannot afford to allow our capabilities in this vital warfare area to atrophy or decay in the future, whether by design or benign neglect. That will be one measure of how well we respond to the enduring requirements for naval forces and the forces of change in the post-Cold War era.
The Mine Warfare Plan and our mine countermeasures and mine programs already in place will enable sea-control and power-projection forces to deal with the real-world threats that we face today and that will challenge us in the years ahead. We have addressed mine warfare requirements within the contexts of the President’s National Security Policy and the Military Strategy of the United States, documents that clearly lay out the need for joint forces to enhance conflict deterrence, maintain forward presence in critical world regions, and to respond effectively to regional crises that threaten U.S. citizens, interests, and friends throughout the world. Naval forces will be enabling elements of any joint U.S. military operation in the future. The Navy’s mine warfare forces will similarly enable U.S. naval forces—the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard—to carry out myriad missions and tasks in support of national policy and strategy, specifically those occurring in littoral areas where the mine threat from Third World and regional powers is most likely to be encountered—and has been encountered repeatedly since the end of World War II. Clearly, our ability to conduct effective mine countermeasures and to employ mines when it is in our interest to do so will be critical for the success of future naval operations.
Admiral Kelso is the Chief of Naval Operations and President of the U.S. Naval Institute.
Win $1,500
The United States Naval Institute and the Vincent Astor Foundation take pleasure in announcing the Nineteenth Annual Vincent Astor Memorial Leadership Essay Contest for Junior Officers and Officer Trainees of the U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. The contest is designed to promote research, thinking, and writing on topics of leadership in the U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard.
FIRST PRIZE: $1,500, a Naval Institute Gold Medal, and a Life Membership in the Naval Institute.
FIRST HONORABLE MENTION: $1,000 and a Naval Institute Silver Medal.
SECOND HONORABLE MENTION: (two to be awarded) $500 and a Naval Institute Bronze Medal. The first prize essay will be published in the U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings. The Institute’s Editorial Board may elect to publish any or all of the honorable mention essays in any given year, but is not obligated to do so. The Editorial Board may, from time to time, publish collections of the award winning essays and other essays in book or pamphlet form.
The contest is open to:
- Commissioned officers, regular and reserve, in the U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard in pay grades 0-1,0-2, and 0-3 (ensign/2nd lieutenant; lieutenant (junior grade)/1st lieutenant; and lieutenant/captain) at the time the essay is submitted.
- U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard officer trainees within one year of receiving their commission.
ENTRY RULES
- Essays must be original and may not exceed 4,000
___ words.
- All entries should be directed to: Executive Director (VAMLEC), U.S. Naval Institute, 118 Maryland Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 214025035.
- Essays must be postmarked on or before 15 February 1993.
- The name of the author shall not appear on the essay. Each author shall assign a motto in addition to a title to the essay. This motto shall appear (a) on the tile page of the essay, with the title, in lieu of the author's name and (b) by itself on the outside of an accompanying sealed envelope. This sealed envelope should contain a typed sheet giving the name, rank, branch of service, biographical sketch, social security number, address, and office and home phone numbers (if applicable) of the essayist, along with the title of the essay and the motto. The identity of the essayist will not be known of the judqinq members of the Editorial Board until they have made their selections.
- The awards will be made known and presented to the successful competitors during the graduation awards ceremonies at their respective schools, if appropriate, or at other official ceremonies. Mrs. Astor or her personal representative will be invited to present the first prize each year.
- Essays must be typewritten, double spaced, on paper approximately 8%' x 11'. Submit two complete copies.
- Essays will be judged by the Naval Institute's Editorial Board for depth of research, analytical and interpretive qualities, and original thinking on the topic of leadership. Essays should not be merely expositions or personal narratives.
DEADLINE: 15 FEBRUARY 1993
VINCENT ASTOR MEMORIAL
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UNITED STATES NAVAL INSTITUTE, 118 Maryland Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21402-5035 (410)268-6110