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In examining the history of the Continental Navy during the Revolutionary War, historians have largely neglected the significance of the Navy’s role in transporting American diplomats to their posts abroad. Yet diplomatic convoy was an essential and critical need of the youthful Republic. Between the years 1776 and 1781, the Navy fulfilled this function in six major Atlantic voyages.
As early as 18 May 1776, the Continental Congress recognized the need to extend naval protection to American envoys traveling through waters patrolled by the British Fleet. The first such employment of the Navy occurred when Congress ordered its Marine Committee to provide a warship to carry an agent to the French West Indies to purchase ten thousand muskets and determine whether the French forces assembling there would "act for or against America.” Accordingly, the Marine Committee placed the Reprisal, a Continental brig, under the direction of the Committee of Secret Correspondence which in turn ordered Captain Lambert Wickes to convoy its agent, William Bingham, to Martinique.
Long detained at Delaware Bay, Wickes assured the committee that he would embrace the first favorable opportunity to slip by the British squadron guarding the harbor. Finally, on 3 July, the coast was clear and the Reprisal rounded Cape May and stood to sea. By 27 July, Wickes was in sight of his destination, St. Pierre Harbor, Martinique. Rounding the Pointe a la Mare, he discovered the British sloop-of-war Shark lying at anchor in the harbor. "A little before dark” the Shark’s commander, John Chapman, spied a ship flying a "red and white stripped” flag "with a Union” next to the staff. Being "unacquainted” with these colors the British captain embarked immediately, slipped his cables, and got underway to challenge the
Reprisal. Wickes, realizing that Congress expected hi to take every possible precaution to ensure Bingh'1111^ security, lowered one of the Reprisal's boats and ordefc that the envoy be rowed to the safety of the Sh°r^ As dusk settled over the calm harbor, the Shark chase and finally joined the Reprisal "off the Pointe du cheur where they engaged in battle with guns muskets for a period of about three quarters < hour.” Suddenly the Shark appeared to sheer off in
an°
of
the The dviee chas' The
direction of her advice boat, a small schooner.
commander of the French battery, mistaking the a
boat for another vessel, feared that Chapman was
ing the schooner within the limits of the harbor.
shore battery fired one shot across the Shark’s bow afl
another between her masts, forcing Chapman to sn
off and stand out to sea. When the Shark sheered 0
• the
Captain Wickes stood in, dropping anchor m southern part of the harbor,
Wickes completed his assignment, m'aking it P ble for Bingham to acquire military supplies, 3 with the important intelligence data that Congress
lOSS*'
long
0us
requested. .The successful voyage was an ausplC1 / beginning in the Continental Navy’s difficult role ,, convoying American diplomats through the "gaundet of British men-of-war.
Within a few months after the Declaration of *n pendence, Congress ordered a second voyage, this 0 involving Benjamin Franklin who was to join 6 Deane and Arthur Lee in seeking French recogn*11 j of American independence and procuring military afl economic aid. Since Deane and Lee were already Europe, the Navy’s responsibility was limited to Fran
in
lin, whose safe passage was of particular concern si
n ce th^
Congress hoped that his prestige would strengr‘ ^ American diplomatic efforts in France. The voyage he
risk, however; capture of such a well-known pat
Jo1
0r his aged teeth. For all the discomfort of PraoUp cluarters and the toughness of the fowls, ‘ ~ ln was favorably impressed by Wickes and his rs- Cpon rare occasions, when a suspicious-looking
vessei
negotiations were finally concluded on 6 Feb
Aitieric 0t^ imPa‘r fhese diplomatic efforts and damage tyar .Ta,n mora^e at a crucial time in the Revolutionary dire ■ le Reprisal was once again placed under the Which°n C”e ^ecret Committee of Correspondence, ^ranlc]' °r<^ered Captain Lambert Wickes to convoy itig t^n t0 France "with the utmost diligence” stress- "It . lrnP°rtance of his mission with the admonition: to p *S more importance that you get safe and soon ^eref0CC r^an an' Prrzes are that you could take, Passa ^ ^°u are not to delaf time on this outward but ifC ^°f dlc sake of cruising {commerce raiding], Passa are f>esct with contraty winds or during the aPprov C S° c'rcumstanced that Doctor Franklin may as i, Vf °f your speaking any vessels you see, do therein p mall direct.”
t0 **Vhat news of his departure would be relayed and C ^r*t*sl1 fleet, Franklin quietly left Philadelphia roUgf, . ar^ed secretly at Marcus Hook. Sailing in Po\verautumn seas "Wickes did everything in his gujsi t0 make the voyage comfortable” for his distin- sufferiri Passenger. But Franklin, 70 years old and fed 1°? ff°m boils, complained that he was poorly Wd’> ng "chiefly on salt beef, the fowls being too
o fo ’ ‘
Cramped
Pared f 3S sP'ed >n the distance, the Reprisal was pre- a reve i°r ^atde with "good order and readiness.” In of tpelng letter Franklin reports that the performance ti0ns °®cers and men was "far h,eyond” his expecta- shipsa^d equal to anything of the kind in the best Passa f^mg’s fleet .... After a short but rough
CoHeC thirty days,” Franklin was able to join his diff. | Cs and begin the critical mission. Despite many
cities.
ruary 1778, and treaties for alliance and commerce were signed with France.
It was during this significant period of negotiations in France that Samuel Tucker, commander of the frigate Boston, was given responsibility for convoying John Adams to France to replace Silas Deane. The Navy Board of the Eastern Department, a regional administrative agency which operated under the authority of the Marine Committee, issued orders to Tucker which stressed the importance of protecting Adams. The instructions read: "You are to afford . . . [Adams] every accommodation in your power, and to consult him on all occasions with respect to your passage and general conduct, and the port you shall endeavor to get into, and on all occasions have great regard to the importance of his security and safe arrival.” A description of Tucker’s assignment survives in the words of William Ellery, a member of the Marine Committee: "The Boston hath on board a precious cargo. May she carry it safe to France! The enemy’s ships do indeed swarm in the seas of America and Europe . . . .” Fortunately, the meticulous record of the events which John Adams set down in his diary furnishes a vivid impression of the hazards faced by the Navy.
Adverse winds and foul weather delayed the Boston's departure. Finally on 17 February 1778, much to the satisfaction of the impatient Adams, the weather turned fair and the wind changed direction. At "about sunset” the frigate sailed from Marblehead Harbor. Two days later, the Boston encountered several British warships. Adams noted that a British frigate "chased us the whole day. Sometimes we gained upon her, and sometimes she upon us.” The following morning, Tucker, upon discovering the enemy’s sail in sight, continued to pursue his policy of avoiding a serious engagement while Adams was on board. After many maneuvers,
tachment to the French Alliance. Jay had resign1-'1 ^ Presidency of the Continental Congress in ordef ^ accept the post of U. S. minister plenipotentiary^ Spain. Fearing that his capture would impair Amerl^_£ diplomatic efforts in Spain, the Marine Committee o again issued forceful directives concerning safety- ^
in-
an"
Tucker managed to elude the enemy.
Shortly after the Boston escaped, Tucker and his crew found themselves "in one of the most furious storms, that ever ship survived.” Adams graphically described the situation: "No man could keep upon his legs, and nothing could be kept in its place—a universal wreck of everything in all parts of the ship . . . .” The storm continued to rage for three days and at times it seemed as if the frigate would founder; finally the storm subsided and the Boston continued to transport her "precious cargo.”
After a "tedious and dangerous” voyage of about six weeks, Tucker safely landed Adams in France. A little over two months after Adams had arrived, James Warren, a close friend, wrote: "We are yet in a state of uncertainty whether you are arrived in France or England, and consequently whether you are now acting as an ambassador or suffering as prisoner . . . .” Thanks to good luck and Tucker’s skill, Adams was "acting as an ambassador.” •
The hazardous job of transporting envoys was far from over, for in October of 1779, the Continental Congress directed the Marine Committee "to prepare all necessary accommodations on board the frigate Confederacy” for two eminent diplomats, Conrad Alexander Gerard and John Jay. Gerard, in poor health and retiring from his post as French minister plenipotentiary to the United States, was afforded transportation by an obliging American Congress, anxious to show its at-
Harding, commander of the Confederacy, was that his task was to land the envoys in Europe ^ ^ he was directed not to engage "any vessel of equ"| ^ superior force.” Moreover, Harding was ordere j consult with Jay and Gerard during the voyage be "governed by their orders.” u.
Before the Confederacy’s departure George '•y ^ ington conveyed his good wishes to John Jay an u wife Sarah who accompanied him. In a note to ^ Washington expressed the hope "that prosperous an unruffled sea, and everything pleasing and desit* ^ may smooth the path she . . . [was] about to , in.” The Confederacy’s "path” proved to be any1 ^ but smooth. Early on the morning of 7 Novef1 . the Confederacy, sailing in "a brisk breeze and t° sea, but by no means hard weather,” suddenly en<~°^ci tered a freak accident. All of the frigate’s masts cra to the deck. The voyage was further complicated v'' js the shank of the rudder split, forcing Harding an crew to steer the ship with chains connected to ste£f ^ lines below the shank. Finally, after two weeks of ^ work, they succeeded in rigging jury masts. In sPjj, of these heroic efforts, the Confederacy was in no c°n
tion
°t fi Una^e t0 proceed immediately. After waiting four to VC da^s’ haurens ordered the Mercury and Saratoga of ^ wd^out them. A few days later Captain Young in C ^aratoSa ended his convoy of the Mercury, leav- difi <'’aPtain Pickles with sole responsibility for the P^mat’s safety.
sail 0 ^ ^ePtember, "at the first dawn of day” a distant plc-sighted to leeward—the British frigate Vestal. ^ es tr*ed to escape, but after a chase of five or six
1 Ldinc ciuac uiuugn iu me
Am • ts ^etween the Mercury’s masts, forcing the
La er*Cans to haul down their flutr After hie rantnre
to haul down their flag. After his capture is sent to London and, in early October of jn V’ °e Was charged with high treason and imprisoned e Tower of London.
r ? t0 cross the North Atlantic, and the captain, with SetS aPProva!, abandoned the attempt to reach Europe, lattlnf, ^*S course f°r the West Indies. Several weeks Alth t*lt Vesse* arrtved at St. Pierre Harbor, Martinique, all thUgh Hard'ng was not able to carry Jay and Gerard . C f° ®uroPc’ he had managed to protect them crin ]*a dan§erous and harrowing voyage in a badly jt P e ship, and his navigation and seamanship made the°SS1 ^ t0 ^and t^e diplomats in a safe port where a h ■ C?'dd arrange for passage on another vessel. After fQr p s°journ in Martinique, Jay and Gerard set sail C' i. ur°Pe in the French frigate Aurora, arriving at ^lz m late January of 1780. tT[. . ^cw weeks after John Jay had been appointed ate tCr PleniPotentiary to Spain, Congress, in desper- Ho,ineed. °P funds, decided to send a diplomat to a *n ^le hope of securing a loan. Henry Laurens,
mer President of the Continental Congress, was tja^tCc for this post, receiving a commission to nego- p, a treaty of amity and commerce with the United r(^nces of Holland.
jnn, August 1780, Laurens departed from Philadelphia
ty , .e Continental packet Mercury commanded by
r 'l lam Pickles. The Board of Admiralty, which had
aCed the Marine Committee as the administrative
cy of the Continental Navy, ordered Pickles to
•j-Uceed to Holland "with all possible dispatch.”
Am>U^ t^le AIercury was "as fast a sailer as any in
pac^riCa> the Board feared that the small lightly armed
et Would be in extreme danger during the initial Pnase l T ° ,
gr- . Ul ner voyage. To protect Laurens from the
can Warships which frequently patrolled the Ameri-
t0C°ast> the Admiralty ordered the sloop-of-war Sara-
she t0 COnv°y the Mercury for two or three days until
the 7aS 2 ^CW *eaSucs °ff the coast. For further security,
Vo r'^ates Trumbull and Deane were to join the con-
the v°f 3 sdorc distance. The Trumbull and Deane met
fp ‘ ercur)‘ in the Capes of Delaware, but since both
Weretes Wefe in need of fresh water and refitting they
^ i-* u v k v i vijiu.ii. x xxv v vy x oi /I
tWoSutdc British warship came close enough to fire Ante
ens was sent to London and, in early October of
In December of 1780, the last major diplomatic mission requiring U. S. naval transportation was authorized when Congress decided to send the son of Henry Laurens, Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens, to France for the "special purpose of soliciting . . . and forwarding” the money and supplies needed for the approaching military campaign. With the failure of the last diplomatic voyage in mind, Congress decided that its newly appointed envoy shculd be transported on the powerful frigate Alliance. On 28 December 1780, Congress directed the Board of Admiralty' to prepare the frigate for his passage. Two days later the Board of Admiralty informed the Navy Board of the Eastern Department of the decision and ordered Captain John Barry to begin the voyage as soon as the Alliance was fitted and manned. President Samuel Huntington of the Continental Congress urged Governor John Hancock of Massachusetts to assist the Navy Board in the formidable task of preparing the vessel for sea, declaring that Laurens’ mission was "of such importance” and required "such dispatch, that the frigate ought to sail for that purpose as soon as possible.” In spite of the efforts of Governor Hancock and the "unremitting exertions” of General Benjamin Lincoln, Captain Barry was unable to assemble an adequate crew. The impatient Laurens, anxious to begin his mission, insisted that the frigate put to sea.
In February 1781, the Alliance, "barely in condition to go to sea,” sailed from Boston Harbor. As he stood out to sea Barry might well have reflected on his critical assignment. Understanding the importance of the envoy’s mission, he was determined that the young Colonel would not join his father in the Tower of London. In addition to the risk of encountering British naval forces, there was danger of mutiny since, in his desperate search for seamen, Barry had been forced to enlist far too many British prisoners. Despite these risks, and the menace of winter storms and ice fields, the Alliance reached her destination. After a remarkably swift voyage of 26 days, Barry was able to land Laurens in France thus enabling the envoy to purchase and dispatch military supplies to America. Upon concluding his mission, Laurens returned to the United States just in time to play an active role in the American victory at Yorktown.
Despite many hazards, the navigation and seamanship of Continental captains enabled the Navy to transport successfully such distinguished passengers as William Bingham, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Laurens. Had the Navy failed to transport and protect these envoys, American diplomacy would have been seriously impaired and the United States deprived of outstanding leaders.