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Perhaps the most important issue of 1986 was whether Alliance policy would change in the direction already taken by the United States. Since 1981, the U. S. Government has come closer and closer to the assumption that, in the event of war within NATO territory, the conflict probity would be protracted, and that nuclear weapons might well not be used. This Reagan Administration view is reflected in such initiatives as “Star Wars” and in the proposals entertained at the 1986 U. S.-Soviet summit in Reykjavik, Iceland. For the NATO allies in Europe, *e U. S. position suggests that the threshold for conflict may be falling and that NATO may be losing its ability to terminate a conflict quickly by threaten- lng to use tactical nuclear weapons early, Wlth the promise of an escalation to the strategic level.
What seems to be the evolving U. S.
position is by no means unanimous in Washington, but potentially it is the most important influence on overall NATO policy since the United States pressed the Alliance to adopt “flexible response” in the mid-1960s. From a naval point of view, accepting the possibility of protracted nonnuclear war emphasizes the importance of sea control, which the U. S. maritime strategy hopes to secure by destroying most of the Soviet submarine and long-range naval bomber fleets early in the conflict. Protracted war would require the allies in Europe to raise and maintain larger land armies, and to build up larger stockpiles of weapons.
The United States considers its evolving position more realistic than earlier ones; it has never been clear that, once executed, the threat of tactical (or even strategic) nuclear attack would actually improve the military situation in Europe.
It is argued, therefore, that once the Soviets attained anything approaching nuclear parity, these threats could not be used for anything other than to deter the Soviets from using their own weapons. A successful “Star Wars” program might improve matters, but probably not enough to encourage a return to the crushing U. S. strategic superiority of the 1950s.
However, the NATO Europeans have long assumed that the nuclear deterrent suffices to prevent the Soviets from embarking on military adventures. For the United States to hint that this particular emperor may not be fully clothed, then, is very frightening. Many Europeans consider the United States too willing to embark on military adventures of its own; the 1986 Libyan raids confirmed such fears. Thus, the Alliance is now under considerable strain, just as evolving strategic realities probably make it more
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important than ever.
These superficially abstract strategic points have important implications for the European navies. The controversy in Britain over U. S. use of British bases against Libya had the effect of strengthening the Labour Party, which has voiced misgivings over the presence of U. S. nuclear bases in Britain. Paradoxically, as the United States has shifted away from a reliance on nuclear weapons, many Europeans have read it as a shift toward war (in general) and have concluded that any war would become nuclear. Thus, Labour has sought to eliminate British nuclear weapons and come close to promising neutrality in future conflicts.
The current Conservative government has chosen to reemphasize the British nuclear deterrent, possibly at the expense of the British conventional naval forces that would be essential to ride out the protracted nonnuclear war. However, it is only fair to add that the Thatcher government has also emphasized, for the first time in many years, Britain’s air defense, which would be extremely important in a nonnuclear conflict.
Having emphasized nuclear weapons in the past more than the rest of NATO, France is now increasing its nonnuclear spending. For example, France is to build the first European large-deck aircraft carrier since the 1950s. At the same time, France continues to develop its own strategic nuclear triad: strategic submarines, bombers, and land-based ballistic missiles. The change of government in 1986 from socialist to conservative has not affected basic French policy, although the conservatives have promised considerable increases in defense spending.
The other European powers do not have nuclear weapons, but because war, if it comes, will be protracted, their land forces must be strengthened. Given continued slow economic growth in Europe, an increased emphasis on land forces and land-based air forces most likely will reduce naval spending. For example, the Norwegian Navy claims that it needs 45 new ships in 1990-95 but that current plans will provide no more than about 25, partly because of the high cost of F-16 fighters. The choice is not simple: a successful Soviet assault on northern Nor-
As plans for the NATO frigate developed, the first jointly funded NATO ship, the ASW research ship Alliance, was launched at La Spezia. Flying the West German Naval Auxiliary flag, she will have a British- Italian crew.
way (which the F-16s would help prevent) would have major consequences for NATO sea control in the Atlantic. Indeed, the connection between northern Norway and sea control is so strong that in 1986 it was proposed that northern Norway be moved from the NATO Northern Theater to the Atlantic theater, controlled by the Supreme Allied Commander at Norfolk, Virginia.
A final report on the feasibility study for the joint NATO frigate (NFR-90) program was submitted on 29 October 1985, and participating countries were asked for statements of intent in July 1986. A memorandum of understanding for the NFR-90 was issued in December. Project definition will proceed from January 1987 through June 1989, with a 40- month prototype construction to begin in 1991. National lead ships, which should take 36 months to build, are to be laid down in 1993 under the current schedule.
Besides providing a common NATO warship, the NFR-90 project may be most significant in leading to the development of a new area defense missile and an accompanying multifunction phased array radar. Candidates include the General Electric FAST back-to-back rotating arrays and a miniature version of RCA’s SPY-1. In 1986, three leading European radar manufacturers (Marconi, Selenia, and Thomson-CSF) signed a memorandum of understanding to develop a new- generation multifunction phased-array radar, the EMPAR (European multifunction phased array radar), to compete with the U. S. sets.
Five navies joined the U. S. Navy in evaluating the Bell-Halter surface effect ship SES-200 (unofficially renamed the Jaeger for the occasion) from January to August 1986; she spent about a month each in Britain, France, Spain, West Germany, and Canada. Completed in 1978 as a joint private venture by Bell Aerospace Textron and Halter Marine, the SES-200 was lengthened in 1982 for better seakeeping and to test the concept of longer length-to-beam ratio rigid-sidewall air cushion vehicles for the Navy and Coast Guard. She has been fitted with a ride control system consisting ot quick-acting vanes that control local cushion air pressure by opening and closing vents; poor ride control has been the major drawback of seagoing surface effect ships. This system was tested successfully off the Isle of Wight. The Bell- Halter boat was bought by the U. S. Navy in 1982 after she had been tested by the Coast Guard as the Dorado (WSES-1)- The Coast Guard bought three more short-hulled sisters on the basis of her success. The French plan to build a surface effect ship beginning in 1987.
The 3,200-ton Alliance, the first jointly funded NATO ship, was launched on 9 July at La Spezia. She will replace the earlier antisubmarine warfare (ASW) research ship Maria Paolina G and will be attached to the NATO ASW center at La Spezia. She is expected to enter service under the West German Naval Auxiliary service flag and be operated by a British contract crew with Italian seamen- The Alliance is due for completion m October 1987.
Great Britain: In 1986, the British Government ceased its annual increases in defense funding, which will now level off in terms of current-year pounds. Given current inflation levels, defense spending must decline by at least 7% in real terms over the next three years. Im creases announced late in 1986 may ameliorate the problem, but it is possible that
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they will merely eliminate a forecast define in current-year spending, which w°uld have added to the cuts owing to inflation. Britain has enjoyed historically ovv rates of inflation for the past few years, but it is by no means clear that they w'll continue.
Meanwhile, Britain’s defense budget ,tlUst absorb major cost overruns, most Prominently those associated with the Nimrod airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft, which was cancelled in favor of ae U. S. airborne warning and control Astern. Substantial sums are also going mto the British version of the Trident strategic submarine system. Although the °PPosition Labour Party has pledged to Cancel Trident, the Conservative govem- n'ent has invested so much that cancella- !°n would offer little real saving. This Sltuation is complicated by the ongoing • °f the nationalized British shipbuild- jag industry to private owners. Vickers is e only Trident-capable submarine Oder. To make the shipyard’s sale at- ^act.ve. the government has pledged that , lckers would be protected against major ss even if the submarines are cancelled.
I °ur has promised to convert the mis- 1 e submarine program to one for attack raft if it takes power, hate in December, the British Govem- AW*1 announced that it would buy the ACS rather than the Nimrod airborne I urly warning (AEW) radar aircraft, fol- WlI1g a Ministry of Defence technical A\V'Uat'0n' Boein§’ lhc manufacturer of "ACS, promised 130% offset pur- ases in Britain. The failed British man- w ucturer, GEC-Marconi, argued that this tg0^ Woi|M not begin to balance the po- ial loss of airborne early warning ex- *■ For example, during the week be- 0|-,Cen the leak of the evaluation and the
Puhr*al announcement> GEC-Marconi r I lshed advertisements showing its exar mounted in a C-130 Hercules for g Port- Moreover, many critics of the ^ttish official decision charged that it ds yet one more example of an undue (j„C erence for U. S. technology, evi- sk*1^ ^ t^le sa*e Westland to Sikor- f ^ anc* permission to use British airfields clg.tlle stf'ke on Libya. It is not
ar to what extent these charges will
affect the next British election, which may be held in 1987. U. S. Army General Bernard Rogers, commander of allied forces in Europe, has stated that the United States would withdraw its troops from Europe if a victorious Labour Party carried out its pre-election pledge to eliminate all nuclear weapons from Britain. General Rogers’s statement may be read in Britain as interference, and thus may also affect the election.
Britain plans to buy six Boeing AWACS, with options for two more. France plans to buy three AEW aircraft, and will almost certainly join Britain in buying AWACSs. The Royal Air Force initially tried to obtain the Boeing AWACS in 1977, Nimrod having been advanced at that time as a “buy-British” alternative. The other two major Western AEW alternatives are the Grumman E-2C Hawkeye and the private-venture Lockheed AEW version of the P-3 Orion.
The AWACS decision is important for three reasons. First, land-based AEW aircraft are necessary to detect and defeat low fliers (such as minelayers and cruise missiles) crossing the North Sea. British ports and airfields are vital to overall NATO strategy, particularly in a protracted war. Second, British investment in AWACS can crowd out investment in naval programs, some of which are just beginning. Third, the fate of the AWACS program may determine whether other nations, such as Canada and Australia, can buy AEW or AWACS aircraft.
By early 1986, British defense overruns amounted to a reported $1.5 billion. Outgoing Defence Minister Michael Heseltine had underestimated his budget needs for two reasons. First, he hoped that intense competition among the newly privatized British defense manufacturers would drastically reduce costs. However, the British defense market is so small that it is politically unacceptable for any British government to freeze any major firm out of business. For example, although the Royal Navy sought bids for as many as six Type-23 frigates from a single builder, it seemed unlikely that any one yard would have received so large (and, presumably, potentially efficient) a contract. Thus, the Royal Navy is unlikely to
Britain’s only new surface warship delivery in 1986 was the Type-22 Batch-2 frigate Brave. She is the first British unit with Spey gas turbines; has a longer flight deck than her predecessors; and has the latest Seawolf surface-to-air missile with new Marconi radar guidance.
benefit from the same competitive efficiency that the U. S. Navy enjoys. Second, Heseltine hoped that the usual delays in delivery would slow payments and thus eliminate expected overruns. Deliveries were actually faster than expected, perhaps because the newly privatized firms needed to show quicker profits.
The short-term effect of the overruns and real budgetary cuts was a series of cancellations and program stretch-outs. Perhaps most notable was the elimination of the new-model towed arrays planned for Type-22 Batch-3 frigates. In the longer term, the slow decline in the size of the British surface fleet will continue; in September, a leaked British internal naval memorandum suggested that: the destroyer/frigate force is to be cut from 50 to 47 ships; some Polaris submarines are to be withdrawn before Tridents can replace them; the Falklands force will have to be reduced; and British naval research investment is far too low. So far, the Royal Air Force and British Army have suffered most of the cuts, e.g., a planned mid-life modernization of Tornado strike aircraft has been deferred.
Although the cuts are not overwhelming, a growing body of informed opinion in Britain argues that British defense policy must “be reviewed and that Britain cannot afford to maintain all of the options it now has unless it is willing to settle for much less than average in each of them. This argument is often made against the Trident program.
Although the 1986 Defence White Paper disclosed no review, it seems likely that one is being conducted—or soon will be—with the aim of achieving efficiency by killing off some substantial sector of the British defense budget. Some would suggest that the British surface navy is a likely candidate, with the cuts to be made by cancelling refits or modernizations. After all, two of the other target options, the British Army of the Rhine and the British nuclear deterrent, are the heart of what many in Britain would identify with Britain’s great-power status. On the other hand, the British surface fleet, particularly its ASW task forces, is involved intimately in both NATO strategy and the projected U. S. battle group operations in
the Norwegian Sea. In the past, such links have made it difficult or impossible for British political leaders to eliminate the forces involved.
Besides economic problems, perhaps the single most important development in the British Ministry of Defence in 1986 was the departure of Michael Heseltine, which came in the wake of the decision to permit Sikorsky and Fiat to acquire control of Westland, the British helicopter manufacturer. Mr. Heseltine strongly preferred a European solution rather than the U. S. (Sikorsky) solution. Westland builds the Lynx and Sea King helicopters carried by British warships, and is developing a next-generation military and naval helicopter, the EH-101, with Italy’s Agusta. New British and Italian frigates and destroyers have been designed with decks large enough to support the EH- 101. Perhaps more important, the EH- 101 project is supporting the development of next-generation (low frequency for long range) helicopter dipping sonars, such as the Plessey Cormorant or the Bendix Helras. Mr. Heseltine was replaced by George Younger, formerly Scottish Secretary and a British Army infantryman.
As if to confirm fears for its future, the Royal Navy had to lay up two frigates and three minecraft as many as four years ahead of schedule owing to severe personnel shortages. In July, they became a “standby squadron,” ready for sea at 30 days’ notice—a half-way measure often used in the past to maintain the maximum possible paper force without straining manning unduly. Standby ships are manned by skeleton crews and are not mothballed.
Another element of British maritime strength is also declining: the merchant fleet. Between 1978 and 1986, it fell from nearly 1,400 to about 600 ships, and the number of merchant officers and seamen (many of whom were available for reserve duty in wartime) fell from 70,000 to 37,000. As noted last year, the fishing fleet, on which the British had relied as a potential source of mine countermeasures craft and personnel, has also declined precipitously. Britain is hardly alone, as maritime-minded Americans are painfully aware. Norway’s merchant ship inventory has also fallen sharply, although the Norwegians hope that reduced taxes and more liberal regulations may reverse the decline.
Despite these problems, the Royal Navy still exerts a worldwide presence. Aside from well-publicized cruises (including participation in RIMPAC ’86 by a task force led by HMS Illustrious), British warships are stationed in the Gulf of Oman to escort British merchant ships in the Iran-Iraq war zone, which is a duty that is growing in importance as attacks on those ships accelerate. For example, a 1986 photograph showed a British tanker flanked by the missile destroyer Southampton and the Type-21 frigate Brazen.
Last year was a poor year for new ship completions for the Royal Navy, but an unexpectedly good one for orders. The only new surface warship delivery was
HMS Brave, the third Type-22 Batch-2 frigate, accepted on 21 February. She has a considerably longer flight deck than her Batch-2 predecessors to operate Sea King or EH-101 helicopters. She is also the first British warship powered by Spey marine gas turbines, which are up to 30% more efficient than the earlier Olympus turbines, though their reduced power imposes a 2-3-knot speed disadvantage. Finally, the Brave has the new GWS-25 Mod-3 Seawolf missile, guided by the new Marconi 805SW radar (Type-911).
The first three follow-on Type-23 (Duke)-class frigates were finally ordered on 15 July, one going to Swan Hunter and the other two to Yarrow. The Royal
Navy considered a rate of three per year essential to maintain a 50-frigate force. However, against this encouraging sign has to be set the earlier promise to order production units (beyond the prototype, HMS Norfolk) in 1985, and earlier speculation that as many as seven ships might be ordered simultaneously to save money. The Type-23 program has been delayed partly by continuing agitation in favor of an alternative “short fat” hull form advocated by a small private firm- Thornycroft Giles Associates (not associated with Vosper Thornycroft), despit6 the firm’s rejection by a qualified Defence Ministry scientific panel.
The other major new surface ship order was for the first of a planned six 31,500- ton, one-stop underway replenishment ships (AORs): HMS Fort Victoria, ordered 24 April from Harland & Wolff in Belfast. These AORs will incorporate a flight deck for two helicopters and 11 hangar for three, and will be armed with the new vertically launched version of the Seawolf point defense missile, which wil* also arm the Type-23 frigates. The AORs will be able to support and maintain the
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helicopters carried by Type-23 frigates and, presumably, incorporate command j}nd control facilities for their groups of tr'gates. Concentrating helicopter support 'n a single ship should reduce manning land cost) considerably in the Type-23s.
Three important submarine orders ineluded that for HMS Upholder, the lead ship of a new class of 2,400-ton diesel- electric patrol submarines, which was a'd down by Vickers (Barrow) in February 1986 and launched on 2 December.
fders for three sister ships were announced on 3 January 1986; all three are 0 be built at Cammed Laird (Birken- ead). The orders were concentrated at a Slngle yard to cut costs: the navy claimed n s3ving of about $30 million, half owing
- greater efficiency and half to competi- Ve bidding. The 3 January announce-
niCnt included an order to Vickers for the ^venth Trafalgar-class nuclear attack ubmarine (19th British nuclear attack °at). HMS Vanguard, the first of four fident submarines, was ordered from
- lckers (Barrow) on 30 April 1986 and aid down on 3 September. She is ex- j ec,ed to cost about $1.5 billion, includ- ^ng about $300 million for weapons and ^onar systems, and about $225 million
r ’be reactor and associated work. The ontract ensures that the British Govem- j„ent wiH reimburse the yard for the c ^-million total if the submarine is ^celled by a new Labour regime. The rident refitting complex is to be built at a°syth Naval Base beginning in 1987,
, the first submarine is to be refitted ^ in 2002 or 2003.
0r the longer term, an amphibious lift fut ern*Zati°n has been proposed. The th Ufe t*le amphibious force has been tee object of considerable (and often bit- dispute since 1981, when Minister of do bnCC h^ugh Nott announced that the p amphibious transports (LPDs) ca ri^eM anci Intrepid would be dis- f I ,ec*t these ships proved extremely use- |n the Falklands the following year. artlsh naval and marine officers have 8Ued that full amphibious capacity re- tk'rcs a combination of the landing craft such ships carry and sufficient heli-
copters to deliver 300 men in the first wave of an assault. They lost that capability when the reserve carrier Hermes (which was fitted as an assault ship) was sold. Thus, the ideal British amphibious program would consist of two well-deck ships and two “aviation support ships.” However, given the fiscal problems described, there was considerable skepticism that new amphibious ships would be built. Many suspected that announcements of further studies were little more than a graceful way of killing off the amphibious program.
However, it was officially announced in July that long-term plans call for spending about $675 million to replace the two LPDs. Feasibility study contracts were awarded to Swan Hunter and Har- land & Wolff, the former for a life-extension program, the latter for container conversion of merchant ships.
Coincident with the attack submarine orders, the first major production order for the Stingray lightweight torpedo was announced. Marconi built 164 test weapons, but the Ministry of Defence ordered about 2,500 more. Export orders have been received from Egypt and Thailand, and Marconi claims that it is negotiating with one European navy, one in Southeast Asia, and Brazil. The weapon’s export prospects probably improved considerably after a Stingray launched by a Royal Air Force Nimrod in the Mediterranean sank the moored British diesel- electric submarine Porpoise. The submarine had a double hull and was relatively close to the surface, both factors making it a difficult target.
A substantial order for the British Sea Dart area defense surface-to-air missile was reported in March. The missile was scheduled for a major upgrade (GWS-31 vice GWS-30) in 1981, but the program was abandoned in that year’s defense review. Now some improvements will be made, including replacing the continuous-rod warhead with a blast-fragmentation type. This replacement has been necessary for other missiles because the continuous rod takes some time to deploy, and thus cannot deal with very fast
While Britain negotiated the sale of its nationalized shipbuilders, Vickers launched the fifth Trafalgar-class nuclear attack submarine, the Trenchant (opposite), and received an order for the seventh boat. Also enhancing the Royal Navy’s ASW capability is Marconi’s new Stingray lightweight torpedo, which sank a double-hulled target sub and made its first fleet firing from a Sea King Mk-5 in the Bahamas (left).
closing rates or very short fuzing times, as in the case of an oncoming, sea- skimming target.
The new Plessey Type-996 radar will be the first British naval three-dimensional, electronically scanned radar, and is intended primarily as a target indicator for Seawolf and Sea Dart air defense weapons. It represents a considerable departure from British practice: in the past, the Royal Navy has been satisfied with a two-dimensional (range and bearing only) radar to coach a missile director (which would find altitude) into position.
In addition, the Ministry of Defense announced a feasibility study of the installation of the Seawolf point defense missile in Type-42 area defense missile destroyers and the carriers, using the new Type-911 fire control radar and new, lightweight launchers. During the Falklands Conflict, the Type-42s were criticized for their lack of an effective short- range antiaircraft weapon, and it was suggested that, because they had been limited in size (to limit cost), they lacked the necessary reserve of stability to install the Seawolf. Apparently, their area defense, long-range Sea Dart missile system could not react quickly enough to missiles or aircraft suddenly appearing at very short ranges.
The Royal Navy is also pursuing an “extensive” mine countermeasures program. Minehunters typically operate a single remotely controlled vehicle, which examines objects detected by the ship’s high-definition sonar and attacks them with explosive charges or cable-cutters. Minehunting efficiency has always been limited by an extremely high false alarm rate. During the winter of 1984-85, the Royal Navy approached potential contractors with an alternative—a pair of vehicles. A fast remote control identification vehicle (RICV) would examine contacts; only when they proved suspicious would a second remote control mine disposal (RCMD) vehicle be deployed. Presumably, the RICV would not have to be recovered after each examination. Proposals were submitted in February and March 1986. The Royal Navy appears to
have chosen an improved version of the French-built PAP 104. The paired vehicles would be carried by Hunt-class mine countermeasures ships and by the new Sandown-class single role minehunters, the first of which was scheduled to be laid down last month.
On 29 April, the British and Dutch governments signed a reciprocal purchase agreement in which the British bought nine Goalkeeper close-in weapon systems (armed with the U. S. 30-mm. GAU-8/A Gatling guns) and the Dutch bought, among other things, eight Rolls-Royce Spey 1A gas turbines, SCOT ID satellite terminals, and their first submarine towed array sonars—derivatives of the British Type-2024/2026. This extends a 1984 agreement in which the British bought six Goalkeepers (delivered in 1986) and the Dutch bought 16 (later reduced to eight) Speys. The additional Speys were ordered late in November 1986.
The Invincible, the first of the British vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/ STOL) carriers, is being refitted; her original low ski-jump is being replaced by an Ark Royal 12° version. Stowage for aircraft-launched weapons is being increased by 50%, partly to accommodate an enlarged air group (eight rather than five Sea Harriers). She will also be able to carry 12 Sea King ASW/AEW helicopters. Other improvements include replacing the Type-184 sonar with the 2016 carried by Type-22 frigates, replacing the Type-992R radar with the new 996, and installing Goalkeepers.
HMS Bristol, the largest British surface combatant warship, completed a long refit in February 1986. The elderly Type-965 early warning search radar was replaced by the Type-1022 carried by newer British air defense ships and the Ikara ASW missile system was removed, leaving the ship with no means of delivering ASW ordnance. Of the earlier British County-class area defense missile destroyers, HMS Fife is now the sole operational survivor, and her Sea Slug surface-to-air missile system is no longer operational. Her sister HMS Glamorgan was transferred to Chile, where she joined two sisters in December.
Canada: The Conservative government promised a greater emphasis on defense and a new defense White Paper to replace the policy devised by its predecessor in 1971. Although the new White Paper has not appeared, the naval element of the new policy will probably emphasize ASW and sea control rather than sovereignty patrol, the emphasis of the 1971 paper. However, sovereignty, which largely means control of the Canadian Arctic, remains a touchy issue. It appeared that Canada would purchase a large new icebreaker in 1986 at the expense of frigate construction beyond the six new City-class ships. Budget stringency now calls into question the construction of the icebreaker as well as the later frigates. However, Canada still plans to buy new submarines and shipboard helicopters.
The budget announced on 26 February showed slower-than-expected defense growth; the government expects a real growth of no more than 2% from 1987— 88 to 1990-91, considering a 2.75% growth from 1985-86 to 1986-87. However, even these figures are based on a general (non-defense) deflator index. If a defense-linked index of 4.9% is used for the 1985-86 to 1986-87 figures, real growth falls to only 1.2%. At the same time, the government has ordered the Defense Department “to absorb increases in workload by increasing productivity or by reallocating funds.” Thus, there is no funding for 1,220 more men to be stationed in Europe (as ordered, unexpectedly, in March 1985), or for 140 more men for the Sinai peacekeeping force. Defense spending in 1986-87 will be about 2% of the gross national product.
In July, the Canadian Government approved a submarine replacement program, and bids for at least four submarines to replace the three Oberons to be retired in 1992-94 were requested. The program was to have been approved in the fall of 1985, but the Cabinet was preoccupied with Arctic sovereignty issues and other defense programs, such as the Trump destroyer refits and the new low- level air defense gun for the Canadian Army. In 1985, the submarine contract award was scheduled for 1988 and the first delivery for 1993. The program is now two years behind schedule, with the contract award expected in 1990 and the first delivery in 1995. Bidders will be asked for options for another purchase of two to eight submarines.
The Sea King helicopter replacement program (the new shipbome aircraft), which is similar in magnitude (about $2 billion) to the new submarine program, was approved in principle in August- Canada will buy 28-51 helicopters to replace the existing 35 Sea Kings; deliveries begin in 1992. The Canadian Government previously planned to update the 25-year-old Sea Kings. The new frigates and two Annapolis-class frigates, which already have the equipment, will toW CanTASS acoustic arrays; embarked helicopters will require acoustic processors
The Netherlands:
Two Jacob van Heemskerck-class guided-missile frigates/flagships were commissioned to replace two Kortenaer-c\ass units sold to Greece. The Witte De With (right) and her sister carry the U. S. Standard missile system in place of the helicopter facility characteristic of the Kortenaer class. The new ships have LINK 11 data-link capability, the U. S. Nixie torpedo decoy system, and may receive the U. S. SQR-18A TACTASS ASW towed array system. A follow-on class of eight Groningen-cldss frigates is already under construction at Flushing.
to prosecute contacts. The Sea Kings lack such processors, and may have to be updated until the new frigates are completed (beginning in 1989) and the new helicopters are delivered. Candidates for the new helicopters, which will also have to re- P'ace search and rescue and army helicopters, include the EH-101, the Sikorsky CH-60, and the French Aerospatiale Super Puma Mk-2. The helicopter program is now a year behind schedule; a dinner should be selected in 1989 or (990 and a prototype should fly by 1992.
France: Basic French defense policy is bipartisan, so the replacement of the so- cralists by the conservatives this year had ittle effect. The 1987-91 five-year plan adopted by the Cabinet on 5 November included the new nuclear carrier, a new lighter based on the Dassault Rafale dem- °nstrator, and an AEW system. The latter toay be purchased in conjunction with the ritish because France requires relatively evv such aircraft. The Rafale derivative j? expected to enter service in 1992. The rench Navy hopes to receive 80 to 90 Such aircraft.
The five-year plan is to increase expenditures by an unexpected 7% in 1987. °r the first time since 1968, the propor- *°n devoted to procurement will be gtoater than that for operations. Expendi- Ures on new equipment should be con- S|derably larger than those planned by the Socialist government; purchases will rise % in 1987 and by an average of 6% per ^ear through 1991.
Nuclear weapons continue to be em- P asized. The submarine-launched, ^ngle-warhead, 3,000-kilometer M20 toissiles are to be replaced by six- arhead, 4,000-kilometer M4s, and a Jtote-warhead, 5,000-kilometer M5 is to developed. These ranges are nominal: a 4 March, a French ballistic missile u toarine off the coast of Brittany fired n M4 to a range of about 6,000 kilome- j6rs (about 3,200 nautical miles). France a 'toacerned that developments in ASW ballistic missile defense may reduce e value of its national deterrent, and cls test shows that French submarines an operate over a substantially wider ea than previously thought. With a s,Cater throw-weight, the newer missiles °uld also be able to accommodate pen- (i rat'0n aids such as decoys. Meanwhile, trials ship for French naval ballistic wSsi*es, the diesel submarine Gymnote, s as decommissioned in July (to be apped) following a final series of mis® fir'ng trials.
ASM ^renc*1 Navy is also receiving the re l ^ stand-off nuclear missile. It will P ace AN-52 nuclear gravity bombs led by 24 Super Etendard carrier attack bombers, and will also be carried by French land-based aircraft. The ASMP is powered by a liquid-fuel integrated rocket/ramjet and is inertially guided. It entered land-based service in May. Maximum speed is Mach 3.5, and yield is variously reported as 100 to 150 and 300 kilotons. The missile follows a preprogrammed trajectory—high alti- tude/high speed (about 150 nautical miles at Mach 3); low level/high speed; and very low-level/evasive (to engage naval targets at about 45 nautical miles at Mach 2).
In November, France’s MATRA announced a new torpedo-carrying missile, a collaborative venture with Italy’s OTO- Melara to replace the Malafon. Its range will exceed 22 nautical miles (i.e., slightly beyond Mediterranean convergence zone range), and it will be suitable for midcourse guidance by other craft such as helicopters. It will carry the new French Murene lightweight torpedo or the new Italian A290, and it will be suitable for other new lightweight torpedoes such as the British Stingray and the U. S. Mark 50. This collaboration ends OTO- Melara’s interest in a new box-launched version of the Australian-British Ikara, although work on the latter will continue in Australia. The new French ASW stand-off weapon could enter service in the early 1990s.
Italy: In January 1987, the Defense Committee of the Italian Senate formally approved a law permitting the navy to operate V/STOL aircraft from its new carrier Giuseppe Garihaldi. Under the proposed law, the navy will control and operate the aircraft, though some air force pilots may fly these aircraft, which can be used for the air defense of Italy. It is not clear whether a second carrier will be bought to lead the Italian Navy’s second Mediterranean flotilla.
The long-awaited order for two new missile destroyers, the Animoso and Ar- dimentoso, was given to Fincantieri- Cantieri Navali Italiani SpA in March. They will replace the two Impavidos ordered in 1962 and are derived from the Audace class. They will displace 5,300
tons and have combined diesel and gas turbine powerplants capable of 31 knots: two LM2500 gas turbines totaling 55,000 shaft horsepower or two GMT BL-230 diesels providing 12,500 brake horsepower for cruising. Armament will consist of a 5-inch/54-caliber lightweight gun forward, an aft Mark 13 launcher for Standard missiles, an eight-cell launcher for Selenia Aspide point defense missiles (with reloads below deck), two triple lightweight torpedo tubes, three 76-mm. OTO-Melara “Super Rapid” guns, and eight Teseo antiship missiles. The aft hangar and helicopter pad will be large enough to accommodate two British-built EH-101 helicopters.
It was announced in January 1986 that Italy would order a new class of five maritime patrol ships to enforce its exclusive economic zone. Offshore patrol absorbs about 14% of the Italian Navy’s at-sea time; the new ships should release naval
Years behind schedule, Italy ordered the first two 5,300-ton, 31-knot Animoso-class guided-missile destroyers to replace two 25-year-old Impavidos. The new ships will have Standard missiles and helo facilities to accommodate possibly two EH-lOls.
units for other duties. The 240-foot ships will each displace about 1,000 tons (standard), and diesels will propel them at 19 knots with a range of at least 5,000 nautical miles. They will be armed with one 76-mm./62-caliber OTO-Melara gun and one light helicopter.
Spain: Probably the most important naval event of 1986 was the 12 March referendum that approved Spain’s continued NATO membership. About 60% of the population voted; 52.8% of this number voted to stay in NATO. However, Spain will not join the military structure ot the Alliance; its position will therefore be analogous to that of France.
The navy bought British Searchwater AEW radars to equip SH-3D helicopters operating from the two V/STOL carriers. Deliveries began in October and the helicopters should be operational in 1987.
Portugal: Last year, the agreement to build three German MEKO 200 frigates was finally signed. The Portuguese first sought replacement frigates in 1975, originally hoping to purchase Dutch Standard frigates. However, the price was too high, plus the West Germans reportedly were unwilling to underwrite the cost of ships to be built in the Netherlands.
About one-third of the program cost will be borne by the United States, one- quarter by Germany, and other NATO countries (including France) will provide 15%. All three ships will be built in Germany, one by Blohm & Voss and two by Howaldtswerke. They will be similar to the Turkish Yavuz class but powered by a combination of two 26,800-shaft horsepower LM2500 gas turbines and two 4,420-brake horsepower MTU diesels (20 knots on diesel and 31 knots on the full plant); their range will be 4,100 nautical miles at 20 knots. They will be armed with two standard four-round Harpoon cannisters, one standard eight- round NATO Sea Sparrow launcher, two triple lightweight torpedo tubes, one Phalanx Gatling gun, and one 100-mm. Creusot-Loire gun. The sonar will be a Westinghouse Canada SQS-505(V)6.
West Germany: With the completion of the Rommel's upgrade, all three of the Bundesmarine's U. S.-built Charles F. Adams (DDG-2)-class guided missile destroyers have been modernized to a standard once planned for all 23 of their U. S. Navy sisters but achieved on only three. Still to be added to the DDGs and to more
Nearly buried alive by the U. S. Congress, the joint West German- U. S. rolling airframe point defense missile (RAM) system was resuscitated and may begin deploying with Bundesmarine units by 1989. For now, the patrol boat Habicht carries a dummy RAM launcher.
than 30 other German surface combatants are the rolling airframe point defense missile (RAM) systems once promised to be operational by the early 1980s. Persistent developmental delays have seriously damaged this promising program, and the U. S. Congress nearly scuttled it in 1986 by cancelling funding. However, after the rightful protests by the U. S. Navy and West Germany, the monies were largely restored and the program is now promising initial operational capability by 1989. RAM missiles and launch systems will be manufactured in both the United States and West Germany, and— if reliability defects can be cured—the system has extremely bright export prospects in the 1990s.
Other Bundesmarine programs previously reported are continuing. The first of the new 1,300-ton (submerged displacement) Type-211-class submarines will not be delivered until 1995, but a dozen of the 18 Type-206-class coastal boats will be modernized and reenter service between 1988 and 1992; a new Type- 212-class is in the planning stages to replace the other six Type-206-class boats in the late 1990s. Two additional Bremen (122-class) guided missile frigates are under construction for delivery in September 1988 and March 1990, and three shipyards are at work on the first increment of ten units of an ambitious steelhulled mine countermeasures ship/patrol boat program. Deliveries for these Type- 343-class sweepers are scheduled for December 1988, and, with the delivery of the final unit in April 1991, the program is intended to have phased into production a planned 20 units of the similar Type-332-class mmthunter. A new, “KSV 90” replenishment ship design is in development; two 2,375-ton Type- 423-class intelligence collection vessels are on order for delivery this year and next; two classes of cleverly-designed trials and service craft are programmed (the 1,000-ton Type-748 class, of which three of a planned five are on order, and 440-ton Type-745 class, of which at least seven are planned); and the first three Type-725-class coastal tugs are under construction as part of a program to replace all 13 Bundesmarine tugs. West Germany, working within strict budget limitations but with the advantage of having shipyards badly in need of work, is accomplishing a steady and comprehensive rejuvenation of its highly competent fleet.
Denmark: The first Danish Standard Flex 300 multi-mission patrol boat was launched at Karlskronavarvet on 26 April. The hull was moved to Aalborg Vaerft in Denmark, which is to build the remaining six hulls in the initial series, using Swedish fiberglass hull technology- Outfitting is expected to take about a year, and the first vessel is likely to enter service with the Royal Danish Navy in the second half of 1987.
The Danish Navy has asked the British YARD, which designed the Nils Juel- class light corvettes, to design a 2,400- ton fishery protection ship for service off Greenland. It will carry a helicopter and a 76-mm. gun. Requests for proposals to construct the ship were issued in June for the first ship, and three more are planned.
Greece: Reportedly, the government will buy four frigates to replace elderly U. S.-built destroyer escorts. The leading contender is the German MEKO 200, which is being built for the Turkish and Portuguese navies. Alternatives include Vosper Thorn ycroft’s modified Type-2 L the Italian Lupo, the Todd Superior, and the Korean Ulsan. The Greeks want all four ships to be built in Greece at Hellenic Shipyards in Skaramanga, but this yard has not built warships larger than a fast attack craft. The Greek destroyers are also due for replacement, so the frigate program may expand.
Sweden: The most interesting naval development was a successful test of the 4-275 Stirling closed-cycle engine, which the navy plans to install in its next-generation (A-19) submarine. An engine of this type has been electrically connected to a Nacken-class submarine tied up at the dock, and another will be installed in a seagoing submarine for tests. The engine produces a maximum of 146 shaft horsepower and 200 kilowatts of heat; a 1,000- ton submarine could use two smaller Stirlings to maintain low speed, reserving its battery for burst speed. In that case, the limiting factor in endurance would be stowage for the liquid oxygen the Stirling employs for combustion. A 10% hull
length increase would more than double submerged low-power endurance. The Swedes argue that it is the sound of snorkling rather than the radar signature of the raised snorkel that endangers the sub- warine. Thus, a submarine operating on her Stirling would still be able to put up a snorkel to refresh the atmosphere inside without becoming more vulnerable. The Swedish submarine proposal to the Australian Navy includes :. Stirling auxiliary Powerplant.
The first of four Goteborg-class ASW corvettes was laid down on 10 February 1986 for delivery in 1990.
Finland: The defense budget was to rise 8%—to about $1.1 billion—in 1987, although this still falls far short of requests by the defense forces ($1.4 billion). More than a quarter of the procurement funds will go to continued production of Helsinki-class fast attack boats, four of which are now in service. Finland’s surviving Soviet Riga-class frigate, used in recent years as a minelayer, has been stricken, and the two Turunmaa-class corvettes have completed two-year modernizations.
Dr. Friedman is a defense analyst working under contract for the U. S. Navy and several private companies. The author of many books on nava] weapon and ship designs, he writes the regular Proceedings World Naval Developments” feature as well as other frequent contributions to Proceedings and other professional naval magazines.
East European Navies
% Milan Vego
but
All East European and communist- ru^d countries continue to suffer from acute economic difficulties, yet this does n°t appear to affect funding for their armed forces, including the navies. This Is owing in large part to Soviet assistance ln force rejuvenation for the Warsaw Pact Members. Significant East European naval developments in 1986 include the
following:
* The East German Navy continued its Modernization program. The third Soviet woni-dass frigate and two Soviet •arantul-class missile corvettes were acquired. The older Soviet Osa-I-class mis- boats and Shershen-class torpedo oats are being withdrawn from service.
The Polish Navy apparently intensified lls modernization program, and the first 01 four Soviet Kilo-class submarines was acquired. The sole SAM Kotlin-class M'ssile destroyer was decommissioned,
> 100-ton frigates is being built. In addi- *°n> another Notek-class coastal mine- keeper is under construction. The naval ®lr atm received the first of probably a °zen new Mi-14 Haze-A antisubmarine j^arfare (ASW) helicopters.
Apparently, the Romanian naval uildup continued, but at much slower ^ Uipo than in previous years.
The Bulgarian Navy acquired a third 'ga-class frigate. There were no reports other ships or craft being acquired or U|lt in 1986. A third Romeo-class sub- M^ine likely was acquired in 1985.
* here were no apparent changes in the atus of the Albanian Navy. Its real ^rength and combat readiness are much w.er than the number of ships and craft ^ tr>buted to it might otherwise indicate, ecause of maintenance problems and a ■oadily worsening availability of spare Parts.
The Yugoslav Navy continued its rela- e 7 extensive modernization program, to C ^'rSt domestically built, 1,850- n Amor-class frigates was completed,
as was the first of the indigenously designed, 525-ton Kobra-class missile corvettes. Reportedly, two of the new Biokovo-class ASW corvettes are under construction, and several 100-ton (/noclass midget subs are being built for the navy and export. Several new classes of coastal/riverine patrol craft and naval auxiliaries are under construction.
The Baltic Sea
East Germany: The 15,500-man (1,800 officers) Volksmarine has about
136 warships and perhaps 75 auxiliary and service craft in active service.
The largest combatants are three Koni- class frigates, classified as “coastal defense ships.” The third ship of this class, the Halle, was commissioned on 28 January 1986. In contrast to other East German Konis, the Halle carries a 16-tube decoy launcher on each side of the Pop Group radar foundation. An additional Koni may be transferred from the Soviet Union to restore the force to its 1960s and 1970s level, when four Rigas served.