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partner is the Soviet Union, and Peru has acquired military aircraft from the Soviets over the past decade. The maturing the Brazilian arms industry and the increase of Soviet and Chinese military and economic influences in Latin America-" particularly South America—are not indicative of the growth of communism, but rather the declining Anglo-American
influence.
The year 1985 was one of devastating natural disasters in Latin America; those receiving international attention were an earthquake in Mexico City and a volcano eruption in Colombia. Many Latin Amer' ican navies have long had civic action programs, the primary goals of wm® have been to educate and to improve the health of their citizenry in remote re gions. For example, the Argentine Navy has long been active in Patagonia (southern Argentina), the Bolivian Navy 0,1 Lake Titicaca, the Brazilian Navy in
the
and
can
By Dr. Robert L. Scheina
Latin America has always been a region of contradictions. Events in 1985 underscore the fact that the political, economic, and cultural diversities among these nations are more significant than their similarities. United Nations Secretary General Javier Perez de Cuellar, a Peruvian, noted with concern that 30% of the regional foreign debt could be attributed to the purchase of arms from other parts of the world, principally Europe and the United States. Yet, Brazil has grown into one of the world’s major arms exporters. No region in the world has been more vocally anticommunist than the South American nations. These words have, when necessary, been backed with strong action, as in Chile in 1973— action which was not well received by the Anglo-American community. Nevertheless, in 1985, a military delegation from the People’s Republic of China was well received throughout Latin America. In addition, Argentina’s principal trading the
Amazon, the Chilean Navy in Chiloe (a large island off southern Chile), and the Peruvian Navy in the Selva (Peru east o the Andes Mountains). Continuing in t^'s commitment, the Brazilian Navy’s sec ond riverine hospital ship, the Can0 Chagas, was added to the Amazon Fl° tilla at the beginning of 1985.
Latin America’s primary problem |S' and will remain, the foreign debt. Argen tina, Brazil, and Mexico are among world’s most indebted nations. There >’ no relief in sight. And the principal >m pact of this debt on the navies of the re gion will be the need to satisfy more more of their material demands *n digenously, or become less and less et cient—owing to the need to divert °Pera. tional funds into payments for foreL materials. Latin American navies m find a balance between modem, Eur^ pean-built fleets they cannot afford
sing tract*
vies
chall,
tan
k r‘
,bV his
enges. The recently elected Brazil-
he . v,ce president, Jose Samey, when died on 22 April. A new Peruvian j^'dent, Alan Garcia, was elected in y- Julio Sanguinetti took office as resident of Uruguay following popular
Actions.
Argentina: Argentina is confronted
grave political, economic, and mili-
suh S °* eacb tbe rnilitary services are tUm°rdinate to this new office, which in fen *S accountable to the minister of de- teSe- The Alfonsin government is at- °f th1'0® t0 rel^uce significantly the size hud^ ni’i itriry and its proportion of the
Th6*
"ese changes have not been univer-
Sally
e threat from guerrillas. Introducing Evolution into Latin America is far easier ®nd cheaper than preventing it, largely ecause of the prevailing economic and Political conditions.
Antarctica remains a long-range prob- err>- A number of Latin American na- '°ns perceive the southernmost continent |jS tbe'r great frontier of opportunity and 1Q s' re Sorne degree of sovereignty. The th ^ Antarctic Treaty, which forestalls e question of sovereignty, is accepted y all nations; this agreement permits n y scientific activities on the continent Hn has “frozen” territorial claims, j °Wever, many throughout Latin Amer- a view the arrangement as a temporary
- ution. In 1985, India, China, and Uru- §uay established scientific bases in Ant-
retica. Should the U. S. position in Cen- q America deteriorate and the Panama ^ anal become threatened, the southern P of South America will acquire added rategic importance for the North Atlan- 'c community. The U. S. military has eainta>ned good relations with its Chil- counterpart in spite of a more aloof ■ S. foreign policy toward the Pinochet S°vernment. However, U. S. relations
- n Argentina—particularly in the mili- ‘y sphere—remain badly strained.
n the past, the Anglo-American community was t0 condemn the fall of ^ utocracies in Latin America. Last year, §aye too little praise, perhaps, to their Urn and tenacious endurance. In Ar- suentina, the Raul Alfonsin government reived its first year in spite of horren- Us economic problems and political
President was peacefully succeeded
Vyith
Problems. A primary goal of the tor'°'d Alfonsin government has been j^cdefme the relationship between civil- c government and the military. To ac- ■upiish this, the rejuvenated position of iaJllster of defense is now held by a civil- th ^bc Position of armed forces chief of . e Joint Staff was also created. The heads off
accepted by the Argentine military.
Since mid-1984, about 50 high-ranking officers have either retired or resigned, making it difficult to find qualified leadership willing to carry out the president’s far-reaching reductions. In April, air force Major General Teodoro Waldner was appointed chief of the Joint Staff, further complicating the civilian-military relationship. Based on seniority, the position should have gone to an army officer. The appointment of an air force officer probably alienated right-wing army members. And General Waldner is believed to support a reduction in army paratroops and naval aviation—a position which will not win support from the army and navy. The dissatisfaction in the military is exacerbated by the trials taking place against military personnel accused of crimes committed during the “Dirty Wars” (1976-82).
The president is working to keep open communication with the navy. He addressed the crew and cadets of the sail training ship Libertad in June before her annual cruise, and attended the commissioning of the new MEKO-140-A 16-class frigate Espora in July. These events probably would not have attracted presidential attention in the past.
Economically, the outlook for the Argentine military is bleak. In 1985, food suppliers refused to deliver goods to various army bases because bills were not being paid. A British study reported that warships are averaging only 20 days at sea per year because most of the navy’s budget pays for the huge construction program begun in 1974. Defense cuts threaten to close Antarctic outposts. These grave economic problems are compounded by the fact that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs opposes the export of weapons to world regions at war or where war is likely, thus leaving the nation’s infant arms industry and the military seeking weapon sales—in order to sustain operations—with almost no potential customers. If one were to believe every rumor, virtually the entire navy is for sale. In fact, the navy wants to sell the British Type-42 destroyers Hercules and Santisima Trinidad. In the long run, the Argentine Navy has little hope of maintaining these warships. Apparently, a deal to sell the ships to Iran and Saudia Arabia was vetoed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The same fate befell potential sales of the new Pampas aircraft and the redesigned, single-seat version of the Pucara aircraft to Middle Eastern na-
Argentine President Alfonsin attended the commissioning of one of his navy’s MEKO-140-A 16-class frigates in 1985, probably to improve relations with Argentina's military.
tions. The navy also wishes to sell the four decommissioned, ex-U. S. destroyers (one Gearing [DD-445]-class and three Allen M. Sumner [DD-692]-class) all of which have been replaced by new MEKO-360-H2-class units, and two auxiliaries, the Bahia Aguirre and Punta Medanos. Argentina has been struggling to develop an international shipbuilding industry. Any reasonable offer for a Type-1700 submarine or MEKO-140- A 16-class unit probably would not be refused, particularly since these platforms could be replaced with indigenous construction.
In spite of the severe economic problems, the Argentine military made some noteworthy acquisitions in 1985. First, a tentative agreement has been worked out with China for missile fuel and laser rangefinders for the Argentine-produced TAM medium battle tank. The rocket fuel is probably for a battlefield weapon with a range of 150-200 miles; this could have implications for the Malvinas (Falkland) Islands. Second, Argentina has acquired Durandal antirunway bombs, and not coincidentally, the new Mount Pleasant airfield, capable of handling wide-body aircraft, became operational in the Malvinas in 1985. In September,
the minister of defense sent his first directive concerning the reorganization of the military to the heads of the services, which stated that there must continue to be a “preventative [deterrent] of specific naval and air forces.” In the author’s opinion, the submarine forces are among the units addressed, and this force will maintain a higher rate of readiness than in the past despite the economic crisis. The keel was laid for the fourth Type-1700 submarine (the second, the Santiago del Estero, was under construction in Argentina in August). The navy has also acquired a few Agusta-Sikorsky S-61 helicopters, but the long heralded A-4 Skyhawk acquisition from Israel has not occurred—and may not. In 1985, Argentina once again did not participate in the UNITAS exercise, and U. S. Navy warships visiting Argentine ports were subjected to demonstrations.
Brazil: Brazil has grown into one of the world’s leading arms exporters. To date, this trade has been based on armored car sales to Middle Eastern nations; since the mid-1970s, the sale of some 6,000 units has been confirmed and a large number of sales are still unconfirmed. In 1985, Britain purchased 130 Tucano-type armored cars which are to be assembled by Short Brothers in Northern Ireland; this sale in particular attests to
Spawned in an effort to expand the market for Brazil’s leading export— arms—the AMX tactical fighter begins series production this year in Brazil and Italy. The AMX may even fly from the Brazilian carrier Minas Gerais.
the acceptance of the Brazilian design. Reportedly, Iraq’s numerous Brazilian- produced armored cars have performed well under prolonged combat conditions.
Arms sales are Brazil’s leading export industry, earning some $1.2 billion in 1984. Brazil is seeking to broaden the types of marketable weapons. The first prototype of the Engesa EE-T1 main battle tank entered trials in 1985. The Embraer AMX tactical fighter prototype (a joint Brazilian-Italian effort) left the assembly plant in San Jose dos Campos for testing. Series production is to begin this year in Brazil and Italy. A modification of this aircraft is one of four options being evaluated for possible use on the Brazilian carrier Minas Gerais. Brazil is developing an air-to-surface missile in conjunction with Argentina; this may be derived from the Martin Pescador. Brazil produces all types of small arms and munitions in volume, as well.
Today, 80% of the Brazilian Army’s equipment is indigenously produced, and plans are also under way to make the navy significantly less dependent on foreign technology. This goal could be achieved within a decade if vigorously pursued. The Brazilian shipbuilding industry can produce a merchant ship of virtually any size; Ishibras is building a 305,000-deadweight ton ore-oil carrier to be powered by Sulzer diesels constructed under license in Brazil. To gain access to the technology needed for warship construction, Brazil has entered into a number of bilateral agreements which will accelerate technology transfer. In October 1984, an agreement was signed with Howaldtswerke for the construction of one Type 209-1400 submarine and aid in building a second in Rio de Janeiro. The
Brazilian Navy also has long-range hopes for a nuclear submarine, possibly based on a 2,700-ton, stretched version of the Type-209. Reportedly, the Nuclear Research Institute at Sao Paulo University is working on a prototype reactor. A Sao Paulo newspaper reported that Brazil will have a nuclear bomb by 1990.
The strength of the Brazilian Navy increased modestly during 1985. On 8 March, the keel was laid in Kiel for the Type 209-1400 submarine Tupi, which is scheduled for completion in 1988. The keel for the river gunboat Porto Esperanca was laid on 14 February. The lead ship of a new class of light frigates, the Inhauma, was launched in late 1985 and is scheduled to enter service in 1987. The school ship Brazil, a modified Mark-10 frigate, should enter service by mid-1986. All of these ships except the submarine are being built in Brazil.
The Brazilian Navy purchased two merchant ships from Lloyd Brasileiro for conversion to logistics support ships. The navy has also purchased three oceangoing tugs from Petroboras to replace old U. S.-built units. The navy has also contracted for $2 million with the U. S. Development Corporation, a private company, for degaussing equipment. Nava* aviation has ordered six Aerospatia'e SA-332 Super Pumas and 11 355- Ecureuil helicopters. The first of 16 Be' 206A Jet Ranger-III helicopters were delivered in November; these will be assigned to training. Four Sikorsky SH-d*-' Sea King antisubmarine warfare helicopters were sent to Agusta in Italy for l^e ASH-3H update.
Pending issues include a moderniza tion of the Niteroi Mark-10 frigates, >n eluding an electronics update, a new close-in weapon system to replace tn Sea Cat surface-to-air missile, and the addition of Exocet missiles to the l°ut
ships without them. The construction 0
some 20 1,200-ton light frigates is a hjg priority; two units are currently unde construction (the Inhauma an Jaceguay), and the construction of tvV° units (Julio de Noronha and Frontin) ^ to have been awarded to a private yar ’ The Brazilian Navy has not resolved 1 long-range plans for fixed-wing naV aviation. Not surprisingly, the four a'r craft mentioned in this context are 1 A-4 Skyhawk, Super Etendard, Harr>er' and the Brazilian-Italian AMX. .
Brazil continued an independe course in international affairs in 1" .. Military attaches were exchanged w China early in the year. In October,
U. S. nuclear attack submarine (SSN-578) was refused permission by1 ^ Brazilian Navy to dock because of obj
i
t
1
10ns to the submarine’s source of propul- S1°n. The Brazilian Navy conducted a number of major exercises, including Peration Tropicalex I; taking part were o'6 carr'erMinas Gerais, five destroyers, tee frigates, two submarines, an oiler, and a transport.
t- The “Importance of the Antarc- 'c> addressed by Ruben Scheihing
^avarro in his May-June article in de Marina, seems to be on the ^’nds of the Chilean naval leadership.
n°ther Latin American periodical stated bin 3 ('tl'lean corporation, ASMAR, is to j^.1 d an icebreaker at Talcahuano, but !s ls not confirmed. China constructed a la'"ntd'c base on one of the South Shet- Ch i /s'ands’ only three miles from an * 6 S ^en'ente Marsh base. The Chile- a possibly assisted in this undertaking, j lven the austere military budgets en- Serced by the Pinochet government, it anemS Unbkely that the navy will acquire Thf maJ°r un’ts in the immediate future, la® 'bird French Batral-class medium lau ln® ship, the Chacabuco, was uched on July 16, and is scheduled to 6(jl °Perati°nal in March 1986. Report- nu 'V Chilean Navy detected a Soviet c ear submarine observing UNITAS Reises off Chile’s coasts, eru: The fighting goes on with gue- p as’ Particularly the Shining Path. In in j)Uar-'' *985, a clash between the Shin- t ® ' ath and Peruvian Marines in the cen- forest of Tingo Maria resulted in An[6 t*lan ^ dead. Like most of Latin ha etlca> severe economic conditions pQVe forced the Peruvian military to postair f and reduce major acquisitions. An ets °rCe order f°r 26 Mirage-2000 fight- cjeWas cut in half. The navy laid up four and r°^ers ar|d a number of amphibious cla auxiliary ships, including the LST-1- 'vith Salaverry- Argentina provided Peru rllv. a $20 million credit to assist the Pe- 0 'an military to produce much of its
a munitions.
1(0], e Peruvian Navy has contracted with ti0nandse Signaalapparaten to recondite and modernize the cruiser Aguirre, a t| "Hd'a-half-year project to include an sibi r°nics and weapon update. It is pos- pe ® *bat other Dutch-built ships in the desVlan Navy—another cruiser and six fUn,r°yers—will undergo similar refits if frig S Permit. The last of four Lupo-class 'he iu S <d*1e second to be built in Peru), b«r | ‘lr'ategui was launched on 8 Octo- a ^ The Lupo-class Montero scored
trajn °n a destroyer-sized target during a theexercise. Details are scarce, but %z°ntero was traveling at 30 knots Pact tlle m‘ss*le was launched and im- line. Was about nine feet above the water’ 'be distance from launch to target is not available. Eastern Bloc fishing fleets were particularly active off the Peruvian coast during 1985.
Colombia: Major fighting erupted between guerrillas—primarily those of the 19th of April Movement (M-19)—and government forces. Early in the year a force of 80-100 guerrillas attacked a river flotilla on the Magdalena River in northeast Colombia; three sailors were killed. Helicopter gunships and army troops helped drive off the attackers. Later in the year, guerillas seized the Supreme Court building in Bogata; numerous persons were killed when government forces retook the building. The Colombian Navy acquired no new vessels during the year.
Paraguay: In March, Paraguay commissioned the river gunboat Itaipu, a Brazilian-built, Roraima-class gunboat. This was the first sizeable warship constructed in Brazil for export and the first modem warship acquired by the Paraguayan Navy since the 1930s. The Paraguayan Navy has a rich naval tradition, having played important roles in the War of the Triple Alliance (1864-70) and the Chaco War (1932-35).
Uruguay: In late 1984, Uruguay established its first Antarctic scientific base in the South Shetland Islands, adding to the growing population of the southern continent. No new naval units were added, and two of the three frigates are in immediate need of replacement.
Bolivia: After an eight-year freeze, the United States agreed to give military aid to Bolivia in 1985. In April, the Bolivian Navy acquired from the United States the recently constructed, 66-foot river patrol boat Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Landlocked, Bolivia’s navy is a small riverine force.
Central America: Guerrilla warfare continues throughout Central America with no relief in sight. The Soviet- supported government in Nicaragua grew stronger—militarily and politically—in 1985. The Nicaraguan Army is now some 60,000 strong, guided by an estimated 30 Soviet, 60 East German, and 1,000-3,000 Cuban advisors. In 1985, the Soviets supplied the Nicaraguans with six Mi-24 Hind assault helicopters, a large number of second- generation armored vehicles, and large quantities of small arms and munitions. The 2,000-meter runway at Bluefields (near Managua) was completed. The Contras—rebels opposed to the Soviet- supported government—apparently have been eliminated from the southern border area and lack the capacity to attack town garrisons there, but are still very active in the north. Nicaraguan claims of an immi-
The river gunboat Itaipu’’s commissioning in March 1985 marked firsts for both Paraguay and Brazil; she was the first modern warship obtained by Paraguay since the 1930s and Brazil’s first export of a large warship.
nent U. S. invasion are regularly made, principally to solidify national support and international sympathy. Ironically, the Nicaraguan Air Force chief serves as a vice president of the Inter-American Defense Board despite United States efforts to the contrary. Fighting in El Salvador remains intense. Government forces’ casualties were down 20% in 1985, but the number of wounded was slightly higher than in 1984. The kidnapping of President Duarte’s daughter may signal the rise of urban terrorism. In 1985, the U. S. transferred 12 more Bell UH-IM helicopter gunships, bringing the total donated to about 60. Most U. S. aid is going to the El Salvadorian Air Force. Honduras and the United States held joint military exercises throughout 1985. Big Pine III (also called Ahuas Tara III), held early in 1985, included five days of antiarmor exercises. Costa Rica increased its military strength in an effort to exclude the regional fighting from its territory. Costa Rica acquired three Hughes 500E helicopters, two Cessna T-41 aircraft, and one 42-foot and two 34-foot Swiftships patrol craft. These acquisitions may have been inspired, in part, by the incursion of three Nicaraguan patrol boats into Costa Rican territorial waters in January 1985. Costa Rica moved its
During a freeze on new foreign military purchases, Venezuela took delivery in January 1985 of the tank landing ship Gdajira, the last of four ordered from Korea-Tacoma Maritime Industries.
U. S.-trained “Lightning Battalion” to its Nicaraguan border.
The Caribbean: Cuba remains a principal exporter of revolution. The island provides training and sustenance for numerous revolutionary movements. Cuban proteges are particularly active in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Colombia. The 1985 Cuban defense budget showed a 26% increase over the previous year, and during 1985, the Soviet Navy made its 25th task force deployment to Cuba since 1969. Major additions to the Cuban Navy included four Stenka-class patrol boats and two Sonya-class minesweepers from the Soviet Union.
The last contingent of the Caribbean peace-keeping force was withdrawn from Grenada. The Bahamas ordered three 33-meter Protector-class fast patrol boats from Britain. The Royal Bahamas Defence Force has seven medium-sized patrol craft and numerous smaller ones. In 1980, one of their units, the Flamingo, was sunk by Cuban aircraft. Antigua held joint maneuvers with Jamaican and Barbadian troops at St. Lucia in September. Belize, formerly British Honduras, is seeking a stronger British defense commitment to balance threats from Guatemala. Britain maintains a 600-man force in Belize and a frigate pays regular visits.
Venezuela: Venezuela is one of the few strong democracies in the Caribbean. In spite of its wealth of natural resources, Venezuela, too, is plagued by economic problems. On 1 October, Venezuela, acting through Petroleos de Venezuela, assumed the administration of the refinery in Curacao to prevent the bankruptcy of that Caribbean Island. Two weeks later, Venezuelan President Jaime Lusinchi declared, “Venezuela has a Caribbean responsibility and an Atlantic responsibility that we have to affirm. We are a Caribbean power.” Owing to an economic crisis at the beginning of his administration (February 1984), President Lusinchi ordered the military to freeze all foreign purchases for two-and-a-half years. Thus, no new orders have been placed. The military was instructed to emphasize preparedness.
Venezuela continues to suffer border incursions by M-19 guerrillas operating from Colombia, smugglers, drug runners, and Colombian forces, frequently in hot pursuit of guerrillas. The Venezuelan Government accelerated its program to reinforce the frontiers. In February 1985, the navy inaugurated a minor riverine base at El Amparo on the Arauca River on the Colombian border. Two U. S.- built utility landing craft and 36 patrol and service craft were assigned to the river squadron. In October, Venezuela established a small naval air base on La Orchila Island, about 100 miles offshore. Naval air fields will be constructed at Castilletes on the Gulf of Venezuela and on La Blanquilla Island.
In January 1985, the last two of four tank landing ships ordered from Korea- Tacoma Maritime Industries arrived >n Venezuela. Late in the year, the logistics support ship Puerto Cabello (eX_ merchant ship Siena Nevada) entered set vice. The navy announced that the sut> marine Picua (Guppy H-class), the land' ing ship tank Amazonas (Terrebone Parish-class), and the six Constituent’1' class patrol boats will be modernized t° extend their service lives; no details were provided. Also, the marine corps has contracted to have 11 LVT (tracked lan ing vehicle)-7s upgraded to A-l mode s- The coast guard frigates Almirante Cu mente and General Moran became opera tional in early 1986 after an extensNf overhaul and conversion in Italy to ot shore patrol vessels.
The Venezuelan Navy conducted nU merous exercises in 1985. Combine1 amphibious exercises were conducted by U. S. and Venezuelan marines in Jurie during UNITAS 26. For the third consecutive year, the Brazilian and Venezuela11 navies conducted the Venebras exercise’ this year off the coast of Brazil.
Dr. Scheina has traveled extensively in Latin An> ica and been published in many Latin and Europ1^ publications on Latin American topics. His book, Latin American Naval Power, 1810-* will be published by the Naval Institute Press.
Western European and NATO Navies
By Norman Friedman
took six years from keel-laying to launc A major German yard, Th>'sS^ Nordseewerke, was saved from ha ruptcy by a credit guarantee by the 5
of Lower Saxony; it had received no
the end of 1984. no new orders for
The most important single factor in European naval development continues to be economic. Western Europe is clearly recovering from recession, but this recovery has been relatively sluggish. As a result, defense spending has been limited, and the announced NATO goal of 3% real growth generally has not been met; in some cases there has been a real decline.
This situation has been complicated by two factors. First, the depression in merchant shipbuilding has continued. The prices of merchant ships have continued to fall (which is why the U. S. Navy has been able to buy so many for the Ready Reserve Force). Consequently, European governments have let naval contracts to save yards. Because these yards have so little other work, the naval contracts have had to absorb very high overhead rates, with consequent inflation of naval building costs and reductions or stretch-outs of overall programs. The Dutch Walrus- class submarine program is probably the most prominent example; the lead boat
mef'
chant ship orders since January This occurred despite a full naval ot book, including submarines for Arg tina and Norway, and the moderniza of German Type-206 submarines.
Nor could any of the builders look much confidence to the export market\