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Some recent trends affecting Latin American sea services demand our attention. First, although the recent growth of naval power throughout Latin America has been modest, the air arms of the region are growing significantly. Second, in October, Brazil introduced a resolution before the United Nations that calls for the South Atlantic to become a sea of peace, free from naval armaments. Ironically, during the early years of World War II, a neutrality zone was placed around the Americas. This zone was regularly violated by Germany and Great Britain because Latin American navies were unable to enforce it. Brazil probably suffered most from these violations. Third, major arms deliveries can be made to the region only by merchant shipping. This applies to all nations in the region, even communist-supported Nicaragua. Fourth, more freely elected governments hold power in Latin America today than ten years ago; these include two of the largest and most powerful nations, Argentina and Brazil. Fifth, Brazil announced in December that it has mastered laboratory techniques for producing plutonium, which is an essential element of nuclear weaponry. Sixth, the United States is becoming more involved in the Caribbean as a result of its increasing efforts to stop drug trafficking. Seventh, all major Latin American navies took part in the UNITAS XXVII exercise except Argentina. Also, the School of the Americas was moved to Fort Benning, Georgia' from Fort Gulick, Panama, because of Panamanian pressure. The school had been operating in Panama since 1949.
Central America
Nicaragua: Nicaragua is the focal point of Central American political and military turmoil. Its Marxist government, headed by President Daniel Ortega, came to power in 1981 and has increasingly supported revolutionary groups in neighboring countries. The United States has bolstered El Salvador and other regional governments, and aided various Nicaraguan rebel groups, known collectively as the “contras.” This aid and the contras effectiveness have fluctuated widely for several reasons: political opposition in the United States, disorganization among the contras, and increasing stability in the Ortega regime.
Nevertheless, 1986 was a relatively good year for the contras. Their strength increased by 25%, to about 16,000. Also, the contras have extended their operations to cover a larger area, perhaps one- third of Nicaragua. These increases may be fleeting. One reason for the lack of a major contra military success is their disunity. But this also accounts for their lack of any crushing defeats. The Ortega regime is finding that fighting the contras is like trying to stamp out ants. The increase in contra strength stems in part from the anticipated $100 million dollars in U. Said, which has been approved by Congress and which started arriving in early 1987. However, revelations in late November concerning ties between contra aid and Iranian arms deals may ultimately damage the aid situation.
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“V been an air-ground war, with the Or- kga regime attempting to maintain air °niinance. Although precise numbers aJ'e difficult to verify, Nicaragua now has about 12 Soviet-built Mi-24 Hind assault helicopters and 20-30 Mi-8 Hip and hpgraded Mi-17 Hip-H transport helicop- ers- Apparently, these are flown by Nic- hfaguan crews, though some may also be crewed by Cubans. The contras shot °Wn an Mi-8 helicopter with an SA-7 l986Ce t0 air m'SSile ^SAM) early in
Nicaragua has also received a signifi- eant amount of ground equipment. The entagon estimates that 18,800 tons ar- ^ved during the first ten months of 1986.
hese deliveries were made by 43 merchant ships, mostly Soviet. Three Soviet huk patrol boats arrived last fall after Passing through Cuba.
documenting arms received by the lQotras is Just as difficult. For most of ^ °6, the U. S. Congress forbade direct • S. military aid to the contras, so support came from a variety of sources. They ceived four U. S.-built Maule Air light ttcraft in July and a UH-1B Huey media evacuation helicopter donated by a Bvate U. S. group, along with other °n-military items such as food and othing. Apparently, one arms shipment as lost when the Panamanian Governed seized the freighter Pie Vesta on
June off Panama’s west coast. The ar8°—1,500 Eastern Bloc AKM auto- 323pC r'^es’ some rocket launchers, and
East German trucks—was probably to
be offloaded in El Salvador and destined for the contras, although this is not clear. The most publicized event during the year was the 5 October downing of a contra C-123 cargo plane by a Nicaraguan SA-7 missile and the capture of U. S. mercenary Eugene Hasenfus, who was released on 18 December. On 12 December, Sam N. Hall, brother of Representative Tony P. Hall (D-Ohio) and mercenary in Africa and Latin America, was captured near Nicaragua’s main military airport, Punta Huete.
Although the contras have grown stronger in the last year and are beginning to receive substantial U. S. aid, in the long run, time is on the side of the Ortega regime. It does not have to win; it only has to avoid losing.
El Salvador: The government has been stabilized in the last few years in part by reforms and in part by U. S. aid. The first of six 11-meter patrol craft to be
Civil wars in Nicaragua and El Salvador have contributed to an increase of military hardware acquisitions in Central America, including: six more Soviet Mi-24 Hind assault helicopters (left) and three Zhuk patrol boats (below, towed by a Nicaraguan freighter from Cuba) for Nicaragua; plus eight U. S.-built Lantana 11-meter patrol craft (bottom) for Honduras and the first of six such craft for El Salvador.
built by Lantana in the United States was delivered in July.
Honduras: Honduras remains the principal U. S. ally in Central America and a jumping-off place for the contras. As a result, large quantities of arms are shipped to the country, destined for the contras and the Honduran armed services. Honduras received five Bell 412 aircraft and eight Lantana 11-meter patrol craft. Honduran and U. S. troops held their fifth annual joint exercise in March; some 5,000 U. S. troops participated.
Panama: From 20 January to 22 February, Panama and the United States held a joint exercise to test the Panama Canal defenses. Some 2,000 U. S. troops participated in the exercise.
The Caribbean: Drug trafficking has become an integral part of any Caribbean naval assessment. Narcotics smugglers use widely diverse and constantly changing routes, but because a large proportion
of the marijuana consumed in the United States comes from the Caribbean and the majority of the cocaine imported is grown on the west coast of South America, the origins of the drugs’ journeys are obvious. The fiscal year 1986 drug war statistics are impressive: 720 arrests, 147 vessels seized, and contraband valued at $2.38 billion confiscated by U. S. law enforcement agencies—more than 90% of which was the result of U. S. Coast Guard efforts. Since we do not know the smugglers’ order of battle—how many vessels they have and how large their supply of narcotics is—the law enforcement agencies’ impact is unclear. However, these figures represent the first decline in many years, while the number of patrol hours is still on the increase. It is likely that these efforts are cutting heavily into the maritime narcotics trade.
The Bahamas: Three 33-meter Protector-type patrol boats, built at Fairey Marine’s yard at Cowes, Isle of Wight, were delivered to the Royal Bahamas Defence Force. These boats will help patrol the waters surrounding The Bahamas’ 700 islands.
South America
Colombia: The inauguration of President Virgilio Barco Vargas in August brought about a change in policy toward guerrilla groups. The previous government attempted to reintegrate them into society, but met with only modest success. The new president is giving the military a freer hand in combating the guerrillas, and it has been more successful. Gustavo Arias Londono, probably the number-two man of the major guerrilla group M-19, was killed in September during an attack on a police station in Caldas. The war against the guerrillas is a difficult one. Some are helped by drug traffickers and others by Cuba. All are aided by the extremely rugged terrain, particularly in southern Colombia. This is a convenient jumping-off point for guerrilla infiltration into Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. During the year, Colombia received 18 armored trucks from Brazil and ordered six Scout Defender helicopters from the United States—two of which were delivered— but made no naval acquisitions.
Cuba: The reorganization and increased emphasis on home defenses reported in last year’s review continue apace. Recent acquisitions from the Soviet Union include SA-13 SAMs and shoulder-fired SA-14 SAMs. There were no significant naval units delivered in 1986; three Soviet-built Zhuk patrol boats arrived in August but later continued on their journey to Nicaragua.
Cuba’s international commitments showed no sign of slackening. It is the major funnel for arms to Nicaragua and other hot spots throughout Latin America, and is still heavily involved in Africa. Angolan President Jose Eduardo dos Santos told his parliament that Cuban troops would remain in his country as long as needed. In 1986, Cuba sent MiG- 23 Flogger and Su-22 Fitter aircraft plus a new commanding general to Angola.
In October, the Cubans hosted the 26th Soviet naval visit to Cuba since 1969. The force included a Kara-class cruiser, a Kashin-class destroyer, a Foxtrot diesel submarine, and an oiler.
Haiti: The 7 February 1986 flight of “President-for-Life” Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier ended one of the most despotic regimes in Latin America. An interim military council headed by Lieutenant General Namphy took control. There is growing unrest against the new government.
Mexico: Mexico’s economic situation remains critical; it is highly unlikely that major arms will be acquired in the near future, although there have been major changes in army and air force organization and training. The navy acquired six West German MBB BO 105 CB helicopters that will operate from corvettes in the Gulf of Mexico. All four of the new Aquila-class corvettes have been laid down, although the program is behind schedule by more than two years. These ships are longer-ranged, more heavily armed, and slightly faster versions of the Halcon-class corvettes delivered by Spain in 1982-83, but are being built in Mexico at Tampico and Salina Cruz. Two troop transports are also on order from these facilities, but, again, the program has experienced delays.
Argentina: The Malvinas (Falkland Islands) were once again the center of tensions between Argentina and Great Britain, including questions about the economic development of the area. In November, Argentina offered a formal end to hostilities in exchange for the British lifting their 150-mile “military protective zone,” but the British declined. All Argentine ships and aircraft, civil and military, are forbidden from entering the zone. During Argentine President Raul Alfonsin’s visit to Washington in the same month, he undoubtedly solicited President Ronald Reagan’s help.
Defining the complex relationship between the military and civil government was a dominant issue in Argentine politics in 1986. Some feared that the baby would be thrown out with the bath water: a close study of the defeat of the guerrillas in the late 1970s—called the “Guerrilla Wars” or “Dirty Wars”—reveals excesses committed by a few in the armed services (the bath water), and that the military may have prevented an extreme left regime from coming to power (the baby). In October, the Argentine Senate approved a draft defense law that would allow the military to take action in the event of external aggression. The law would establish a National Defense Council and a National Intelligence Agency. The first would advise the president on the nature of a conflict and, if determined to be an external conflict, to coordinate planning. The National Intelligence Agency would coordinate the gathering of strategic intelligence among various agencies.
Argentina is in no position to challenge “Fortress Falklands.” The armed services are hard hit by ongoing austerity campaigns to reduce inflation. Among other 1986 cuts, conscription was considerably reduced, which affected the army primarily. The armed services received some relief in September: they were granted a 35% wage increase. However, there is little prospect of major weapon system procurements. Also, the continuing trials against those accused of crimes during the Guerrilla Wars are adversely affecting military morale.
Military readiness improved in 1986. In October, a major military exercise involving all three armed services and some 5,000 troops was conducted in Chubut in the Andes Mountains. The fleet, including the carrier Veinticinco de Mayo, operated off the coast in support. Unfortunately, a number of press reports inaccurately described the terrain as being similar to that of the Malvinas. This may have contributed to the increased tensions with Great Britain- Some 2,000 air force, army, and navy personnel assaulted a small island in the Parana River during a fall exercise. The Argentine armed services significantly increased their number of operational hours in 1986 over those of the years following the 1982 South Atlantic War.
One important addition to the fleet— the second TR1700 submarine, the San Juan—arrived at Mar del Plata from Germany on 17 January. Like the first TR1700 received, the San Juan played cat and mouse with British units that were trying to establish her sonar signature as she made her way to Argentina. Indigenous construction of four additional TR 1700s remains badly hampered by funding problems, and progress on the units has been very slow.
Although the Argentine Navy did not participate officially in the UNITAS XXVII exercise in 1986, relations be-
tween Argentina and the United States c°ntinued to improve during the year. Admiral Arosa, Commander-in-Chief of 'he Argentine Navy, visited the United 'ates, and officer exchanges increased. n April, representatives from 12 AmeriCan nations including the United States ^et in Bahia Blanca for the sixth inter- ''ttierican navies conference, which dis- C|Jssed helicopter operations from ships °'her than aircraft carriers. This was the lrs| conference of the series to be held in hatin America.
Argentina signed a number of important aircraft agreements in 1986. Argen- !na and Brazil agreed to the joint produc- ’°n of the Parana light transport aircraft, id Argentina agreed to purchase 30 ■ Ucano trainer aircraft from Brazil. Also,
1 appears that Brazil will purchase the Argentine IA 63 Pampa jet trainer. j.abrica Militar de Aviones and the U. S. I'm McDonnell Douglas have signed a cmorandum of understanding for the Reduction of A-4 Skyhawks in Argen- lna> currently, the Argentine Air Force s‘ls 26 A-4Ps and the Argentine Navy ven A-4Qs. The navy still awaits deliv- ^°f 12 A-4E Skyhawks from Israel, rhe entire space devoted to the Latin lerican review could be filled with Hors concerning the sale of Argentine Aavy assets. There is little doubt that ^rgentina is still trying to sell its two ^ mish-designed Type-42 destroyers be; lj,Se d is unable to maintain these ships tjoefinitely; they are in excellent condi- tn- Beyond this, Argentina would like some °f *ts indigenously built sub °• Type-140 corvettes or TR1700 bu .parities, which would help its ship- n1 d'n8 industry and increase fleet readi- si(SS seconc* Type-140 was commis- da°ne^ on Id November 1986, the same y that the last of the six, the Gomez
Roca (renamed in honor of the commanding officer of the tug Alfarez Sobral) was launched.
Brazil: The awesome growth of the Brazilian arms industry has been noted in the past few Latin American Navies reviews. This year is no different. Brazil has already captured a major part of the world light tracked vehicle market, having sold tens of thousands of armored cars over the past two decades, mostly to Arab nations. Brazil is now eyeing the market for more sophisticated weapon systems. The first Brazilian-built Embraer AMX subsonic attack aircraft— a joint Brazilian-ltalian effort—was completed in 1986. This aircraft, like the one built in Italy, will be used for testing. A modified version of the AMX could operate from small carriers such as Brazil’s Minas Gerais and Argentina’s Vein- ticinco de Mayo. The 40-ton Osorio battle tank, which was tested in the deserts of Saudi Arabia against the British Challenger, the U. S. M-l, and the French AMX-32 last year, is completing trials. Sales of the Tucano EMB 312 turboprop trainer are booming: In 1986 alone, Argentina ordered 40, Honduras 4, Peru 20, and Venezuela 40—at a little more than $1 million per aircraft. A half-dozen other nations have expressed interest in the aircraft. Although the AMX and Osorio have not entered production, there is little doubt that they will be serious competitors in the world marketplace.
Of significant impact on Brazil’s growing defense capabilities is its ability to produce plutonium, announced in December. Brazilian officials insist that the techniques are aimed solely for development of nuclear power plants and nuclear-powered submarines, and not nuclear weapons. However, Brazil has not signed the nuclear Non-Proliferation
Wasting no time in collecting intelligence on Argentina’s new submarine, the San Juan, Britain’s HMS Aurora met the Type-TR1700 submarine just off Emden, West Germany, where she was built. The San Juan's sister, the Santa Cruz, was dogged similarly by British units on her 1984 transatlantic trip.
Treaty owing to alleged discrimination against developing countries. Brazil has worked with West Germany since 1975 under a nuclear research agreement, shielding the work from international inspection. Shortly before the announcement that Brazil could produce plutonium, Argentina and Brazil signed an agreement for joint development of a plutonium-producing fast-breeder reactor.
As in the past few years, a Brazilian task force, this year composed of a destroyer, frigate, submarine, and tanker, visited Nigeria for three days. Nigeria, directly across the Atlantic Ocean from Brazil, is an important trading and exchange training partner, and is one of the many nations that has expressed an interest in the Tucano.
The most important naval development of late was the opening in late 1985 of a new training center on Mocangue Island, part of the Rio de Janeiro Naval Station. The facility has simulators for all radars and sonars fitted in new classes of Brazilian warships, including the Inhauma- class ocean patrol frigates, Niteroi-class antisubmarine frigates, and the new submarines being built in West Germany.
The keels were laid for the third and fourth Inhaumas, the Front in and Julio de Noronha, in the private Verolme yard in May and August, respectively. These will be the first major Brazilian combatants to be built in a private Brazilian yard in this century. The two Inhaumas are scheduled to enter service in 1989; the In- hauma was launched on 13 December. The four ASW-configured Niteroi-class frigates are to receive four MM38 Exocet antiship missiles, which already have been fitted to the two general-purpose Niterois.
With the rapid growth of the Brazilian arms industry, Chief of Staff of the Brazilian Armed Forces Admiral Jose Maria de Amoral’s announcement that Brazil has rejected the need for nuclear weapons must have been reassuring to those who oppose the spread of such weapons.
Chile: The attempted assassination of President Augusto Pinochet in October called attention to the increasing activity of Chile’s radical left. A month earlier.
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the Chilean Government wrote a letter to the United Nations Security Council, requesting help in identifying the source of a large shipment of weapons suspected of landing from a foreign-flag ship. The weapons were discovered at four locations along the northern coast of Chile, and included more than 3,000 U. S.- made M-16 assault rifles, 114 rocket launchers, and almost two-million rounds of ammunition. According to U. S. arms experts who went to Santiago at Chile’s request, the M-16s were sent to South Vietnam in 1967-69 and fell into the hands of the Hanoi government after the fall of Saigon in 1975.
Chile, following Brazil’s example, plans to capture part of the international arms market. Chile showcased its efforts in its fourth annual air show in Santiago. The most innovative exhibits were: Car- doen Industries’ model of their twin turbine attack helicopter; a Casa-101 Halcon aircraft armed with two British Sea Eagle air-to-surface missiles; and Empresa Nacional de Aeronautica’s Aucan, a trainer based on the T-36 Pillan with turbo engines capable of delivering a 198-knot airspeed.
Southern Chile is the site of significant maritime developments. Punta Arenas, the southernmost Chilean city, has become the major supply center for the offshore oil and gas wells in the Tierra del Fuego region, which supplies more than half of Chile’s domestic production. Also, Chile has nine stations on the Palmer Peninsula of Antarctica. It is possible that the Antarctic Treaty could expire by 1991. The Soviet Union has greatly expanded its activities in the Antarctic over the past few years, much to the chagrin of Chile.
The Chilean Navy has significantly increased its strength by acquiring units recently retired from the British Navy. In
October, the former HMS Glamorgan was added to the fleet as the Almirante Latorre, the third County-class guided missile destroyer transferred since 1982. Britain has also transferred its remaining Sea Slug missiles and spares for the three ships. Chile laid down a 4,500-displacement ton transport/cargo ship at AS- MAR’s yard in Talcahuano on 27 May to replace the Aquiles. It is designed to be able to carry a company of marines and is to be delivered in early 1988. The last of three French-designed, Chilean-built Batral-class landing ship/transports commissioned during the year. Two to six Israeli Sa’ar 4 missile patrol boats may be built under license in Chile. The ASMAR icebreaker mentioned in the 1986 review is not yet funded. The old Swedish-built cruiser Latorre (ex-Gota Lejon) was dropped from the navy’s list in August; she had been laid up since August 1984. In early 1986, Admiral John Howard Balaresque was appointed the new commander-in-chief of the fleet.
Bolivia: With the exception of news that U. S. armed forces, with the consent of the Bolivian Government, operated in that country against drug smugglers, there are no significant developments to report this year.
Ecuador: The attempted coup in March 1986 by a former chief of the Joint Armed Forces Command, which was thwarted by members of the armed forces (including the navy), was the major event in 1986.
Peru: Peru’s struggle with the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) guerrillas continues. As a result, arms purchases have shifted away from high-technology arms to fundamental weapons: in 1986, a contract for 26 Mirage 2000s was cut to 12 and a significant quantity of small arms and munitions were purchased. President Garcia Perez imposed a state of emergency and a curfew in Lima in February— the first since 1978—because of guerrilla violence. A South American nation— most likely Peru—reportedly purchased a torpedo control system for heavyweight torpedoes from an Italian firm. If true, this would increase the capabilities of the
Peruvian submarine force, currently rated among the best in Latin America.
Financial problems with the refit of a Peruvian cruiser undergoing modernization in the Netherlands since 1985 reportedly have been solved, and the work is to be completed by December 1987. The Almirante Grau will get Exocet missiles and new electronic warfare equipment.
Venezuela: The world’s depressed oil prices continue to limit Venezuela’s purchasing power. In 1984, President Jaime Lusinchi ordered that until 1987 only essential equipment should be purchased and that contracts should be let with national companies as much as possible. These measures have improved the foreign exchange. One minor part of this program is the development of an indigenous light tank, the prototype of which will be completed in 1987.
In June, Vice Admiral Andres Eduardo Brit Martinez retired as the Minister of Defense. The admiral was then appointed Minister of State (without portfolio) for maritime affairs by the president. In October, navigational improvements were completed on the Orinoco and Apure rivers, which opened them to commercial traffic from the Atlantic to the Andes, some 1,300 kilometers.
In May, the logistics support ship Puerto Cabello (ex-Sierra Nevada) was commissioned. The Venezuelan Marine Corps received 38 Brazilian-built EE-11 amphibious personnel carriers as part of a continuing program to increase the navy’s amphibious capability. Also, the naval aviation arm acquired four Spanish-built CASA 212-200-S3 patrol aircraft. Small bases were constructed on the Orinoco, Amacuro, and Meta rivers-
The Venezuelan Navy may participate in more exercises than any navy in Latin America. At the end of 1985, the frigate General Salom sank the former tank landing ship Guayana with an Otomat Mark 2 surface-to-surface missile. In January 1986, the Venezuelan Coast Guard and Navy, and their U. S. counterparts, conducted a joint operation against drug trafficking. The Venezuelan submarine Sabalo took part in the U. S. exercise Fleetex 11/86—apparently the first non- U. S. submarine to take part in these exercises. After Unitas XXVII, the Venezuelan and Brazilian navies conducted the fourth annual VENBAS exercise if the Caribbean.
Dr. Scheina has traveled extensively in Latin America and been published in many Latin and Europe^11 publications on Latin American topics. His ne'*' book, Latin America: A Naval History, I8I5-1980s< will be published by the Naval Institute Press.