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Flagging the Unsafe Liberian Ships 102
By Commander J. W. McCurdy, U.S. Coast Guard (Retired) The E-2C Hawkeye: A Most Versatile Bird 104 By Lieutenant Commander Jay B. Russell, U.S. Navy Sink the Old Buttercups 106 By Commander Merice Nelles, U.S. Navy (Retired)
• • ----- : Running into Danger 109
By Lieutenant Robert W. Cannan, U.S. Navy and Lieutenant Commander Miles A. Libbey, III, U.S. Navy
world trade. Consequently, when
more outlying, less-trafficked p°rts' Non-exclusive surveyors are
Flagging the Unsafe Liberian Flag Ships
By Commander J. W. McCurdy, U. S. Coast Guard (Retired), Member of the National Association of Marine Surveyors and an Associate of H. H. Billstein & Associates, Ltd., Marine Consultants and Surveyors
The red, white, and blue flag of Liberia is fast becoming a symbol of maritime disaster. The record of casualties occurring to Liberian flag ships in U.S. inland and coastal waters—alone—has aroused the public to near hysteria, exacerbated by the fact that no one, including the U.N.’s Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), the U.S. Coast Guard, or Members of Congress appear to have a clear and concise plan to counter the clutter of disasters recurring at an alarming rate. Yet, on each occasion, so-called experts— including some who have never surveyed, let alone sailed a merchant vessel or carried the burden of the master or chief engineer of a massive bulk- carrier—are quoted in the press, saying very little aside from the disjunctive premise that: if she is a Liberian ship, then she is unsafe and something should be done about her.
Why is it that Liberian flag ships are almost singularly responsible for the recent rash of disasters? Liberia is signatory to all the safety of life at sea conventions to which the world’s leading maritime nations have affixed their signatures. Liberian ships entering U.S. ports carry the same certificates that are prima facie evidence of seaworthiness that U.S. vessels carry, e.g. Ship Safety Construction Certificate, Safety Equipment Certificate,
Load Line, and Radio Telegraphy, etc. There is, however, one notable exception: U.S. ships carry a Certificate of Inspection issued above and beyond the foregoing certificates. For the intent of this writing it is not necessary to describe this last certificate other than to say it is issued by the U.S. Coast Guard, only after careful inspection by trained personnel guided by stringent regulations, under close administrative guidelines, and only to American ships. This certificate, in effect, embodies all the intent of the international certificates with the personal touch of the United States’ concern for the safety of life at sea. No other maritime nation, known to this writer, carries out a similar inspection procedure on its flag vessels. Under certain circumstances the Coast-Guard will carry out these inspections overseas on American ships.
The inspection of foreign ships for the issuance of the various required international certificates is conducted by the surveyors of those classification societies under whose rules the ship was constructed; the country whose flag flies from the ship’s stern delegates this inspection authority. The majority of maritime nations do not support a bureaucracy to oversee the inspection of ships that never have or ever will enter ports of the flag they carry. Furthermore, in tramp-like opthe
ship is due for periodic inspect*0^5 and/or renewal' of her various cert' cates she is likely to be found lay*0^ in ports unknown even to Joseph C°n rad or graduate geographers. .
The classification societies (such 3s Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, Bure® Veritas, Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, Amefl can Bureau of Shipping, am°n^ others), all members of the Inter03 tional Association of Classified'011 Societies, are supported by shiposvn ^ worldwide. They are non-profir 0<, ganizations faced with the dilemma covering every dog-hole in c maritime world on a limited budge^ Therefore, they are relegated to m*1^ taining exclusive surveyors only those ports where the traffic warm0 ^ their continual presence. The man signed to a specific port will also eo other ports in the area over a radius ^ hundreds of miles. The alternative ^ the exclusive surveyor, who is a re£l) lar salaried career employee, is t0 point a non-exclusive surveyor in
n o(
‘mal
and
. even casual to the point of negligen
Pleased
to testify to this.)
the^°W a<^ t0 t^l'S deplorable state e shipowner to whom the ship is
P.errnanent employees of the classifica- J0n s°ciety. They are paid on a fee , asis ^or each ship they inspect which appens into the port where they ree> and their appointment as sur- eyors oft appears to be predicated on ayailability rather than a sound background in ship construction, repair, operation. They operate without se administrative control in ports Sometimes thousands of miles from e,r closest principal or overseer. De- P'te the wonders of modern communications, they operate without the restige or assurance of the local cop 0 can summon immediate back-up caUse isolated and lack for
a training. To further aggravate the atlon. they receive minimal fees, j human nature being what it rheir inspections tend to be min- 1ncompetence! (The writer will be
'ng more than a capital invest- nt and whose calculations for the ^traction of profit do not include: (1) ‘''■"•'ance for the proper maintenance repair of his ship, or (2) any moral nethical regard for the befouling of atute vis-a-vis the almighty dollar, ra^c, or pound.
tle writer is a non-exclusive sur- tio^ r t0 tWO internat*onal classifica- V u SOc'et*es ar>d is well acquainted fo ■ r^e frustration attendant to en- rcing the good intentions and re- ments of those societies he repre- fa S frustrat*on builds in the
tace.°f deliberate subversion, delaying >cs, and false promises for future -Plmnce upon the oath of the , ner/rnaster—an oath made invalid stne very deck upon which he de ■ ' these frustrating tactics are
^Slgned to permit the ship to escape Sar^de next outlying port where the e Ploys are again employed. After
ated encounters like this the non- c*clt h,
and investigate the ships.
not
operators who maintain their ships to the highest standards and who employ officers the equal of any the writer has known in American ships. The Liberian requirements for officer qualifications read almost verbatim to those requirements demanded of American officers. Chevron Shipping (Standard Oil of Calif.), among others, such as Sanko Line of Japan, operates ships under flags of convenience that are the equal of, and maintained to the level of, the best U.S. ships.
Then, what is the solution to the problem of the Liberian vessels which do not meet the standards of the International Safety of Life at Sea Conventions? The answer is simple enough: rigid, forceful inspections. The application is something else. As stated before, the classification societies are non-profit, supported by fees paid to them by shipowners who choose to use their services. For the classification societies to effectively control the seaworthiness of vessels under the authority delegated to them by the various nations, they need trained, experienced, qualified nonexclusive surveyors in those ports which cannot financially support an exclusive surveyor. To retain the best qualified non-exclusive personnel means paying them a respectable retainer fee and providing them the continuous assurance that their decisions will be fully supported by their principals. The cost, of course, would have to be passed on to the consumer. Let us face the facts; we all have to contribute to seaworthiness to preserve our natural resources.
There is no contention here that this proposal is a solution to the whole problem. There is more to it, as I expressed in my past comments (“Black Wake of the Torrey Canyon,” pp. 100-102, April 1968 Proceedings) recommending international control over tankships from loading berth to discharge berth along prescribed sea lanes. Now, I add this recommendation: create supranational survey teams, supported by IMCO and moving worldwide, to conduct unannounced surveys with the power to enforce the requirements of the various international conventions.
FRANK EVERS AND THE SEAFARERS INTERNATIONAL UNION
The E-2C Hawkeye: A Most Versatile Bird
By Lieutenant Commander Jay B. Russell, U.S. Navy, Head of the Carrier Airborne Early Warning Branch of the U.S. Naval Test Center evaluating improvements and modifications to the E-2C
The E-2C Hawkeye has fulfilled every requirement imposed upon it. To date, E-2 crews have taken on virtually every mission suggested and acquitted themselves well. But, lately, they must be asking themselves what the Hawkeye’s primary mission is, or what it should be. This question must be answered if this sophisticated weapon system is to realize its full potential.
Individuals who subscribe to the theory that communications— command and control—will decide the outcome of future wars cannot fail to recognize that the E-2C and related platforms, such as the E-3 AWACS, have the potential to fully exploit the advantages of electronic superiority and assist in the prompt, correct deployment of sufficient force to gain control of the battle area. Control can only be achieved, however, if such action is swift—which is not the case at this time.
Present data links and communications relays give the officer-in-tactical command (OTC) an overall picture of the operating area never before possible. Even so, assuming excellent communications within the OTC's ship, his reaction time under the best conditions is too slow. A hostile missile can traverse the distance from its mother ship to the target in minutes, or even seconds. A detected aircraft is able to penetrate from maximum detection range to one capable of engaging in hostile action in minutes. The high speed of modern submarines renders a "datum”—the last known position of a submarine—cold in minutes. Only seconds are necessary for a hostile missile platform to radiate its electronic equipment before firing. In these and other situations, the time available to counter each threat is minimal.
Regardless of the picture he sees, or the number of communications he has at his disposal, the OTC must shift frequencies or reach the proper radio to direct his forces. These communications lack the flexibility necessary for a timely response.
The OTC does have a readily available tool—the airborne E-2C—which affords him the rapid response and communications flexibility he must have.
It would be frivolous and needless for the OTC to abdicate his authority to the E-2C. It is not possible to properly shift the responsibility of operations in this manner, especially since the E-2C mission commander may well be a lieutenant (j.g.) or, on rare occasions, even an ensign. Moreover, other areas of tactical concern, such as logistics and intelligence, would be adversely affected if this were to happen. But, two approaches to solve this dilemma are readily apparent.
The first is to have the OTC, or his authorized representative, fly as the mission commander in the E-2C so that he may make the timely decisions. The fallacy of this lies in the complexity of the E-2C weapon system. An almost two-year training cycle is required to prepare an operator to fully use the aircraft’s onboard systems. For example, when operating from the mission commander’s seat a crewman is able to set over 1,000 switch and function positions, each of which has a bearing on system performance. Any advantage to be gained by the OTC’s flying in this primary sensor is lost when he has to be led through complex switch paths to obtain data which is extracted routinely in seconds by the accomplished operator. Simply stated, lC is unlikely that non-squadron person nel can obtain sufficient training t0 operate the E-2C’s systems with the facility necessary for effective oper* tions.
The second option is the more complicated approach initially. But 11 could and should prove to be the more effective in application. That is, there should be a thorough definition of the airborne command and control plat form’s role in today’s fleet operations- From this definition specific rules an constraints must be developed whic will allow the E-2C mission common er to fully exploit the advantages 0 his aircraft without usurping the pre rogatives of the OTC. These rules should be similar to the rules of en gagement which guide and constrain interceptor crews. But the rules must> of necessity, be expanded to cover the full spectrum of missions which can involve the Hawkeye.
The versatility of today’s airbor°e radar platform far exceeds any hereto fore used in the fleet. Nearly every deployment reveals previously one* pected applications which must be m tegrated into operational planning- The reason these uses have not been revealed in preoperational and opera tional testing is largely because test ing intended to prove the capability’ which was expected of earlier models1 failed to anticipate the E-2C’s vast im provements. This capability gap continue to grow as the AN/APS-1 advanced radar processing systetI1 (ARPS) begins to be introduced in^j the fleet this year. This radar vV1
provide significant improvements
aircraft search capability in both c land and sea environments. To date the E-2C’s capabilities and subsequen tasking has been based on exploration
k C e system’s operational envelope ¥ aircrews performing normal miss' This on-the-job testing places Slo;r‘«‘ons on the potential for mis- exPar>sion because mission ac- j PJ’shment is the overriding prior- ‘ .he system must be tasked to its frXlrr*um limits, and the crews freed J t^le stigma of failure. Only then l £“e aircraft’s true capabilities be
wn and a definition of its role be Possible.
ai k nen C^e 0Perating envelope of the OTc°rne P^at^orm ‘s fully defined, the may use this information to de-
tl'e role E-2C is to take in his
fine
Obviously, flag, ship, and air , 6 staffs must obtain a full working
ancJW*e<^’e C^e E"2Cs capabilities to operations employment options. „ ,, members who cannot recite load 14 miss‘le envelopes or A-7 bomb ly b Me encoura8ecl t0 d° so, quick- ex'istUt n° SUC^ rec3u‘rement seems to ‘st f0r these personnel to be aware of hesE-2C's abilities.)
°n pIIC emphasis must be placed g e coordination potential of the reco' To date, staffs generally fail to air ®ni2e tbe potential of “support” oeatt' Specific guidance must be bQ erated which will allow the air- to^ E'2C crewman enough latitude in ectlvely meet changing situations ^‘mely manner without abrogat- oVe | e Pterogatives of command. The s^PPing role of the E-2C in all mis- cju^. might best be recognized by in- lng E-2C squadron operations personnel in the planning function. The guidance must provide a method whereby prompt action may be authorized for initiation of operations with the provision that the OTC will retain all his options of change and negation without dampening the initiative of an aggressive crewman. If past performance of E-2 crews is an indication, exercise of this authority may well be infrequent, and the minutes and seconds saved may separate control of the developing situation from chaos and defeat.
The following example will illustrate how an E-2C, operating under a set of rules such as those suggested, can assist the OTC.
Assuming an escalation of tension has preceded our proposed scenario, it is likely that the E-2Cs of the OTC s task force will be airborne continuously. In such situations, the S-3A Viking usually is airborne also, and attack and fighter aircraft are in a ready alert role on deck. This situation places each of these elements on separate frequencies: S-3A on shipboard tactical support center (TSC); E-2C on the ship’s CIC and OTC primary; and fighter/attack on carrier tower frequency.
First attack likely would occur at night when opposition to the hostile force would be reduced. Additionally, probably more than one source would be launching simultaneous attacks. Let us assume a simple attack where missiles are launched from a surfaced enemy submarine—which submerges directly after the attack—supported by a launch of additional missiles from an aircraft which is closing to launch point at that time.
As presently constrained, the E-2C mission commander can do little more than issue a warning when his passive detection system (PDS) detects emissions in the launch mode from the submarine.
The E-2C mission commander can easily switch to tower frequency and request alert fighters to attempt to intercept the inbound missiles. Should that authority not rest in the E-2C? It is evident that valuable seconds will be lost if it doesn’t. Similarly, the E-2C could immediately place an S-3 over “datum” for the offensive prosecution of the escaping submarine. But, if the authority to task the S-3 were not delegated to the E-2C, the minutes lost would likely result in the submarine’s eluding detection until it surfaces to launch another attack.
The problem of the inbound hostile aircraft is similar in its urgency. Intercept must occur well over 100 miles from the intended target to prevent the launching of missiles. We know the speed of closure of such a target will be nine to ten miles per minute. The flight deck can launch ready aircraft within three minutes. If an equal period is added to get word and decision through the OTC’s communication chain, we have sacrificed 45-60 miles of closure. If the E-2C mission commander has the authority to request launch and initiate intercept, half of this closure will be eliminated, and the OTC still would have more than enough time to reverse the
decision if he desired.
This example is intentionally simplistic. A comprehensive plan should include these and other situations, such as predetermined attack points, interdiction of hostile shipping, location and action against hostile surface combatants, relocation of airborne units to protect the task force, etc. The key to fleet success is timely response. In no case would the E-2C negate OTC’s authority or prerogatives, the E-2C mission commander would only institute planned actions quickly, thus, reducing the
OTC’s response time and increasing h‘s chances for success.
Whatever action is taken, whether it is along the lines suggested here, °r another approach, it is time to recognize the airborne command and control platform as a major factor in fleet operations. The airborne early warning aircraft has proven its effectiveness and its role continues to expand. ^'e must ensure this expansion is orderly and explores the full potential or tn platform to enhance the capabilities the OTC to respond effectively r° operational environment.
Sink the Old Buttercups
By Commander Merice Nelles, U.S.
Navy (Retired), former Commanding Officer, Naval Damage Control Training Center, Naval Base Philadelphia
"An officer or two shall be appointed to take care that no loose powder be carried between decks or near flint, stock, or match in hand. You shall saw divers hogsheads in two parts, and filling them with water set them aloft the decks. You shall divide your carpenters some in hold if any shot come between wind and water, and the rest between decks, with plates of lead, plugs and all things necessary by them. You shall also lay by your tubs of water certain wet blankets to cast upon and choke any fire.”—Sir Francis Drake
Sir Francis Drake made these remarks to his captains before the Royal Navy engaged the Spanish Armada in 1588. Thus, the Royal Navy recognized early the importance of damage control readiness.
Today, such readiness may not be sloshing in Royal Navy hogsheads, but the Royal Navy still is applying imagination to damage control readiness, especially in the design of wet damage control trainers.
The Royal Navy has found that present-day damage control technology demands more training facilities than active ships alone can offer. The order issued by Sir Francis Drake in 1588 required little analysis and special skill to carry out. The crew just went to it with saws and Norwegian steam. Recognizing that today’s ships are two-blocked with systems which make the minotaur’s labyrinth appear simple, the Royal Navy built a hybrid wet trainer at HMS Excellent (Phoenix), Portsmouth, where sailors cope with fire and flooding in a complex systems environment.
The question that must be asked is: can the U.S. Navy learn from the recent Royal Navy experience and improve on the technology and philosophy of wet damage control trainers?
Live damage control training for many of us old-timers ended when, bewildered and exhausted, vie shuffled off a wet damage control trainer (Buttercup) early in our careers. Perhaps you last saw the inside of a wet trainer between duty stations in one of the Buttercups at Norfolk, Newport, Philadelphia, or Treasure Island. Likewise, present-day repair party members may go for months unchallenged and without wet training because our wet trainers are inconveniently located and fail to represent the real world. In addition, they are not cost effective, lack advanced installed firefighting systems, and waste freS^ water.
The Royal Navy has solved many 0 the problems plaguing our damage control training program with 1 development of the Damage RePalf Instructional Unit at HMS ExceUent’ This unit is designed along the lineS of a modern Royal Navy frigate. It ^aS three decks, and all its fittings afe
typical of modern ship construction-
Over 5,000 students train in this unit each year. ,
The unit—beam-22 feet; length'?^ feet overall (includes spectator’s stan^ and “fireraisers” gangway); height- feet, above supports—is mounted 0 hinged supports on the corners of °ne side, and a hydraulic ram arrangem0 is fitted on the corners of the opPoSlt*j side. The hydraulics are control^ electrically from the control posit'011 in the training staff control roor° (SCR). As a safety arrangement, a(1
override control position is fitted 1 the pump house. The unit can upward to 5° from 0° in 30 secon and hold that position for 20 minft°s^ It can be activated again and raised c 10° in 30 seconds and held there 0' 20 minutes. Finally, it can be lowere
cast
system.
cl°sed
t0 0 , stopping at 5° if required.
The lower deck is approximately ^'ght feet below an imaginary water- lne> although this line can be submerged 12 feet if required. This is ac ieved by adjusting the level of the 'Vater in the gravity tank above the PUrnp house adjacent to the unit. Beneath the unit is a 50-ton >990 gallons) water storage tank, 'nto which water used to flood the interior may be drained and from which ton/hr pump draws a suction. ls pump supplies the fire main at psi and can also be used to fill the gravity tank which supplies the water °r the damage incidents.
All electrical fittings appear to be
ted^ ^°r t^le v°it AC supply fit- *n modern frigates. However, in e interest of safety, all power ^UPPlies in the unit are in fact 110 01 Ac center tapped. All electrical 6<iuipment, ventilation fans, portable
Pumps) fuse boxes>
etc. have been de- '8ned to look like shipboard equip- ^®nt and to take the current supplied.
ls ensures realism and also the de- Slred safety factor for men under train-
‘ng.
Sound-powered telephone com- unications are fitted between: dam'll6 control central (DCC) and repair ^ ^ position; DCC and cabin flat, / 2* DCC and staff control room R)> which answers as the bridge, Perations room, after repair party, ^ engine room; SCR and the pump °Use; and SCR and staff safety obServer on 02 deck.
An amplifier is fitted to the tele- t0tle control boxes in the headquar- t, s an<^ t^le sta^ control room, and ^ e firing is arranged so all calls into P*age control central can be moni- th e<a ^rorn a loudspeaker sited near to j^e control officer’s position. udspeakers are in all compartments serve two systems. An amplifier . rnlcrophone in the DC central ser- c the DC central broadcast system, a similar system is fitted in the t0 serve as the ship’s main broad
Th •
OVERBOARD
DISCHARGE
VALVE
SALTWATER
MAIN
The schematic drawing shows the two interior compartments of the Damage Repair Instructional Unit, seen in the raised position in the lower photograph. Designed along the lines of a Royal Navy frigate, this unit trains more than 5,000 students annually.
. ne unit also is fitted with a ten- P supply and exhaust fan system P changeover flaps for recircula- °Ps- The system is marked to be and the air recirculated when
above ground to avoid costly concur tank construction with attendant curring fresh water loss. Ab° ground construction, like the Dam & Repair Instructional Unit, leads other advantages such as: recyci and easier filtration of exercise n° ing and firefighting water; simp and less costly heating requireme for the small quantities of water quired; more realistic flooding ef e with hydraulic generated list; an^ ?°t0 tability. (No building is require c house the above ground trainer.)
condition Circle William (the gas- tight condition) is set.
The unit can present 13 damage incidents, some of which can be controlled to allow flood water to enter from the gravity tank through the ship’s side on three decks, one to allow water to flood through a split in the after bulkhead in 3Ga, and splits in the firemain in the second deck passageway and to a hydrant in 3Ga.
Compartments port and starboard in 3Gz are designed for “fire raising.” No electrical equipment is provided for these cabins, and the only furniture is an aluminum alloy bunk and desk. It is not intended to raise fiery holocausts in these compartments, but is intended that the fires, although small, will produce much smoke. A smokey condition also is created by lighting smoke candles. This situation gives the trainees experience in locating difficult to find fires in that the controlling officer or petty officer is made to think how best to keep the smoke in 3Gz or remove it from the second deck should it reach there.
The Damage Repair Instructional Unit offers a wide range of situations for repair party response to missile and torpedo hits, Class A & B fires, NBC attack, loss and restoration of electrical power using emergency cables, ruptured firemain, and general flooding through a ruptured hull. Team exercises from the Fleet Exercise Manual, FXP-3, could be conducted in the trainer and simplified exercises for individuals selected from the Repair Party Member Exercise Manual, NAVEDTRA 343 13, could be accomplished. The exercises also make an ideal platform for investigation of damage and gas-free engineering operations. And the training value of the unit is enhanced by the fact that it can accommodate 14 spectators/observers.
And, while the Royal Navy improves its damage control readiness, we work to maintain World War II- equipped wet trainers which have celebrated their 30th birthdays. Yet it would be imprudent to retrofit these old Buttercup hulls with twinned agent fire extinguishing systems (TAFES), HALON 1301, new fire pumps, eductors, advanced interior communications, and electrical systems. The time
has come for the U.S. Navy to design these advances into new trainer hu > and the Royal Navy’s lead appeats be a good example to follow.
Since our commanding officers reluctant to lose their repair parties entire days for damage control train ing, new U.S. Navy wet trainer* should be located at the foot of aCt0
Training subsystems supporting 1 wet trainer and instructors shou^ offer the student an opportunity to serve his own training exercise be ^ ior after the practical damage contr training has taken place. A recor 1 closed circuit television system c sisting of remote video orthm (equipped with antifogging / covers) and a central monitor' recording station could supply 1 support requirements. A means ^ recording and playback of JZ so00 powered phone circuits would be 11 ful in development of circuit
pliT ,. nercan
An easily accessible wet trains ^
often help overcome the tendency ^
neglect rescue and assistance
training. Rescue and assistance (
could transport their ship’s equip01 j
to the pier-side trainer, which C0L^
represent a ship in distress from j
explosion, etc. The R&A detail c°u
cfy
ing environment which is a far from the “Now the Rescue and ance Detail muster on the fantail most R&A detail training involves- Practical damage control tra,0^j competes with administrative maintenance routines but can be 1 ^ proved by offering our ships in P° handy, realistic damage control ing environment.
t'onal
effo;
schof
who
tts of the many respected jurists,
central theme,
JUt
rem0
d0vmg his ship from situations of ^anger. Perhaps, IMCO members 'Un^ themselves all too often evaluat- s ^ the legal implications of an as- u*y wise maneuver under the old
In H.o. 102, the International Code of !&nals, the two-shorts, one-long whistle means trouble. The “You are running into danger” warning, then, °ught to be sounded for those marin- e,rs who have not yet familiarized 1 '■mselves with the new rules which ta e effect on the 15th of next month.
This latest revision is only the third gltlCe 1895 when what had been 'tish and French sailing rules gained nternational acceptance. Completed n 1972, after four years’ work, this j^evv version is referred to as the “’72 . es to distinguish it from the revi- Sl°ns of ’48 and -60.
ne 72 Rules are truly interna- *n character, representing the ars» and mariners from 52 nations
serve in IMCO, the Intergovern-
[r'ental Maritime Consultive Organization.
^ ithout a strong
Se who fashioned these new rules bo" ^ C0UM have been sidetracked or Sged down by the great number of ()t<: n°l°gical developments that had t^tred since the previous revision, he theme—Collision Prevention! — .hresents a major turn away from the ade fU^eS wh'ch had proved to be k 9uate for the determination of fault ut s°mewhat less useful as a practical q 1 e tor the avoidance of collision.
(T IMco’s goals, therefore, was to fo 6 t'le ru'es a practical action guide f thc mariner on the bridge and not ^or the lawyer in the courtroom.
. ong last, the mariner is being k en constructive guidance, in plain authoritative language, toward rules. Their solution to this problem was simple: under their new rules, any action which increases danger is illegal, while any action which decreases or alleviates danger is specifically encouraged and inarguably legal. Therefore all attentions must be directed toward: (1) recognizing the dangerous situation, and (2) maneuvering out of it. Of course this is the very broadest interpretation of the intent of the rules and is only adequately brought into perspective by considering the numerous practical guidelines which we arbitrarily have divided here into four major areas of concern.
► Rules of Identification'. These lights and shapes are designed to convey primarily the level of maneuverability of the vessel displaying them. The displays have been changed in some areas where possible ambiguities existed, but for the most part the basic displays remain the same. There are, however, some significant additions. First, a combination of towing and restricted maneuverability lights provides a clear indication of a towing vessel’s level of maneuverability. The severely hampered vessel is now easily distinguished from the average towing vessel with the addition of restricted maneuverability lights to the normal towing display. This clarifying display will be a welcome one, as will the new yellow towing light which now clearly identifies a vessel with a stern tow.
The second significant addition is the distinctive, three red light display of the newly defined “vessel constrained by her draft. This addition reflects the acceptance that a deep- draft vessel should receive additional consideration when operating in channels or shallows. This consideration, of course, reduces the number of actions available to her to avoid collision by limiting her ability to change course. Under the old rules, she was just a normal power-driven vessel.
Dayshapes have not changed much, in shape at least. But, color is no longer a consideration; all are black. The cylinder, indicating the vessel constrained by draft, is the only new shape.
Obviously, lights and shapes are important only as they convey information. And, in this regard, the rules are specific in their warning against the use of any confusing or ambiguous lights.
► Responsibility. The rules go to unprecedented lengths to cover both general and specific duties of all vessels in the prevention of sea disasters. In short, all vessels in all conditions of visibility are held responsible for keeping proper lookout by all available means and for maintaining safe speeds. Numerous specific considerations must be made in order to determine a practical safe speed, and radar is no longer ignored. Rather, specific considerations for proper use of radar appear in the rules for the first time. Radar’s role in determining a safe speed and its status as a means for keeping a proper lookout are addressed as well.
In addition to these basic requirements, the conning officer of a vessel in an approach situation must determine whether his ship is the “stand- on" or the “give-way” vessel. No need for guesswork here. The rules thoroughly cover most situations. One of the nicest steps in this direction is the rule entitled “responsibilities between vessels.” The type of vessel determines “stand-on/give-way" pecking order. Simply locate yourself on the list, if the other vessel appears above you, you must give way; if she appears
be
tween normal power-driven vessels re quires both to turn right. The cross forbids the give-way
ahead of the
re-
below you, she must give way. The vessel not giving way, must stand on. The determination is simple unless both vessels are in the “restricted in ability to maneuver” category; and, there is no guidance for this case.
If both vessels are normal power- driven, the three basic approach situations—meeting, crossing, and overtaking—still apply and remain basically unchanged. The overtaking vessel in open waters always is required to give way, pecking order notwithstanding. A new proposal system in the overtaking situation, which occurs in the narrow channel or fairway, makes sense in light of the fact that many times this situation causes concern on the part of the overtaken vessel. Now, the overtaken vessel is more involved in the evolution. Another reflection of concern for the vessel in a narrow channel is the “narrow channels” rule itself which, considered with the “traffic separation schemes” rule, gives a safe solution to the ever present problem of heavy traffic moving in and out of busy ports.
Any actions required by these rules depend on the stand-on/give-way determination and on an assessment of risk of collision. The old standby, “constant bearing, decreasing range,” is given as clear indication of this risk, but again practical guidelines and requirements in the rules themselves provide clear instructions for the proper use of radar in this determination. The rules also state the obvious: bearing drift does not rule out risk of collision; therefore, no assumptions are allowed.
^ Collision Avoidance-. These rules primarily address the duties of the
“give-way and stand-on” vessels once risk of collision is deemed to exist- First, as is obvious from the name. 1 give-way vessel must allow the other to proceed unhampered. The other, 01 stand-on vessel, must maintain course-
As before, the head-on situation
ing situation vessel from crossing stand-on vessel, thereby also encourag ing the use of the right turn in c situation. Requirements for ot^ “stand-on/give-way” situations can found in three separate rules, but they are summarized as follows: .
(1.) The give-way vessel must glV way and must do so early with a lar^ apparent maneuver. Course change ^ advised. Safe passing distance <s quired in these maneuvers.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 1960 and 1972 RULES
Note: All lengths, heights, breadths, dimensions, etc., are now expressed in meters rather than feet. Range is still expressed in nautical miles.
vessels now are not required to comply with the rUJ for “disposition and characteristics of soun _ signalling appliances” if they interfere with the sPe cial functions of the ships.
RULE 2: RESPONSIBILITY
—Old Rules 27 and 29 have been combined und Rule 2, except old Rule 29’s warning to keep proper lookout now appears as Rule 5.
—Fishing vessels are defined as those which have aP paratus which restrict their maneuverability- trolling lines are not included, the weekend f‘s man’s pleasure craft is not covered by this defimn°n —Vessel not under command (NUC) is defined f°r ^ first time as a vessel unable to maneuver because exceptional circumstances.
PART A: GENERAL
RULE 1: APPLICATION
—Lights and shapes have been moved to Part C: Lights and Shapes (Rules 20-31).
—The authorization of special rules for rivers, harbors, inland waterways, etc., is the same except it now contains the admonition: “Such special rules shall conform as closely as possible to these Rules.”
—Old Rules 13 and 28(d) that dealt with the authorization of special station or signal lights or whistle signals for warships, convoys, or vessels fishing as a fleet, now are incorporated and include the warning that these signals shall “. . .so far as possible, be such that they cannot be mistaken for any light or signal authorized elsewhere under these Rules.”
—Traffic separation schemes have been authorized.
—The exemption of old Rule 13(b) for naval or other military vessels has been expanded to excuse “any vessel of special construction or purpose.” Also such
RULE 3: GENERAL DEFINITIONS
—Seaplanes and non-displacement craft, such as suf^£, effect ships, are classified as vessels for all 1 rules.
—The term “vessel restricted in her ability to ver” is defined for the first time and is a separ entity, not a vessel considered to be NUC as sne in the old rules. The list of such ships contains a old Rule 4, plus minesweepers and towing ve*s whose tow, makes them unable to deviate * course. ^
—The term “vessel constrained by her draft” is define for the first time.
?') The stand-on vessel must paar‘entain course and speed. If it is ap- ta^ent that the give-way vessel is not 0ln£ appropriate action, the stand- vessel may maneuver to avoid but y not turn left to avoid a vessel to
tj ft ln a crossing situation. This op- paf113^ toaneuver should be large, ap- co 6nt’ an<^’ where possible, include a dist^6 C^an8e t° effect a safe passing by ^?Ce ErucE'nt mariners, horrified tre^- 6 ProsPect of proceeding into ex: , ts an<^ having exercised good ne ^^cot in making this early ma- re-UVer on their own, undoubtedly will sin *Ce *n t*1*S S‘ant step” for colli- ab(|1 Prevention. The feeling, "it’s p time," is only offset by the ap- ension that the same inconsiderate t.jiaSt.ers who pushed the old rules to fbj W*P feel all the more com-
ta h- doing so now. Undoubtedly,
however, this is the most dramatic and apparent change in this new set of rules clearly designed for collision avoidance. Positive action is still required in extremis situations.
► Restricted Visibility. It is important to note here that the restricted visibility rules now appear under the category of “steering and sailing” rules, and the requirements for safe speed and proper lookout are now ever present. The state of visibility is a consideration in determining safe speed, as is radar information. The mariner now has the responsibility to determine safe speed for his vessel based on the quantity and quality of information he is receiving about his particular surroundings at any given time. He is obliged to keep radar plots and consider the limitations of his gear at all times.
Risk of collision for vessels not in sight is now addressed in the light of radar information, again recognizing reality. The most welcome addition, however, is the guidance given for collision avoidance in restricted visibility. Specific maneuvers are prescribed for:
(1.) Avoiding a radar contact in restricted visibility.
(2.) Avoiding actions when a fog signal is heard forward of the beam.
Old inadequate terms, such as “one-half the distance of visibility,” and the inadequate maneuvers, such as “stopping the engines,” have given way to more prudent, realistic requirements in restricted visibility.
Rule
part b: steering and sailing rules
CnJ!?N l: CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN ANY
Edition of visibility
RULe 4: APPLICATION
Contains an introductory statement only.
5: LOOK-OUT
The requirements for a proper lookout are stated as deluding sight and sound as well as all available ^eans to determine risk of collision, which ties it to ule 7 and the use of radar.
6: SAFE SPEED
^.Ti .
nis new rule requires a safe speed in all conditions of vtsibility, “Moderate speed” is gone, and no special Warnings for speed in fog exist. Although not defin- ’ng safe speed,” this rule provides six considerations 0r its selection by all ships and six additional factors 0r ships fitted with radar. Since speed is determined y many factors, unlimited visibility is not alone en°ugh to justify a flank bell.
7: Risk OF COLLISION
——"p
very vessel shall use all available means appropriate 0 the prevailing circumstances and conditions to de- terrnine if risk of collision exists.” Thus, in reduced Vlsibility and at night, ships effectively are required t° use radar if fitted.
e second paragraph is more specific and states if
radar is installed it must be used and further demands that long-range scanning and plotting be used.
—The warning against making assumptions on scanty information, particularly from radar, has been taken from the old Annex and placed here.
—Risk of collision is not defined. However, the old rule of bearing change is repeated with the amplification that a bearing drift on a large or close contact is not proof that risk of collision does not exist.
RULE 8: ACTION TO AVOID COLLISION
—The rule summarizes old Rule 22 and the radar annex. The admonition against the port turn is now contained in Rule 19.
RULE 9: NARROW CHANNELS
—All vessels, instead of only those power driven under the old rules, in a channel or fairway must keep to the outer limit to starboard.
—Ships and boats fishing, anchoring, or crossing the channel are told to keep clear of those who must stay within the channel.
—An overtaking signal of proposal and assent has been introduced for narrow channel situations. (The signal is described in Rule 34.) Old Rule 21, which required the privileged vessel to maintain course and speed, has been changed to allow the lead ship to maneuver to allow a quicker, safer passage, after the exchange of whistle signals.
—The sounding of a prolonged blast one-half mile from a bend in a channel from old Rule 25(b) has been changed to sounding a prolonged blast on approaching a bend in a channel. No distance is given, and the rule has been expanded to cover vessels of all types, not just power-driven vessels.
RULE 10: TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEMES
—The new traffic separation scheme allows for a divided highway, akin to the interstate for cars, for ships entering and leaving approved ports. With a buffer zone in the middle, it generally works as follows:
(1.) Keep in line (2.) Keep right
(3.) Keep out of the median (fishing is allowed) (4.) Enter or leave the lanes only at the termination of a lane or at small angles
SECTION II: CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN SIGHT OF ONE
ANOTHER
RULE 11: APPLICATION
—Contains an introductory statement only.
RULE 12: SAILING VESSELS
—The information contained in old Rule 17 is retained here, except that if you have wind on port side and hold another vessel to windward whose sail side cannot be determined keep clear.
RULE 13: OVERTAKING
—The information contained in old Rule 24 applies. Any overtaking vessel is still burdened. (See new Rules 9 and 19.)
RULE 14: HEAD-ON SITUATION
—Old Rule 18 stands with additional admonition that if any doubt that a head-on situation exists then it will be assumed that it does.
RULE 15: CROSSING SITUATION
—Information from old Rules 19 and 22 has been combined under this single rule.
—The recommendation for avoiding crossing ahead of the privileged vessel is placed here instead of under the general principles for burdened vessels.
RULE 16: ACTION BY GIVE-WAY VESSEL
—Old Rule 22 applies, except as noted in new Rule 15. Ships are not constrained from passing ahead in other than a crossing situation where the other vessel is on one’s own starboard side.
RULE 17: ACTION BY STAND-ON VESSEL
—The privileged vessel is now permitted to take action to avoid collision when it becomes apparent to her
that the other vessel is not taking appropriate action- She does not, therefore, have to go in extremis before taking any action. She may not, however, make a port turn toward a ship on her port side.
RULE 18: RESPONSIBILITIES BETWEEN VESSELS —This rule gives the pecking order for rights-of-way—No direction is given for the right of way between a vessel NUC and a vessel restricted in her maneu verability, nor between two vessels NUC or vessels restricted in their maneuverability for two differeflt reasons.
—By the old rules, sailboats were only required to give way to fishing vessels, vessels constrained by t^e,f draft, and in overtaking situation; now they must also give way to vessels NUC and those restricted 1(1 their maneuverability.
—The warning about seaplanes in the act of taking-0^ or landing has been removed.
SECTION III: CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN RESTRICTED VISIBILITY
RULE 19: CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN RESTRICTED
VISIBILITY
A**'
—Maneuvering signals are used only when two vessel are in sight of one another.
—Power-driven vessels proceeding in restricted visi ^ ity conditions must have their engines ready f°r lttl mediate maneuvers.
—Similar to old Rule 16, this rule allows a vessel
.... 1 0^ restricted visibility which holds another vessel
radar but has not yet heard her fog signal to ^
avoiding action. This new rule specifically menu
radar and requires a determination of risk of c0,,. „
or close CPA. This rule says that in taking av01 action alteration to port for a vessel forward of the beam (unless overtaking) and turning towards a ves- seI> which is abeam or abaft the beam, are to be
avoided.
Although the requirement to stop engines is gone, the new rule makes it clear that merely ringing up STOP will not be enough. When a close quarters situation cannot be avoided, speed must be reduced to bare steerageway. The omission of “. . . so far as the circumstances of the case admit . . .’’in the new rille clearly indicates that the minimum speed must be achieved rapidly enough to assess the situation and take further action.
pART C: LIGHTS AND SHAPES
RULE 20: APPLICATION
in the old rules, showing navigation lights between sunrise and sunset in restricted visibility was op- t,onal; now it is mandatory.
ULE 21: DEFINITIONS
This rule defines by color, position, and arc all lights any ship may have to carry. The technical details have been gathered into Annex I of the rules. Two new lights, are introduced: lights are increased by one mile—i.e., NUC lights must be visible for three miles instead of two.
RULE 23: POWER-DRIVEN VESSELS UNDERWAY
—An air-cushion vehicle must show an all-around flashing light, plus normal lights for her size.
—Formerly, small row boats were exempt from showing normal navigation lights or a variation like the split lantern. Now a power-driven vessel shorter than seven meters and capable of less than 7 knots must show an all-around white light and, if practicable, also sidelights.
RULE 24: TOWING AND PUSHING
—Any power-driven vessel when towing must show the yellow towing light.
—A vessel pushing another ahead to which she is rigidly connected is considered a composite unit, not a towing vessel.
—Vessels pushing ahead or towing alongside do not show the towing light.
—A vessel or object being towed which cannot show lights in accordance with the rules must show a light of some sort, or some measure must be taken to indicate her presence.
(!•) Towing light—yellow light having the same characteristics as the sternlight.
(2.) Flashing light—a light flashing at regular intervals of 120 or more times per minute.
RlJLE 22: VISIBILITY OF LIGHTS
A dark night with a clear atmosphere” criteria for bght visibility is gone.
Visibility of lights is now contingent on a vessel’s length. (There are three size brackets.)
For vessels longer than 50 meters, the ranges of all
RULE 25: SAILING VESSELS UNDERWAY AND VESSELS UNDER OARS
—A sailing vessel under 12 meters may carry sidelights and stern lights as a combined lantern at the masthead. If she does, she may not carry the optional red and green lights.
—Sailboats of less than seven meters may show a lantern in lieu of any lights to avoid collision.
—A sailing vessel’s optional lights are now considered all-around lights instead of only showing 22Vi° abaft each beam.
RULE 26: FISHING VESSELS
—Trawlers over 50 meters in length must show the after masthead light abaft of and above the green and white vertical light. Trawlers under 50 meters may show it. The light was formerly a forward masthead light shown abaft and below the trawling lights and was optional for all trawlers of any length.
—The flare-up light, searchlight, and working lights previously mentioned and authorized are no longer mentioned. However, Annex II contains several additional signals allowed to be employed between vessels fishing close to one another.
—The cone point upwards used to indicate 500 feet into the seaway is now used to denote gear extending more than 150 meters horizontally from the vessel.
RULE 27: VESSELS NOT UNDER COMMAND OR RESTRICTED IN THEIR ABILITY TO MANEUVER
—The red-white-red lights which used to be shown instead of white masthead lights are now shown in addition to them.
—When not making way through the water the masthead, side, and stern lights are switched off.
—A vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver because of a tow shows the red-white-red lights in addition to normal towing lights.
—A vessel engaged in dredging or underwater operations shows two vertical red lights on the obstructed side and two vertical green lights on the clear side, lower than the red-white-red lights—by day two diamond shapes on the clear side and two balls on the obstructed side.
—Dredges or vessels engaged in underwater operations do not show anchor lights.
—All other vessels, which by their employment qualify as being restricted in their ability to maneuver, show anchor lights as well as the red-white-red lights. This principle applies to equivalent day shapes.
—If a vessel engaged in conducting diving operations is too small to show the ball and diamond shapes, she shall show a rigid replica of the International Code flag Alpha.
—Minesweeper lighting requirements are unchanged except they show the three green lights or three
black balls whether they are sweeping on one or both sides.
—Under the old rules vessels shorter than 65 feet wefe excused from showing NUC and special operation8 shapes. The minimum length is now seven meters.
—All shapes are black. (Annex I, 6(a) defines size te quirements for all shapes.)
—Vessels restricted in their ability to maneuver shall exhibit a black ball over a black diamond over black ball.
RULE 28: VESSELS CONSTRAINED BY THElE DRAFT
—Vessels constrained by their drafts show three vertical red lights or a cylinder. This inclusion in the Ru eS has caused the information to be removed from hn nual Notices to Mariners.
RULE 29: PILOT VESSELS
—No differentiation is drawn between power-driven °f sailing pilot vessels. All lights are the same.
—The flare-up light is gone.
—Sidelights must be fixed on both power-driven an sailing pilot vessels.
RULE 30: ANCHORED VESSELS AND VESSEL5
AGROUND
—A vessel of less than 50 meters length may single all-around white light where it can best seen, in lieu of forward and aft lights. Formerly- c light had to be shown forward.
—Vessels longer than 100 meters must have upP deck lights on.
—Vessels shorter than seven meters, at anchor 0 aground away from areas where other ships navigate’ etc., are not required to exhibit any lights or shapes-
—The present rule does not require power-driven v£^ sels shorter than 65 feet or sailboats shorter than feet to show NUC or aground day marks.
RULE 31: SEAPLANES
—Seaplanes no longer have fixed arcs for their
but are required to exhibit lights and shapes ^ closely similar in characteristics and position as possible to those required by the Rules for ships-
PART D: SOUND AND LIGHT SIGNALS
RULE 32: DEFINITIONS
—A “whistle” is an appliance capable of producing sounds prescribed by Annex III.
—Nothing is said about a fog horn.
—Other definitions are the same as old Rule 1.
flVi
e or more short blasts.
^he wake-up signal—five or more short blasts—is n°w used by both give-way and stand-on vessels when in doubt.
^he flashing light may also be used to supplement che wake-up signal.
yesst‘ls fitted with whistles separated by more than uo meters must use only one whistle for warning
ULE 33: EQUIPMENT FOR SOUND SIGNALS
AH vessels carry the same sound equipment accord- ln8 to their length—i.e. over 100 meters, a whistle, * bell- and a gong; 12-100 meters, a whistle and a €U; and under 12 meters some device to make an efficient sound signal. Sailboats no longer use a °ghorn. Power-driven vessels no longer need a mechanical fog horn.
hither the gong or the bell may be replaced by something making a similar sound which can be operated
Manually.
Seaplanes must carry sound apparatus and be able to make sound signals.
SlGNALS MANEUVERING AND WARNING
^his rule defines all sound signals—i.e., maneuver- lng signals, passing signals, the wake-up signal, and the channel bend signal.
Maneuvering signals may be accompanied by a light Slgna] which no longer must be synchronized with che whistle signal and may be repeated during the Maneuver.
A passing signal is introduced to be used in accordance with new Rule 9. A vessel intending to overtake another on the other’s starboard side sounds two pro- °nged blasts followed by a short blast. For the port fMe pass, two prolonged blasts are sounded followed y two short blasts.
■------
ne other vessel, if in agreement, sounds one pronged, one short, one prolonged, one short.
Jhe other vessel, if in doubt or disagreement, sounds
and maneuvering signals
RULE 35: SOUND SIGNALS IN RESTRICTED VISIBILITY
—The use of a fog horn is not mentioned.
—A sailing vessel now sounds one long and two short blasts every two minutes regardless of the tack in fog instead of one or two blasts, etc. depending on her tack.
—A vessel constrained by her draft sounds one long and two short blasts every two minutes in a fog.
—All vessels under way sound their fog signals at intervals not exceeding two minutes; whereas before, everyone, other than a power-driven vessel, sounded them every minute.
—All vessels at anchor sound the bell and if over 100 meters in length sound a gong aft.
—The gong must now immediately follow the bell. Previously, it sounded independently.
—Vessels shorter than 12 meters sound some signal every two minutes.
—Vessels aground may now make whistle signals— i.e., Romeo (short, prolonged, short).
RULE 36: SIGNALS TO ATTRACT ATTENTION
—The searchlight authorized for fishing vessels by old Rule 9 is here authorized for everyone.
RULE 37: DISTRESS SIGNALS
—Distress signals are prescribed in Annex IV.
----------------------------------------------- RESTRICTED VISIBILITY SIGNALS _________________________
UNDERWAY SIGNALS: ARE TO BE SOUNDED AT INTERVALS NOT TO EXCEED TWO MINUTES
SIGNAL | MEANING |
— | UNDERWAY, MAKING WAY |
| UNDERWAY, NOT MAKING WAY BUT ABLE TO MANEUVER FREELY |
m ■ | NOT UNDER COMMAND, RESTRICTED MANEUVERABILITY, CONSTRAINED BY DRAFT, SAILING, FISHING, TOWING, OR PUSHING |
■mi ■ ■ ■ | BEING TOWED |
NOT UNDERWAY SIGNALS
SIGNAL | MEANING |
AT ONE MINUTE INTERVALS RRB, RRG* | ANCHORED (VESSEL OVER 100 METERS IN LENGTH) 'OPTIONAL FOR SMALLER VESSELS |
■ ■ *romeo | 'OPTIONAL—ANCHORED |
AT ONE MINUTE INTERVALS BBB, RRB, BBB, RRG* | AGROUND (VESSEL OVER 100 METERS IN LENGTH) •OPTIONAL FOR SMALLER VESSELS |
■ ■ ■ ■ (HOTEL) | PILOT VESSEL |
KEY: PROLONGED BLAST (4-6 SECONDS)
■ SHORT BLAST (1 SECOND)
RRB RAPID RINGING OF BELL FOR 5 SECONDS
RRG RAPID RINGING OF GONG FOR 5 SECONDS B STROKE ON BELL
PART E: EXCEPTIONS
RULE 38: EXEMPTIONS
—Exemptions and time extensions from its compliance to these regulations for any vessel are as follows, so long as vessels comply with the I960 Rules:
(1.) Visibility ranges of lights—four years.
(2.) Light color specifications—four years.
(3.) Repositioning due to Imperial to Metric conversion—forever.
(4.) Masthead light repositioning on vessels under 50 meters for horizontal separation—forever.
(5.) As in (4.) for vessels over 50 meters—nine years.
(6.) Masthead light repositioning for vertical separation—nine years.
(7.) Sidelight repositioning to abeam or abaft masthead light—nine years.
(8.) Sound signal appliance standards — nine years.
ANNEX I: POSITIONING AND TECHNICAL DETAILS OF LIGHTS AND SHAPES
—Describes the position, spacing, color specifica£*°n*j sectors, and intensity in very detailed and technK terms.
—Masthead light vertical separation is now also c°n tingent upon vessel trim, i.e., the after one m11 appear over the forward one in all conditions oftr at a range of 1,000 meters from the stem. ^
—Sidelights must be high enough not to be interfere^ with by deck lights, but not more than threC quarters the height of the forward masthead light-
—When three vertical lights are carried, they shall equally spaced.
—Horizontal distance between two masthead light5 not less than one-half the vessel’s length, but ntC not be more than 100 meters. The forward hg^ must be not more than one quarter of the vcss length from the stem. It no longer bears any conne tion with the vertical height.
—Sidelights may not be forward of the masthead Hg*1
STAND-ONIGIVE-WAY PECKING ORDER (WITH BASIC DISPLAYS)
The "responsibilities between vessels" rule gives clear 9uidelines on determination of stand-on/give-way status. This table is taken directly from that rule with some additions ®nd interpretations. First, for ease of reference on watch, basic displays are shown in each category. Second, “not under command” is listed above “restricted in ability to maneuver" based on the inference that a vessel unable to maneuver should be avoided by a vessel who can with whatever degree of difficulty, maneuver. The prudent mariner, then, locates himself and the other vessel on the table. The vessel appearing above the other is the stand-on vessel and should maintain course and speed. The vessel in the lower category is the give-way vessel and should maneuver early to avoid collission.
~ NIGHT NOT UNDER COMMAND: ® BROKEN DOWN, UNABLE TO MANEUVER ® | DAY ; |
RESTRICTED IN ABILITY TO MANEUVER: ® LAUNCHING AND RECOVERY OF AIRCRAFT, REPLENISHMENT, ® TRANSFERRING FUEL, CARGO, PERSONNEL, SERVICING NAVAID, @ PIPELINE, CABLE DREDGING, SURVEYING, UNDER WATER OPS | • ▲ * |
© minesweeping © © | ♦s |
® ® TOWING SEVERELY RESTRICTED IN ABILITY TO MANEUVER ® ® ® ® | l * |
v ® VESSEL CONSTRAINED BY DRAFT: ® SEVERELY RESTRICTED IN ABILITY TO CHANGE COURSE ® | 1 |
® © PISHING, TRAWLING: ® ® | * * |
SAILING: © PROCEEDING UNDER SAIL ONLY |
|
POWER DRIVEN VESSELS, PROCEEDING UNDER SAIL AND POWER | I |
® (STERN TOW) TOWING ® ® ® © OR ® ® | 1 |
They must be abeam of or abaft the forward masthead light.
' Tn a dredge the upper of the vertical red and green hghts for obstructed sides shall be lower than the lowest in the light in the red-white-red arrangement. Sidelight inboard screens are to be painted black.
All shapes are black.
Color specifications of lights are technically defined.
^hJEX II; additional signals for fishing tsSELS FISHING IN CLOSE PROXIMITY
Special light signals for vessels fishing in close proximity are defined.
ANNEX III: TECHNICAL DETAILS OF SOUND SIGNAL APPLIANCES
—Sound signaling apparatus fundamental frequencies and intensities are technically described.
—Whistles must be installed as high as possible with maximum intensity directed ahead.
—If a ship has more than whistles fitted over 100 meters apart they are not to sound simultaneously.
—Combined whistles may be fitted when an obstruction exists which may reduce the effectiveness of a single whistle in a certain sector. Such an arrangement is considered a single whistle.
—Bell and gong construction is technically described.
INTERNATIONAL RULES - LIGHTS & DAYSHAPES
POWER-DRIVEN VESSEL -50 METERS AND UPWARD IN LENGTH. RULE 23
* LESS THAN 50 METERS-NO RANGE LIGHT REQUIRED
POWER-DRIVEN VESSEL 50 METERS AND UPWARD^ LENGTH TOWING ASTERN.
LENGTH OF TOW GREATER THAN 200 METERS. ur
* IF VESSEL'S LENGTH IS LESS THAN SO METERS NO RANGE UGH!
REQUIRED r
**IF LENGTH OF TOW IS LESS THAN 200 METERS NO OAYSHAPE REQUIRED_ —
VESSEL TOWING-UNABLE TO DEVIATE FROM COURSE, LENGTH OF TOW GREATER THAN 200 METERS. RULE 27
**IF LENGTH OF TOW IS LESS THAN 200 METERS NO OAYSHAPE REQUIRED
POWER-DRIVEN VESSEL PUSHING AHEAD OR TOWING ALONGSIDE. RULE 24
VESSEL BEING TOWED ASTERN. RULE 24 * VESSEL BEING PUSHED NO STERN LIGHT REQUIRED
** VESSEL BEING PUSHED OR TOWED ALONGSIDE- NO OAYSHAPE REQUIRED
SAILING VESSELS UNDERWAY. RULE 25
VESSEL PROCEEDING UNDER SAIL WHEN ALSO BEING PROPELLED BY MACHINERY. RULE 25
VESSEL ENGAGED IN TRAWLING. RULE 2G
* VESSEL LESS THAN 20 METERS IN LENGTH MAY SUBSTITUTE A BASKET
VESSEL ENGAGED IN FISHING (UNDERWAY OR AT ANCHOR] RULE 26
* VESSEL LESS THAN 20 MEIERS IN LENGTH MAY SUBSTITUTE A GASKET
** DISPLAYED ONLY IF OUTLYING GEAR EXTENDS MORE THAN 150 METERS HORIZONTALLY FROM VESSEL
INTERNATIONAL RULES-LIGHTS & DAYSHAPES
i!
VESSEL NOT UNDER COMMAND. RULE 27
VESSEL RESTRICTED IN HER ABILITY TO MANEUVER (SPECIAL OPERATIONS) EXCEPT VESSEL ENGAGED IN MINESWEEPING. RULE 27
VESSEL ENGAGED IN DREDGING OR UNDERWAY OPERATIONS, WHEN RESTRICTED IN HER ABILITY TO MANEUVER. RULE 27
VESSEL ENGAGED IN MINESWEEPING. RULE 27
VESSELS CONSTRAINED BY DRAFT. RULE 28
PILOT VESSEL UNDERWAY. RULE 29
PILOT VESSEL AT ANCHOR. RULE 29
* LESS THAN 50 METERS IN LENGTH ** 50 METERS AND UPWARD
VESSEL AT ANCHOR. RULE 30
VESSEL AGROUND. RULE 30
Vessel “A”:
Can continue on course and speed
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ANNEX IV: DISTRESS SIGNALS
—Distress signals are the same as before but with a few additions:
(1.) Radiotelegraph alarm signal.
(2.) Radiotelephone alarm signal.
(3.) Signals from an emergency position- indicating radio beacon.
(4.) A piece of orange canvas with either a black square and circle or other appropriate symbol
i. e., SOS on it.
(5.) A dye marker.
—(4.) and (5.) above are from the Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual.
The following shipboard changes will be required:
1. A "towing light,” in accordance with Rule 21, will have to be held on board for use when exercising or carrying out a towing. (Action is required immediately.)
2. Service sailing vessels with the optional lights must change them over to all-around lights. (Action is required immediately. See Rule 25c.)
3. All shapes must be painted black. (Action is required immediately. See Annex I, 6a)
4. Small vessels unable to show black shapes when conducting diving operations must be outfitted with a rigid replica of International Code Flag Alpha. (Action is required immediately. See Rule 27e)
5. Vessels should be issued a black cylinder since any of our vessels could get into a position where she is constrained by her draft. (Action is required immediately. See Rule 28)
6. The mechanical fog horn could be withdrawn from the fleet or retained by the deck department for use on board a motor whale boat or utility boat where it is legal. (See Rule 33)
7. Sidelights must be repositioned to be not more than three-quarters the height of the masthead light and abeam of or abaft the masthead light, if necessary. (See Annex I, 2g)
8. Sidelight inboard screens must be painted black. (Action is required immediately. Annex I, 5)
9. Technical sections in shipyards should be given these rules to compare the lights and sound signaling apparatus in our ships against the new standards of color specification, intensity, range of visibility, sound frequency and intensity, etc. From this, either the Notice to Mariners should be revised to indicate what we will not comply with, or a program should be developed for changing ships to satisfy the new regulations as they come in for overhauls.
Note: We have four years to change over our lights and nine years to change over our sound signals. (All of the time limits given above are based on the implementation date for the Rules which will be 15 July 1977.)
ces ^s.
•t u.
a
b. Must alter course to the left.
c. Must alter course to the right
d. Must back down.
If in overtaking another vessel in open uldter'
sketched, you occasionally saw ____________
her mast lights and green side light it would mean:
a. The other vessel must keep clear. 0n-
b. You and the other vessel share equally the r
sibility for keeping clear. ^.
c. You should assume it is your duty to keep ^
d. You should slow a knot or two, allo^111 other vessel to proceed.
The basket when used as a day signal is Dredges.
Vessels less than 20 meters, fishing. Cable layers.
Vessels more than 20 meters, fishing.
A sailing vessel in open waters must be avou
Vessel sweeping for mines.
Vessel not under command.
Fishing vessel.
Normal power-driven vessel.
In a narrow channel, power-driven vessel1 whenever safe and practical:
a. Stay in the middle of the channel.
b. Keep to the left.
c. Keep to the right.
d. Any of the above.
Vessels engaged in fishing, under way but tiot way:
de
a. Show red-over-white, plus masthead, s stem lights.
b. Do not show red-over-white lights.
c. Do not show side or stern lights.
d. Show only anchor lights.
Vessels being towed astern show:
a. Three white lights on a forward mast.
b. Side and stern lights.
c. All lights required of a power-driven vesS'
d. No lights.
INTERNATIONAL RULES OF THE ROAD QUIZ
v*ssel
Proceeding under sail displaying the black
■« l». p.
|ETE(,S
r,
sp°n'
■less, th£
utsytaymg
■ A, etched should be treated as a: Sa^r'Ven vessc‘l ■
Fish i ^ VeSSe* at anchor.
' V*
8 vessel on port tack.
\ ^
i. q nder way in a dense fog tnunAr ' Tw0 j^°rt f^fast every minute.
0n» | n® blasts every two minutes.
®n8 blast every minute. r° onged blast every two minutes.
a he[i f
at>ih(,rtd orwar“ and a gong aft must be sounded ’■ jo Vessels whose lengths are greater than:
I). i meters
c. J Otters
<■ 'oom:ers
meters
Ku si
‘Urided. ° a s t0 denote course changes must be
1 'n fo8 r 'Hen
Hen VCSSe*s are in sight of one another, j °ther vy°U Can reasonably sure of hearing the Hlv SSt^ s acknowledgement.
7 ‘Xtranis.
h-
»,ch ,
^ "8» e following statements is correct if “A” are 'n sight of another?
14. Fishing vessels in open waters must give way to:
a. Vessels launching aircraft.
b. Power-driven vessels.
c. Air-cushion vehicles.
d. Sailing craft.
15. A fog signal of one prolonged and three short blasts on the whistle indicates a:
a. Vessel fishing or trawling.
b. Sailing vessel, wind abaft the beam.
c. Power-driven vessel backing down.
d. Vessel being towed.
16. A vessel picking up an aid to navigation in fog sounds:
a. Two short blasts.
b. One prolonged and two short blasts.
c. One prolonged blast.
d. Three strokes of the bell.
17. A vessel should sound five short blasts:
a. Only in extremis.
b. When in doubt about another vessel’s maneuver.
c. Only if privileged.
d. When altering course to port.
18. Which of the circles shown has a black sector which best shows the arc of visibil- _ _
ity of the red side light: w O
“A"
19- Which of the following pertains J to fishing? *
A and „ __
k Vh So ® should each alter course to the right,
20.
-v qnjn,^ln8 one short blast on the whistle, and ft” t
'■ '''his l snould each alter course to the right; A" 0r .^ signal need be sounded.
^spOnSe i _sh°uld sound one blast and wait for a
A"
Which of these indicates towing with the length of tow over 200 meters?
1
X
c
4
:
• anj .fhore altering course.
So ® should each alter course to the left, lng one short blast on the whistle.
V*
hoi ""*• an
one short blast in that sequence on A w ‘iHe- "Phis indicates:
u‘onP i anchorage in fog, you hear one short,
shu, Sod, ari(i
Ps*!>istle
A v!SSel 'owing.
a Vessel
1 ^ anrk n0t under command. chored v- ■ ■
dead in the water.
“‘chored ■ ......
Vessel ,i U vesse^ warning you of her position.
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