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1
Two ships, which must use their own cranes to offload cargoes onto trucks at Port Said, and giant quayside cranes unloading freighters at Alexandria (inset), are reminders of Egypt’s utter dependence on the sea. But it is the north-flowing Nile that unifies and nurtures this ancient land as it struggles to retain its place as leader in the Arab tvorld.
On 5 June 1975, President Anwar Sadat of the Arab Republic of Egypt officiated at a brief ceremony at the Suez Canal Authority building at Port Said. The ceremony marked the reopening of the Suez Canal after eight years of closure. They had been years marked by war and the threat of war, the evacuation of a million civilian inhabitants from the canal cities, great devastation and destruction, and cessation of all economic activity in one of the key maritime arteries of the world.
Following his speech, President Sadat embarked in one oi two Egyptian destroyers which had moored in Port Said harbor, awaiting the formation of the ceremonial convoy which would pass from Port Said to Ismailia to mark the formal reopening of the waterway. The two destroyers were accompanied by the magnificent presidential yacht Hurriya (“lib-
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erty”), then 110 years old, whose colorful history included participation in the ceremonies marking the initial opening of the canal in 1869- Spectators along the waterfront and guests embarked in other ships awaiting their place in the convoy were then astonished to see that the fourth ship in the convoy was the USS Little Rock (CLG-4), flagship of the U. S. Sixth Fleet, with Vice Admiral Frederick C. Turner, fleet commander, embarked. The Little Rock s participation in the reopening ceremonies at the request of the Egyptian Government had been a closely held
secret. Even after the ship’s arrival in Port Said, ^ presence was not generally known, because she ^ moored in a position not readily visible to Part1., pants and guests assembled at the ceremonial PaVl^s ion. Someone on board one of the waiting ships heard to ask, “What ship is that?” When the ^ was given, the Soviet military attache said w‘t*1,e grimace, “No, that’s not the USS Little Rock—it s c USS Surprise." . e
The Little Rock’s unexpected participation in c ^ reopening of the Suez Canal marked both an end
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j e8lr>ning. For many months preceding the reopen- ng> ships, aircraft, and men of the U. S. Navy had j^een deeply involved in clearing the canal of the deNs of war and preparing the way for its reopening.* ese operations were conducted by Task Force 65, ^Perating under Commander Sixth Fleet. The task ^Tce was commanded initially by Rear Admiral fian McCauley, and he was succeeded during the Potion by Rear Admiral Kent J. Carroll. The options consisted first of helicopter minesweeping in ^ aPproaches to the canal and in the canal harbors lo anc^oraSes’ ar,d in the canal itself. This was fol- Wed by the clearance of the canal of obstructions, P osives, munitions and assorted debris. This phase
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operation, designated Nimbus Moon (water),
as performed primarily by Egyptian personnel, __ 1Sted by men of the American, British, and French navies. The Egyptians handled most of the explosive °rdnance encountered during the operation. Egyptian rrny engineers conducted Nimbus Moon (land), the Concurrent operation in which Egyptian soldiers, er training by U. S. Army personnel, removed most 700,000 land mines from areas contiguous to e banks of the canal. Simultaneous with this work, ^commercial contractor, under the direct supervision rhe U. S. Navy’s Supervisor of Salvage, removed ten designated wrecks which had been scuttled at Vafious points along the length of the canal, com- t5 etely obstructing the navigable channel. The over- a Work lasted some 14 months (from April 1974 to
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t e end of residual clearance operations in the summer of 1975), but the major U. S. contribution was completed by December 1974.
The extensive day-to-day cooperation between men ^ che American and Egyptian navies which was in- efent in this massive joint undertaking opened many eyes on both sides. For the Americans, there ^as an introduction to a new and unfamiliar culture;
realization that the Egyptian naval officer is a cul- **d, competent, highly educated gentleman fully e professional equal of his American or European counterpart. We gained an awareness, many for the Jrst time, that there are two sides to the Arab-Israeli lspute and that the Egyptians can and do state their ^°int of view in a rational and convincing manner, ^od we saw many vivid demonstrations that the Syptian sailor or soldier, properly led and inducted, is capable of the highest measure of cour- a&e, dedication, and devotion to duty.
I From the Egyptian point of view, much was earned, and many preconceived notions were sharply
altered. The Egyptian point of view being best re- , lated by Egyptians, I will simply recount part of a conversation I had some time ago while standing on a pier in Alexandria, awaiting the arrival of a visiting American warship. I was with a middle-grade Egyptian naval officer who suddenly smiled and said that this was all so strange. “Why is it strange?” I asked.
My companion explained, “Just a few years ago you were our enemy; if the Sixth Fleet came near we went on alert. Now look at the change. You come in peace to be our guests, you are our most honored guests, and we are happy when you come.”
And American warships have visited Egypt in increasing numbers in recent years. Visits to Alexandria were resumed in 1974 and have occurred with increased frequency since then. Visiting ships have included the John F. Kennedy (CV-67), Saratoga (CV- 60), California (CGN-36), South Carolina (CGN-37), Milwaukee (AOR-2), Guam (LPH-9), Inchon (LPH-12), and a number of destroyer/frigate type ships. All told, more than 25,000 U.S. sailors and marines have visited Egypt in the past five years, and have conducted themselves in an exemplary manner. This performance has been a gratifying surprise to U. S. diplomats serving in Egypt, some of whom had harbored a rather different impression of the American sailor. It has been a gratifying experience also for our Egyptian hosts, who have come to expect superb performance across the board from the American Navy.
Actually, the U. S. Navy has had a small presence in Egypt for many years. In December 1942, the U. S. A. Typhus Commission in Egypt was established by an executive order signed by President
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
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Huntly Boyd, “Nimrod Spar: Clearing the Suez Canal," United
a,es Naval Institute Proceedings, February 1976, pp. 18-26.
___________________________________________
Largety through the initiatives of Egypt’s President Anwar Sadat, the long years of conflict between Egypt and Israel 1 ended with the signing of a peace treaty last March.
bring some semblance of balance of payments
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hundreds of other commodities needed to keep 1 ^ country going. The import of foodstuffs is Paft ^ larly critical. Egypt, because of its burgeoning lation (more than 40 million and increasing by v°°^ one million each year), has become a net imporcer food by a wide and growing margin. Unfortunate the port of Alexandria was designed many deca ^ ago to meet the needs of a different era, and 11 simply not up to meeting the demands of today, alone tomorrow. Pier space is at a premium, ^ long periods of waiting in the anchorage in the on ^ roadstead standard procedure for most inbound m
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Franklin D. Roosevelt. The commission was disestablished at the end of the war, but the Navy, recognizing the importance of the area in terms of medical research, established in Cairo a successor organization known as Naval Advanced Medical Research Unit Three. Its mission is to conduct medical research on infectious diseases endemic in the area. It has had an unbroken history of success and has been a source of stability and continuity in relations between Egypt and the United States. The research unit’s reputation in Egypt has been such that at the time of the 1967 break in relations between the two countries, the laboratory was allowed to continue its work basically unhindered, thus becoming for a period of almost seven years the sole official American presence in Egypt, except for a small U. S. interests section attached to the Spanish Embassy.
Much of all this would be of only passing interest but for one very important but little recognized fact. Egypt—the land of deserts, pyramids, camels, mosques, and fellahin toiling in their fields along the fertile Nile valley and in the delta, much as their forefathers toiled 2,000 years ago is in essence a maritime nation. It is in fact a maritime crossroads of the world, important not only for its strategic location and its Suez Canal, but also because of a maritime tradition far stronger that is generally recognized. Egypt is utterly dependent upon the sea and water transportation for its continued existence.
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With less than 4% of its land arable, the m ited portion of the country resembles a very long pent (the Nile valley) with a very large hea ^ Nile delta). This fertile green area is surroun e east and west by the sand of the desert, almost ^ passable in its natural state by surface transportati ^ It is bordered on the north by the sea. There ar ^ course other inhabited areas in the country, ut many. The arable “snake” described above is m ma ^ ways analagous to an island—except that the s sand to east and west is not navigable except m very few places where roads have been built.
The main port is Alexandria, a city of some and a half million (close to four million in the sU mer), located on the Mediterranean coast just to west of the Nile delta. Close to 90% of EgyPts.' ports and exports currently move through the d commercial port, which is located in Alexan western harbor. The much smaller eastern (the original port of Alexandria) is used as a fis ' port and as a mooring site for yachts and small era ^
More than 15 million tons of cargo of all 1 move through Alexandria each year. Included are ^ country’s cotton crop and other exports neede
Egypt’s sorely pressed economy. More important cargo includes the imports of wheat, grain, corn, ^ tilizer, machinery, newsprint, rolling stock
chant vessels. Cargo handling facilities are adequate, as are storage facilities and provision landward movement of cargo to and from the P Some improvements are in progress, assisted in P' ^ by the U. S. Agency for International Developmef^ But there are definite limitations to what can done by way of improving the present port Alexandria, so the construction of a new port is c sidered necessary. This will probably be locate ^ Dikheila, a short distance to the west of the exist1 ' port. Detailed planning has already begun. ^
The second port of Egypt is Port Said, at c northern terminus of the Suez Canal. Port Said . limited pier space and cargo handling capacity, ‘
fom ideal. Nonetheless, more cargo is now moving rough Port Said than in the past, and some improvements have been made in the supporting road and rail nets. More important, a new port is Panned, to supplement the existing harbor facilities.
Other new port facilities are planned on the 'Jediterranean coast. One may be located at arnietta, a place conveniently close to the heavily Populated towns and villages of the delta. Another is e*ng built at Mersa Matruh, far to the west. Other Ports exist at Suez, at the southern end of the canal, an<f along the Red Sea coast. These, however, are rernote from the centers of population, and for that reas°n are of limited commercial importance. There are few countries in the world in which the need for ®*pansion of port facilities and the creation of new acdities is so great as in Egypt. That these needs are Understood and that resolute measures are being taken to meet them is a tribute to the nation’s lightened and forward-looking leadership.
The Egyptian merchant marine is also in the proc- ^Ss of a major expansion. Under the provisions of a lve-year plan, the strength of the merchant marine ^Urrently about 100 seagoing ships) will have been °ubled in the period from 1976 to 1981. Many ^der ships will be replaced in the process. Ships are e*ng acquired in Scandinavia and from Western Urope; others are being built to Egyptian order in apan. And a number of cargo vessels are being built rhe modern shipyard in Alexandria. Egypt, while f has not developed the specialized resources needed to build sophisticated major warships, has a proven Capability to design, build, and operate merchant
Ftying both the Israeli and Egyptian flags, an Israeli landing craft earlier this year became the first vessel from Egypt’s former enemy nation to transit the Suez Canal, in accordance with the damp David peace agreements.
ships and certain smaller naval vessels which are fully the equal of those built elsewhere.
Where will the sailors come from to man Egypt’s expanded merchant fleet? They exist already. Egyptian seamen not only man the nation’s own merchant ships, but they serve in the ships of many other countries as well. More than 20,000 Egyptian seamen are said to be serving today in Greek-flag ships alone. As for future training of merchant marine officers and crews, there is hardly likely to be a problem. The recently established Arab Maritime Transport Academy at Aboukir Bay, sponsored by the Arab League, has as its mission the training of deck and engineering officers, and ratings of all specialties, for the merchant marines of all participating Arab nations. Courses are also given for more senior merchant marine officers, up to and including masters, and for shore-based support personnel. Backed by the resources of wealthy Arab countries, the academy is not constrained by lack of financial support. It is the newest, one of the best equipped, and probably the largest non-military maritime training institution in the world. The decision to locate the academy in Egypt, as well as the fact that a preponderance of the faculty is Egyptian, is a reflection of Tgypt s recognized position as the leading maritime power in the Arab world.
Another major ongoing maritime development in Egypt is the modernization of the Suez Canal. The canal as it existed up to early 1977 was basically the same canal that had been laboriously hewn through the desert, largely by hand, in the 1860s. Limiting draft for vessels using the canal today is 38 feet, and there are additional restrictions regarding length and breadth of transiting ships. Supertankers (VLCC/ ULCC) when loaded cannot transit the canal, although since 1975 an increasing number of large tankers in ballast, of deadweight tonnage approaching and in a very few cases exceeding 250,000 tons, have successfully navigated the canal southbound. There is now in progress, and well along toward completion, the first phase of a planned two-phase program to widen and deepen the canal to permit the passage of very large, fully loaded tankers. The western bank of the canal will remain stationary, but the eastern bank is being moved farther to the east— through the former Bar-Lev line—and the canal’s
wil'
Construction has recently been completed on Egypt’s most modern and far-reaching commercial project: the Suez-Mediterranean (SUMED) pipeline, which carries oil between the Gulf of Suez and Sidi Kreir, west of Alexandria.
depth will be significantly increased. Phase one is expected to be completed in about 1980, by which time the canal will be able to handle fully loaded tankers of up to 150,000 deadweight tons, drawing up to 53 feet. The even more ambitious second phase, planned for completion three years after the end of the first phase, is designed to enable the canal to handle ships drawing as much as 67 feet, to include fully loaded tankers of up to 260,000 deadweight tons. Completion of even the first of these two major modernization and improvement projects—and successful completion of at least the first phase now seems assured—will attract many large ships now unable to use the canal. And it will result in major economic benefits to Egypt in the form of sorely needed hard currency earnings. It will also be of obvious and substantial benefit to shippers and to the people of oil-consuming European nations.
Even with a controlling depth of 38 feet, the Suez Canal has been a remarkably successful enterprise since its 1975 reopening. There was initially some trepidation on the part of canal officials and others in government and commercial circles as to whether or not the canal could ever regain its former importance as a key international waterway. Shipping patterns, after all, had changed appreciably during the eight years the canal was closed, and tremendous investments had been made in ships too large to use the canal. Would shipowners return to the canal in sufficient numbers to make the reopened and ultimately improved canal an economically viable proposition? The answer has been given in the form of steadily increasing canal traffic, and the usage rate being achieved today compares quite favorably with the pre-1967 era.
Early in 1977, another major milestone was reached with the completion of the SUMED (Suez- Mediterranean) pipeline, connecting offshore tanker terminals at Ein Sokhna, in the Gulf of Suez, with Sidi Kreir, on the Mediterranean coast to the west of Alexandria. The offshore buoys at these two locations can accommodate fully loaded tankers of up to 250,000 deadweight tons, enabling oil cargoes to be transshipped from south to north, across Egypt, without tankers actually having to transit the Suez Canal. While some may regard the SUMED pipeline as a competitor to an improved Suez Canal, Egyptian
officials view it as a supplementary system which w result in increased overall revenues. £
A further development of significant mariti interest involves offshore oil within claimed EgyPtul territorial waters. Egypt is far from being an oil'*"* country (if it were, the economy would be in far ter condition than it is today). There is some 0 ^ much of it offshore, and the country is now a n ^ exporter of crude oil and POL (petroleum, oil, lubricants) products, whereas it was a net importer recently as 1974. Egypt’s present oil production ^ close to half a million barrels a day and is expecte reach one million barrels per day by the early 19 ^
Since much of the available oil is offshore, and rnU^£ more is believed to lie in offshore deposits, it can predicted with confidence that maritime active connected with this aspect of the oil industry continue at an intensive pace. _
All these things—new and improved ports, an e>: panded and modernized merchant marine, an ^ proved Suez Canal, new offshore pipeline facilities 0 deep-draft tankers, a very respectable maritime tr:l11 ^ ing program, substantial numbers of experience^ seamen, an established maritime tradition, and vigorous and expanding offshore oil industry substance to the thesis set forth earlier: Egypc 1 basically a maritime country. It will prosper or re gress largely on the basis of maritime events. It is 0 this reason that so much is being invested now in c maritime sector.
The Egyptian Navy fits into this picture t°0' Smallest of the Egyptian armed forces, the Navy P°s sesses a moderate sized force of destroyers, friga^5’ submarines, missile boats, minesweepers, amphin[1] ous vessels, submarine chasers, and torpedo and P‘ trol craft. Most of the ships are of Soviet origin, an most of them are now old. The Egyptian Navy has 1
&°od officer corps, almost all of the career line offi- ®rs (engineers excluded) having been trained at the P 3Va^ Academy at Aboukir Bay, which produced its ^ rst graduating class in 1948. It is a coastal navy et than a blue water navy and makes no preten- j.'ons otherwise. Most of the officers speak good Engs > and many are fluent. All whom I have met have Ptoved warm and friendly. As a group, they like tnericans and have very strong admiration for the U- S. Navy.
There is here, I believe, an opportunity which has yet been only partially grasped. It is an opportunity not only to assist a developing country in meet- lng the needs of its people, but also to actively par- t'c'Pate in the building of a firm and lasting relations tp with the key nation in the Arab world. Certainly some very important progress has been made In the past several years in the political arena, and today the United States is conducting the largest gency for International Development program in c e world in Egypt. This is all to the good. The Sector which appears to need additional emphasis is Maritime affairs, and here it would seem that the toted States could well play a more active role. Egypt's strategic location in the eastern Mediterranean represents a distinct advantage to any nation "Tiich would aspire to effective seapower in that in- and sea. This point was not lost upon the Soviet titon, whose naval vessels made extensive use of gyptian ports and shipyard facilities until forced to eave in the spring of 1976. With the Soviet presence er*ded, there is a strong case to be made for achieving a closer degree of cooperation between the U. S. >avy and its Egyptian counterpart. Experience of the Past several years has shown that the basis for a Meaningful and mutually advantageous relationship Steady exists. The Egyptian Navy, as previously n°ted, is basically a coastal service, and its tactical ^entation is predominantly defensive rather than of- ensive. In this context a modest program of material distance to the Egyptian Navy, designed to hasten ^ts transition from outmoded and largely obsolete °viet ships and equipment, could pay big divi- ends. There is also a good rationale for seeking inflation, on at least a small scale, of a personnel exchange program between the two services, similar in nature to the programs currently in effect with the navies of many other friendly countries. Such a program would logically start with an exchange of officers assigned to training and support activities, such fs the naval academies, training institutions, and the ydrographic offices of the two services. Orientation Murs for selected middle grade and senior Egyptian ficers on board Sixth Fleet ships, and perhaps to
naval activities in the United States, might also prove useful. I look forward to the day when ships of the two navies might begin to participate in combined exercises in the Mediterranean and elsewhere.
In a larger sense, it is important that decisionmakers at all levels in our government recognize the basically maritime nature of Egypt’s needs in its dual role as a developing country and a leader in the Arab world. The steps already taken mark a beginning, which needs now to be continued and intensified.
The bulk of this article was written before the occurrence of the series of events which earlier this year culminated in the long-hoped-for treaty of peace between Egypt and Israel. As a result of that treaty, Egypt is receiving benefits, but at a price. On the positive side of the ledger, there is the end of more than three decades of war and the imminent threat of war; a chance for a degree of stability unknown in the area since the onset of the Arab-Israeli dispute; a possible end to a prolonged and crippling drain on the Egyptian economy; and the return of the Sinai with its oil and its considerable strategic importance. But against this must be weighed the criticism and resentment which Egypt s decision for peace with Israel has engendered in much of the Arab world. Sanctions have been imposed against Egypt in a number of areas, and some of these could prove to be quite damaging, both economically and politically, depending upon the degree of alienation which ultimately results. It would certainly seem that Egypt has at least temporarily sustained some injury to its status in the Arab world. Recent developments, however, have not altered the essentially maritime nature of much of what is happening in Egypt today; on the contrary, these events serve to emphasize the importance of the opportunities which exist for mutually beneficial cooperation between our countries in a broad spectrum of maritime affairs. I hope we will grasp these opportunities. [2] I
P
[1] in 1950. Following an initial tour in the USS Hambleton (DMS-20), he attended submarine school and served in a succession of submarine billets, commanding the USS Ronquil (SS-396) and Submarine Division 121. He holds an M.A. in Russian area studies from Georgetown University. Captain Block, an intelligence subspecialist, served tours in OpNav and on CinCLantFlt staff. From 1965 to 1967, he was intelligence officer on ComSubLant staff. He was also assigned to the ASW Systems Project Office. Following reestablishment of diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1974, Captain Block was assigned duty as naval attache in Cairo and served three years in that assignment, being intimately involved in the events and activities described in this article. Captain Block retired from active duty in April 1978 and has now completed the first year of law school at American University in Washington. He lives in McLean, Virginia.
t""| Captain Block was graduated from the Naval Academy