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Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make yourself do the thing you have to do, when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not.
—Thomas H. Huxley
The Navy has changed its education, training, and professional standards, methods, and policies radically in the past decade, and more changes loom in the future. Contributors to these changes have moved forward between two barriers, one representing the theory that few limits should be placed on the variety of education and training given each officer, and the other adhering remorselessly to the idea that education and training should be limited to science, engineering, English, and history. The future course of education will lie somewhere between these limits.
Education, training, and professionalism are terms used carelessly in the Navy; they need to be defined more closely. In our national, bureaucratic way, we tend to think of education as instruction carried on only in institutions of learning. Actually, this definition is the second listed in most dictionaries, which give as their first definition, “the systematic development and cultivation of the powers of reasoning by inculcation and example.”
Our Navy must embrace this broader concept of education, and begin educating the naval officer the day he or she steps into the halls of the Naval Academy or university for his or her undergraduate education. Education, then, can be said to continue through postgraduate schools, service colleges, functional and fleet schools, and by observation, experience, and most importantly, through self-administered education. It stops the day he or she retires.
Semantic purists will point out that functional and fleet schools are classified as training, generally defined as “systematic instruction and drill.” Dividing the learning experience of an officer into either education or training is difficult. A better course is to consider that every learning experience an officer undergoes is part of one’s education as a professional naval officer. Some of it contributes directly to the officer’s ability to carry out technical and mechanical tasks such as conning a ship or submarine, piloting an aircraft, or firing a weapon. Most is not directly related to a professional competency requirement. It is, instead, stored in memory for possible future use.
Professionalism is primarily a naval expression, although it has roots in other professions. Professionalism for a doctor or lawyer is the body of knowledge which the individual uses to treat and heal patients, or to conduct the business of the law. The dictionary defines professionalism, “the methods, manner, and spirit of a profession.” Professionalism among naval officers is much broader. A naval officer must manage a deep grounding in a chosen warfare specialty and knowledgeability in all other specialties. The officer may in future years engage in budget
planning, engineering design, and many other specialties- He does not always know how he will use phases of his education, although the subspecialty system has been designed to narrow the scope of requirements to be place on the average officer. For instance, mastering a language and taking a course in cultural anthropology may have ha little significance when undertaken, but they may be ° great importance to professional performance if the officer is assigned to a NATO staff or made an attache.
We have, then, established two definitions for the remainder of this discussion. The word training will no longer be used here.
Educational Opportunities
The Naval Academy: One of the first steps in an off! cer’s education has long been the Naval Academy. Prior to World War II, it was the major source of regular nava officers; since 1945, the majority of regular officers has been produced from the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) regular and contract programs, augine11 tation of reserve officers, Officer Candidate Scho (OCS), and aviation pilot programs. Today, the Nava Academy supplies approximately 1,000 officers annually- The Naval Academy curriculum has changed from lockstep system in which each midshipman took exact ; the same courses (with the exception of languages) to one- in the late 1960s, with a multiplicity of majors. This latte
majors has been cut back since 1972 to seven designate and one undesignated engineering degrees with 11 majors• Over this period, attempts were made to require 80% 0 the midshipmen to take engineering majors. In one unh,r tunate year, 80% were required to take engineering maj°rS with unsatisfactory results. In another year, certain grad11 ates were required to enter the nuclear power progra111 with further unfortunate consequences. The present polaT encourages midshipmen to take engineering majors and10 enter the nuclear power program. Results have been highly satisfactory with the Naval Academy’s nuclear power quota filled in 1983 for the first time. ,
In the past ten years, the nuclear power community.|e, by Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, has advocated a lOy , academic atmosphere for the Naval Academy. Admit' Rickover has recommended what he calls a “priesthoo^ approach” for naval officers. He has advised a series1 Naval Academy superintendents to dismiss military tra111 ing, all athletics, and all social and recreational pursuits Only courses in engineering, science, mathematics, t glish, and history would be offered, and midshipn1^ would be required to study and work 18 hours a day, evey day, on these subjects. Just as strongly, every superinten ent has rejected this program. The high point in this adv° cacy was reached in the years when 80% of the midship men were required to take engineering majors.
Nevertheless, the drive for better education and tn
dedication of Admiral Rickover have helped to move Naval Academy to its present highly respected position the field of education. It is ranked in the first 50 collegia*0
hiS>MUt'°ns 'n country by the Gorman Report. It is also c-d in ran^et^ as an engineering institution. The entering n idates have qualifications as high as those for any •nstitution in the country.
fie ., SUccess*on °f superintendents has created unusual (Ion' | y *n the administering of Naval Academy educa- alt ' n. 1960, any midshipman failing a course had three tUmrnatlves: he was dismissed, given a reexamination, or cours *or an ent*re year and required to repeat all
Now, midshipmen failing a course or courses have a g le^ °f options, all examined carefully by the Academic cirar anc* prescribed for the individual according to the surnUlTIStanCeS' °Pt'ons include retaking the course in Pe rn|er sch°°*> which is conducted during their leave a s . or being turned back one semester or a whole year; tileen,or may have graduation delayed for six weeks while mi |CLUrse *s made up. The result is timesaving for many shipmen who then go on to satisfactory careers. This antjresents a saving of $30,000 per year per midshipman, m, !ilS on|y fitting in view of the extremely high entrance
qualifications.
advance in flexibility is the conduct of a short, j Sraduiitc session for those with an undesignated °ree who are chosen for the nuclear power program.
Th
ics . CX,tra Work brings them up to speed in the mathemat- and physics areas.
Qr ,e latest improvement in flexibility is the Volunteer Hen UatC ^ducation Program (VGEP). Up to 20 midship- all0a year who have validated some of their courses are a nv^ l.° enr°fi *n nearby civilian institutions and pursue KaSter’s degree. They must attend and carry out all h0ua Aeademy functions, but are excused during class WjthS They must complete all requirements for the degree ln six months after graduation.
Previously, the only flexibility available for those midshipmen who could complete the bachelor’s degree requirements early was to take additional courses or to be selected as Trident Scholars, which permits doing applied research during the final year.
The VGEP program is now a magnet which serves to attract highly qualified persons who have already completed some college-level work. It is also a challenge to those who want to overload in their first three years in order to progress rapidly in academics.
Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps: The NROTC has two basic programs, the four-year scholarship program and the two-year contract program. In each program the majority of the midshipmen major in science or engineering and must take prescribed courses. Beyond these requirements they may take any courses they desire as long as they meet the graduation requirements in their major. As a result, the NROTC graduate is well grounded in liberal arts but not as well educated as the Naval Academy graduate in science, engineering, and professional courses.
Officer Candidate School: There are several other officer-entry programs, such as the Nuclear Power Officer Candidate (NUPOC) Program, the Enlisted Commissioning Program, and the Aviation Officer Program, which produce candidates with many varieties of education.
Those entering the Navy through NUPOC must be technical majors, but senior NUPOC entrants may pursue any major. Those in other programs may select any major. These candidates are then sent to Officer Candidate School (OCS) where they are given a limited professional education. In general, they are long on liberal arts and short on science, engineering, and professional education.
Staff and Restricted Line Sources: There are many avenues leading to commissioning as a member of a staff corps or in the restricted line. Each avenue provides that the candidate will be well educated in the appropriate staff specialty. The width and breadth of general education of officers from these areas vary widely.
Officers from all of these sources are eligible for postgraduate education; the major programs follow.
Naval Postgraduate School: Approximately 1,000 officers attend the Naval Postgraduate School annually for one- to three-year periods. Courses are technical and professional in such subjects as aeronautical and naval systems engineering.
Civilian Institutions: An additional 125 officers attend civilian institutions studying such specialties as ship construction, supply management, and law. Approximately
35 receive partial Navy funding—i.e., their pay and al' lowances are continued, and they must meet other tuiti°n and educational expenses not covered by the scholarships Ten Naval Academy graduates each year are selected to fill full scholarships from prestigious graduate schoo51 such as M.I.T. and the California Institute of Technology' Rhodes and Marshall scholars are included in this gr°uP' The Burke Scholar Program guarantees ten Naval Acad' emy graduates attendance at the Naval Postgraduate School in an engineering/science curriculum on their f>rS tour of shore duty.
Under the Olmsted Scholar Program a pool of seve” candidates is chosen annually from Naval Academy graf’ uates. From this pool two are chosen annually to stud) overseas in a foreign language university. ,
Service Colleges: Naval officers at various stages 0 their careers attend one or more service colleges. Officerj of the rank of lieutenant commander attend the Arffle Forces Staff College or the Junior Course at the Naval Wuf College. More senior officers attend the Senior Course 11 the Naval War College, the National War College, tf*6 Industrial College of the Armed Forces, the service cO' leges of other services, or the NATO Defense College Courses at these schools prepare officers for service °n joint and allied staff positions, the Joint Staff, and in the offices of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Secretary of Defense. Courses are taught in strategy, management' tactics, and national security affairs.
Officers are selected by a board for attendance at set' vice colleges. In the event an officer is not selected f°r' but desires to attend a service college, he will do well to heed the following advice from the Naval Officer’s Guide (Naval Institute Press, 1983):
“Count yourself fortunate if you are ordered to a war college, but do not give up if you are not. Apply f°r’
n take, Naval War College correspondence courses. °u will learn a lot, which may influence a subsequent War c°Hege selection board to pick you.”
b Warfa/-e Specialty Schools: These schools are attended air3 m°St °fficers an(l prepare them for qualification in >surface, and submarine warfare.
nu ll/>cl*onal ar,d Fleet Schools: The Navy conducts a Fioh Cr ^unct'onal or fleet schools, such as the Fire 8 ting School, Fleet Air Defense School, and Fleet Control School. These schools cover a variety of biUeLsS*°na' 3reaS anC* prePare °ff‘cers to serve in specific
Educational Opportunities and Programs: The prQaV^ Campus” is a collection of voluntary educational on ^rarns which enable officers to further their educations Couan 'ndividual basis. Some civilian colleges offer , rses at major Navy shore installations, and others may ^tended off base.
tj 0r °fficers on board ship, there is the voluntary educa- Edu fro^ram caIIed PACE (Program for Afloat College 'VithCatl°n) ^asses at sea are conducted under contract C|vilian colleges and universities, be .0>. resPondence Courses: Correspondence courses may aken from a number of sources. The Naval War Col
lege conducts courses on many subjects, such as strategy and policy, defense, and economics, for which a correspondence course diploma may be earned. The Naval War College also conducts off-campus seminars and self- administered seminars. The Naval Intelligence School offers a correspondence course in naval intelligence, and the Naval Correspondence Course Center at Scotia, New York, conducts a variety of courses for regular and reserve officers. The U. S. Armed Forces Institute conducts correspondence courses in nonmilitary subjects.
Educational Responsibilities
The education provided by the initial source institution is mandatory, although the individual has some say in its characteristics, and each officer must complete certain requirements. The following warfare specialty school is also mandatory for almost all officers. After these initial schools, each officer is on his or her own. The remaining educational opportunities must be requested, and some, such as postgraduate schools and service colleges, are available only by selection. Therefore, each officer must seek out continuously and carefully educational opportunities. Some will be available only at certain career points, such as shore duty tours and when rank is a qualification. These should be planned for and requested well before eligibility periods.
Other educational opportunities, such as functional schools, correspond to specific billets, but an alert officer can arrange to attend these same schools during periods such as yard overhauls or when in transit.
Many educational opportunities are within reach continuously. Each officer should take all possible correspondence courses and plan to take as many selected courses at civilian institutions as time and opportunity will permit.
Probably the greatest opportunity is the plain and simple art of reading. The wisdom of the ages has been placed between the covers of books. Sea cruises and shore duty provide many leisure hours which can be devoted to selfeducation. If the ship’s library is not challenging enough, a shore library is not too far away when you are in port. Important volumes may be purchased.
A key participant in the educational process is the commanding officer. Hopefully he will heed the following advice contained in Command at Sea (Naval Institute Press, 1982):
“When an officer reports for duty his general education may be well advanced, but it is never completed. Officers should be encouraged to take university courses, to read in disciplines other than their educa-
One of the greatest and most accessible methods of learning is the art of reading. An inexhaustible supply of knowledge can be found between the covers of books—it is the individual’s responsibility to tap this supply.
tional majors, to read widely in the liberal arts, and to prepare for future post-graduate formal education. You can help by encouraging them, by making time available, and by overseeing the stocking of the ship’s library.”
Finally, each officer at the beginning of a career must analyze his or her educational position and compare it with a goal. Chapter Two of the Naval Officer’s Guide will provide a basis for this analysis. Briefly, each Naval Academy graduate will find that he or she is well along in professional education but behind in liberal arts. Conversely, NROTC and OCS graduates will find that they are deficient in professional areas and ahead in liberal arts. The Naval Officer’s Guide provides professional and liberal arts reading lists which can be used by all junior officers. At the end of about three years, officers from all sources should be uniformly educated for that level. From that point, each officer’s educational future is in his or her hands, and failure or success will be the key to the excellence of each career.
Educational Professionalism
Professionalism for a naval officer is the method, manner, and spirit in which one carries out responsibilities.
Professionalism starts, as does education, in the Naval Academy and the civilian university. The Naval Academy devotes four summers, several professional courses, and many hours of each day imparting professional competence to midshipmen. In 1972, the fourth-class indoctrination system was changed to replace the memorization of trivia with a course in naval ship and aircraft characteristics, history, and operations administered by the first and second class. In 1973, a professional competency examination was instituted. In subsequent years, passing this examination became a requirement for graduation. In 1982, a formal set of professional competency requirements was published. Now midshipmen take the examination each year. In 1982, these objectives were adopted by the CNO, titled “Manual of Minimum Professional Core Competencies (MPCC) for Officer Accession Programs,” and made mandatory for Naval Academy, NROTC, and OCS midshipmen. The amount of time spent on professional matters by NROTC and OCS midshipmen is only one fourth and one eighth, respectively, of the time spent by Naval Academy midshipmen. Therefore, the nonAcademy graduates cannot satisfy the requirements of MPCC by graduation and must continue study in this area after commissioning.
Mastering the professional competency objectives qualifies the newly commissioned officer to perform the gen eral duties of a junior officer. The next step in attaim'V professional qualifications is to attend schools or othelj wise to learn the duties required of his or her assign2 billet. When these duties have been mastered, each ofnc should begin to broaden his or her professional qualitica^ tions. As with education, the attitude of the commanding officer has a lot to do with cross-training. Command 1 Sea recommends to commanding officers:
“Cross-training should be accomplished whenev2f the ship can afford it. In most cases junior officers c be rotated without impairing the efficiency of the sh'P too much. When this cannot be done, encourage y°l officers to complete courses of instruction in otllL departments, to stand qualification watches, and ^ examine equipment and machinery when it is opene for overhaul and repair.”
An officer who does not have such an understanding commanding officer can still broaden himself profession ally by using his initiative.
Attendance at Nuclear Power School is mandatory ■ all those aspiring to certain billets in nuclear-powem ships and particularly for those wishing to command thes2 ships.
There are many courses of instruction a junior off'2 should take, and many qualifications which should 2 attained, all of which contribute to professional expert2' Becoming a qualified air controller, sonar officer, or catn pult officer may be useful at later periods in a careen- either directly or indirectly.
One of the principal requirements of professionalism ■ the ability to exercise and teach leadership. All line oil cers will eventually attend the Leadership Managemen and Training School, which is designed to impart to ea2 officer the elements of leadership and management.
In mid-years and later, officers also attend ProspectivC Executive and Commanding Officer’s Schools, Nuclein Effects School, and Guided Missile School, which 1,r2 designed to prepare them for department head billets an for command. (Senior officers must also attend Nucleaf Power School if they are selected to command large
nuclear-powered ships.)
essence, there are large numbers and varieties of
ls going to be how these assets are used and which
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Onn • • ’ aic iiuiiiucib diiu vdi
thei<r>rtUn't'eS open to officers of all ranks for increasing °C r Professionalism, and there is no limit to the amount is r° ess'onal broadening an officer can achieve. All that e ed are initiative, aggressiveness, and hard work.
—Education and Professionalism are *Tortunities for both education and professionalism 'bilit 6C^Uate 'n foray’s Navy, which has shown great flex- of e i ln maising changes and in introducing new elements
tent Ucat‘on to meet new requirements. The point of con. IS POirifT f A Ka fiAtif tKan a AnpAtr i ir* a/) aa/I 11 r U, a 1a •j.,c two limits is more nearly approached, over 6 Pr*esthood” limit, advocated by Admiral Rick- tion ' Can exPected to produce officers of limited educatorWlt^ exPosure t° liberal arts, but with extremely be §b grounding in science and engineering. They can cientX^eCteC* t0 comrnand ships which will maintain effi- tion ’■ Sale eng>neering plants and machinery. The ques- ago 'S'• they command and maneuver their ships andhSSiVely’ USe t*ie*r weaPons ar*d fight their ships well, theC a^c to Progress to high command both at sea and in national and international theaters? prn ortUnately, since its inception, the nuclear power of,^ has absorbed a large number of the Navy’s finest nu frs’ ar|d its growing ranks have demanded increasing have CrS every year- Those involved in selecting entrants 'hat hSCt*SUC^ ai"bitrary and subjective selection methods offi ere has always been a shortage of nuclear-qualified pc • ers' Consequently, officers have had to serve long re '? u at Sea an^ ‘n repeated tours in the same billets. The and 1US ^een officers overeducated in nuclear power and ]eavere^UCated in everything else. Such officers tend to edu £ -^e Nayy ear'y or reach higher rank with limited it dSUOnal anc* Professional breadth. These officers find Well 1CU*t t0 t0 other areas of naval warfare or to do den ln ^ashington billets. The Navy has therefore been nc%;riVed of some of its finest potential talent. Fortunately, seleetion procedures and policies will correct this Sh^age overtime.
Who 6 m°re *^era' *'m't aii°ws the production of officers Cjeri Probably will command ships with slightly less effi- W .anc* saPe engineering plants, but who will have a able Cr Un(*erstanding of their ships, and will be better an i t0 move to high command and excel in Washington a abroad.
cati °Petully’ the Navy will not give in to factions advo- jn § either limit. The young officers of today are tio easin2'y professional. Former Chief of Naval Opera- 0p s Admiral Thomas Flay ward remarked that the officers ativ° - are more dedicated professionally than those of den Per'oc* *n the history of the Navy. If so, they can be a * ended upon to study and to work with the dedication of br. .Iesk but with the common sense to know when their Th S anc* b°dy are tired and need exercise and recreation. $ii)Cy,W'P a*so> unhke priests, be able to do better profes- al|y if they have had the support of a spouse and family and have devoted some time to their support. Further, they will be better prepared to perform a multitude of tasks on.short notice at any time in their careers if they have broad educations and are widely qualified professionally.
The deciding factor in favor of maintaining a position nearer the liberal limit is the need for more naval officers to be able to move into the higher circles of defense planning, budgeting, and management. We have seen what happened in Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara’s era when a shortage of such senior officers set the Navy back a decade. We cannot expect an officer, no matter what his intelligence or his dedication, to spend all of his formative career years and most of his command years in a submarine and then assume a key billet in the Washington complex or on a NATO staff. Even attendance at a service college will not salvage the situation. A lifetime of exposure to all the elements of naval warfare and of defense matters is required.
If we assume that the flexible policy will be maintained, one more element is needed: planning careers for promising officers and preparing them for high command. The Army has long practiced this art, and it is no accident that Generals Marshall, Eisenhower, Haig, Goodpaster, and many more were assisted in following their rapidly rising careers by careful attention of seniors. Our Navy, on the other hand, has made only an occasional brief foray into this area by adopting policies such as early selection and frocking, but has never taken truly outstanding officers and given them real responsibility early. We need to have 20 officers qualified to be Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, not just one. The same is true for other important defense department billets. Early advanced education and professional opportunities will produce such officers.
The Navy has a sound, progressive, and flexible education program, and today’s naval officers, in general, take full advantage of their educational opportunities. Further, the professionalism of the officers of today is superb and improving steadily. What is required to produce successful naval officers is a combination of wide educational and professional opportunity, not limited by age or rank, the dedicated pursuit of excellence in these fields by all naval officers, and an occasional leavening of physical fitness, recreational, and familial activities.
Vice Admiral Mack was graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1937. At the beginning of World War II, he was gunnery officer of the USS John D. Ford (DD-228). He later served on the staff of Commander Amphibious Force, Pacific, and in October 1944, assumed command of the USS Woodworth (DD-460). From 1946 to 1949, Admiral Mack headed the Naval Academy Preparatory School, then served on the staff of Commander Cruisers-Destroyers, Pacific, during the Korean War. In 1962, he was assigned to the Office of the Special Assistant for Counterinsurgency, Joint Chiefs of Staff. The following year he was named Navy Chief of Information and, in 1966, assumed command of Amphibious Group Two. From 1967 to 1969, he was chief of Legislative Affairs for the Navy Department, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Reserve Affairs from 1969 to 1971, and Commander Seventh Fleet from 1971 to 1972. Admiral Mack’s last tour of duty prior to his retirement on 1 August 1975 was Superintendent of the Naval Academy.