How about living conditions in a submarine lying quietly submerged for unprecedented lengths of time where no action is necessary for the mission to be successful? The air in such a submarine is good and the food is excellent. Obviously men can survive in such an environment; they have already done so and many of them have even liked it.
Some seasoned submarine officers feel that there is too much ado about psychological habitability in a Polaris submarine. As far as living and working conditions are concerned there are at most only differences in degree between conventional submarine missions and the Polaris submarine situation. For a hand-picked crew of tried and true submariners there is probably more truth than mere opinion in this point of view, but since the Polaris program will eventually involve large numbers of submariners, the submarine must be made as habitable as possible for even the ordinary submariner.
What Makes a Submarine Habitable?
In a peacetime or cold-war Navy there should be less concern with what man can endure without serious breakdown than with what he will normally endure and find congenial. What the American submariner can endure without serious breakdown was demonstrated by World War II experience.
Crowded living and sleeping conditions, limited water supply, high temperatures, and humidity were commonplace. Days of fruitless patrolling and almost unbearable monotony would be broken by contact with the enemy. Then the tempo would shift suddenly and radically to a very high pitch of excitement and tension. With every depth charge the officers and men could only wonder if the next one would make a direct hit. All were aware that submarines were being lost to enemy counter-attack. While being hunted, unable to fight back, the forced inactivity was an additional emotional trauma. Severe emotional strain resulted from such other encountered hazards as aerial bombs, the continual harassment of enemy radar-equipped night planes, floating mines, shallow water patrolling, and air-sea rescue operations.
Despite all, the most amazing finding was that only a total of 56 psychiatric casualties were reported for about 1,500 patrols. Since 20,477 men made an average of 6.17 patrols (126,160 man-patrols) 56 psychiatric casualties represents an astonishingly low incidence rate.
There is little doubt that the trauma sometimes experienced by personnel in the submarine service was as great as, or greater than, that experienced by most other types of service in the war. But the relative psychiatric casualty rate was dramatically lower than that endured by most other kinds of service. The reasons for this record have important implications for the Polaris submarine system.
By and large it was found that aptitude and psychiatric screening were much more important than the conventional physical examination. During the early part of World War II certain over-zealous dental officers unfamiliar with service necessities had been rejecting from 50% to 87% of the candidates in the preliminary examination. Once the word went out that "we're gonna fight 'em, not bite 'em," a sensible rejection policy was instituted. The high caliber of the submarine personnel as well as the low incidence of psychiatric disorders may be attributed in large measure to the effectiveness of the aptitude and psychiatric selection programs.
In addition to careful screening, it is important that every man be a volunteer. Not only is this an effective self-selection device but also an incentive for the man to continue in this activity. As a matter of fact, although the submarine service may rightfully claim a great deal of credit for this fine record, the sheer fact of genuine self-choice in both entering and staying on in the service is probably the best single personality screening device. Unlike some other "volunteer" services, men probably volunteered for the submarine service for more positive reasons than to avoid something less desirable.
The importance of training is reflected in the elemental fact that a man who is sufficiently trained and drilled in his job duties is most likely to withstand the rigors of a variety of operating conditions.
Pre- and post-patrol physical examinations serve to pick up men who are in need of a period of rest and rehabilitation prior to the time when they might actually experience an undue amount of psychological stress. These together with the generous rotation and shore policies probably contributed to the excellent record achieved by a submarine in World War II.
Morale-wise what appears to be most important
are the oft-mentioned good leadership and esprit de corps of each man who realizes that he has an integral part in an organization with an excellent record. One important principle which applies to almost any military situation is impressing personnel with the significance of the task. Not only is this an important morale-inducing factor in highly anxious wartime missions, but it is equally efficacious in less trying peacetime exploits. There is no doubt that one of the reasons for the generally high morale which characterized the polar cruises and the record submergence of the Sea Wolf was the general awareness among the crews of the importance of their missions.
Wartime experience has taught the submarine service what a good submariner can endure when he has confidence in the submarine, his officers, and his shipmates. Under peacetime conditions it is realized that living must be easier; otherwise he might not "will" to endure certain kinds of conditions. Consequently, in recent years, especially with the advent of the nuclear-powered submarine, there has been much concern with physical habitability. A good deal of research has been conducted in this area especially by that up and coming type of psychologist, the "human engineer" or more properly "engineering psychologist." There are now well established principles for increasing the personal comfort and efficiency of submarine personnel by optimal utilization and arrangement of space, equipment, lighting, and color. Most of these principles have already been incorporated in nuclear-powered and in the more modern of the conventional submarines. The relationship between physical habitability and morale has been appreciated by almost everyone who has worked in or with submarines.
The morale significance of tasty and well-prepared food is too well known to receive more than passing mention. Although eating in submarines may not be described as a gourmet's delight, it is generally superior to most other kinds of Navy fare. There is a better choice of food and the cooks receive special training.
It is commonly recognized that a well-planned cruise routine which includes an ingenious program of off-duty activities will alleviate stress. There is considerable evidence that this was well known by every major submarine power at least as early as World War II. Captured German documents, for example, reveal that great emphasis was given to providing the crews with interesting off-duty activities. The officers were urged to be inventive in devising activities to keep the men alert and interested . Chess and skat tournaments were recommended. Classes and discussion groups were held. Many books were generally available and handicraft activities
were encouraged. Definite attempts
were made to introduce various types of cultural
activities. One gets the impression that
at least some of the men were responsive to
the" higher things in life." It was not uncommon
to see a few men painting pictures of the
type, if not the quality, that engaged Winston
Churchill in his postwar retirement years.
Occasionally a particularly intelligent and perceptive officer might take over the record player and play on the prevailing moods of the men by appropriate selections of music, attempting thereby to bolster their morale. It would appear that Bach and Beethoven were not sneered at even if popular music was played more often. But it would also be erroneous to conclude that the typical German submariner was a "culture vulture." If left to his own devices, he would prefer to loll around in his bunk and shoot the breeze just like his American counterpart. It was up to an experienced chief or good officer, however, to stir him out of high CO2 lethargy with an interesting program of activity.
Operation SUNSHINE
Speaking of off-duty activities some excellent observations were made by Captain J. L. Kinsey (MC), USN during the historic transpolar cruise of the Nautilus, which began on 22 July 1958 and terminated in Portland, England, 12 August 1958. It is common knowledge that the ship, in addition to being superbly engineered, was blessed with the more important advantages of exceptionally competent officers and men who were welded together by outstanding leadership. In addition, there were a number of gadgets which, though not essential to the operation of the ship, were important in that they helped keep the crew pleased and happy. Frequent fresh water baths were made possible by the more than 4,000 gallons per day fresh water-making capacity. This, however, did not serve to take the sting out of an experiment in which some of the crew were required to go two periods of four days each without a shower. The purpose of this scientific sidelight was to determine the effectiveness of a new chemical in keeping treated undershirts odorless.
Music was everywhere. It was furnished by means of a juke box and a hi-fi tape reproducer with a large variety of recordings. There were speakers all over the ship. By popular consent music played almost all the time as a background to meals, card playing, letter writing, reading, and bathing. Although all kinds of music were played, any music was preferable to no music.
Everybody read, even if it were only cartoons in magazines. There was a good deal of serious reading, which included technical books and publications necessary to advancement in rating and qualification for a nuclear powered submarine.
Such games as cribbage, acey-ducey, pinochle, checkers, and chess were popular. Tournaments intensified interest.
Movies constituted the principal organized entertainment on board. Proper selection of movies thereby became an important morale consideration. As for type, the preferences were roughly in this order: 1) "good" Westerns, 2) mystery and "good" science fiction, 3) comedy, classical drama, and musicals. Pretty girls, unencumbered with the usual amount of clothing, were favorably and vociferously received.
Is Sensory Deprivation a Bugaboo?
Captain Kinsey pointed out the extreme popularity of music during Operation SUNSHINE may stem from the need induced by the reduced sensory stimulation of the confined environment of the submarine. This astute observation is reminiscent of a new and intriguing area of research in psychology and psychiatry—"sensory deprivation." Although this area has just recently been brought under extensive experimental surveillance, it has long been familiar to readers of certain types of literature. Reports from explorers, shipwrecked sailors, and Antarctic expeditions have indicated that hallucinations, delusions, and disorientation are far from uncommon among people who are isolated for any length of time. During the Korean conflict, the effect of sensory deprivation was observed in American prisoners of war. "Brainwashing" often involves sensory impoverishment brought about by being placed in solitary confinement or other highly controlled environments.
There have been quite a number of dramatic experiments in recent years in which sensory stimulation is reduced to a minimum. Fairly typical of the generality of these experiments was one which took place at McGill University in 1953. Twenty-two male college students served as subjects. Each was subjected to several days of solitary confinement in a small, well-lighted, semi-soundproof room. The subject lay on a small cot and wore translucent glasses which did not permit any real seeing. Movement was restricted by limbs being encased in hollow cylinders; gloves were worn to reduce tactile stimulation; the only sound was a continuous low masking noise. The subject moved about only to eat or go to the toilet.
No one was surprised when the subjects reacted to all this special treatment by becoming increasingly irritable and desirous of external stimulation. They did not perform as well on psychological tests as the control group. Most interesting, however, was that many of the subjects reported hallucinations of all kinds. In some, these persisted for hours after they were removed from the situation. If the normal pattern of stimulation pouring in from the external world is severely curtailed, apparently a subjective world is built up to fill the vacuum.
Such experiments are designed to produce extreme sensory deprivation and generate some very dramatic symptoms. On a less extreme level it is believed that sensory deprivation, or the milder form, sensory impoverishment, plays a part in certain problems of modern living. The monotony of the repetitive task in assembly line work may act similarly and increase proneness to accident. What of the lonely soldier at his post and the radar observer at his scope?
Psychological reports of Antarctic missions report a considerable variety of symptoms occurring in some of the personnel who have experienced polar isolation for a period of months. These symptoms will range from the common garden-variety of irritability to the "Big-Eye" or "Bunk-Head stare," which refer to long periods of sleeplessness which came and went in cycles. Men would pull out of the "Big Eye" by various expediencies, such as drinking beer, or working on correspondence courses, model ships, etc. In the most extreme cases, the "Long Eye" might develop, particularly where a man was deprived because of weather of his normal work activities. In the "Long Eye" condition a man will appear to stare right at you but never see you and just sit and look into space and not talk. The man thus afflicted appears to detach himself from his external environment and, in the case of those in the sensory deprivation experiments, appears to respond only to internal stimulation.
Why is all this discussed in an article concerned
with Polaris submarine habitability?
After all, World War II experience indicated that surprisingly few psychiatric casualties were incurred in the U. S. submarine service or, for that matter, in the German submarine service where the duress was greater. But there may be a fundamental difference in submarine situations hitherto experienced and the Polaris situation, particularly from the standpoint of sensory deprivation, or more correctly, sensory-impoverishment. In World War II, even on relatively long submarine cruises, there was generally plenty of action or at least the imminent possibility of action. The Polaris submarine system is pre-eminently a cold war strategy and is a long, lonely vigil.
It may be argued that the recent transpolar cruises of the Nautilus and the Skate and the endurance cruises of the Sea Wolf, although long and lonely, were characterized by relatively high morale and freedom from the morbid symptomatology of sensory deprivation. The counter argument is that these were historic cruises, the personnel were hand picked, and crew members were conscious of the high importance of these cruises. Even if all hands were not acutely aware of sailing into naval history, at least they were highly motivated.
There is some evidence that after five to seven days on more routine peace-time types of prolonged submarine missions some men develop a symptom complex characterized by increased pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, irritability, and insomnia which appears to be a reaction to a decreased or altered sensory input from the environment.
Strong motivation often operates as a substitute for sensory stimulation, perhaps by providing an internal pattern of stimulation which compensates for the lack thereof from without and serves as a deterrent for building up hallucinatory worlds. Time and again medical officers and psychologists working on submarine problems in the British and U. S. navies use the expression "motivation for submarine service" in their discussions. When factors other than abilities, skills, and physical requirements are considered, motivation is regarded as the most important single factor.
What is motivation for submarine service? In essence it is a man's genuine liking for being a submariner and living the life of a submariner. He regards being a good submariner as a very significant role, the most important niche he can fill in life. It does not mean that the highly motivated submariner finds life in the submarine more comfortable (even though the chow may be better) than he would in some other branch of the service. Even the extra pay, as welcome as it is, is not the primary drawing card for the true-blue submariner. The very human need to feel significant appears to be at the heart of "motivation for submarine service."
It would appear that the Polaris submarine is most habitable for the man who is motivated. Of course, ability to do the job is a prerequisite. But “motivation" is the key.
There is probably a core of submariners, the true-blue kind, best exemplified by the type of hand picked man on the nuclear-powered submarine who appears to be almost innately motivated for this kind of service. Like most human traits this quality may be found in varying degrees in a submarine population. It can be heightened or depressed by proper or improper leadership or conditions. Leadership is an all-important factor, particularly when the number of men needed for the Polaris submarine increases to the point where, even if it were possible to identify the most highly motivated ones, selection must consider the more garden-variety type.
Various devices for increasing motivation or morale have already been discussed. At least as important as planning a sound cruise routine with due attention to diurnal rhythm and off-duty activities is an effort to make the work situation interesting and challenging. One important psychological principle is to show an interest in what the men are doing. At the most elemental level it means simply going around and asking the man what he is doing, whether he is encountering any difficulties, etc. Still better is soliciting his help in improving the gear or procedures—how can this job be done better? Another useful device is to give a man a special project which is challenging, meaningful, avoids busy work, and is within his ken. An example is formula ting in detail the procedures of his job as a basis for training new men. At a more sophisticated level, experiments designed to effect improvements in existing facilities may be undertaken with some of the crew so inclined serving as scientific aides. All of these techniques should, of course, not interfere with normal operations. This requires fine leadership skill s and employs the double-barrelled principle of showing an interest in the man and making his job more interesting.
There are other useful devices for raising the motivational level on a long cruise. All of these are based on the same principles as making the work more interesting but refer to the use of off-duty time. Definite goals have to be set so that the activity is perceived as significant and meaningful. These off-duty projects will have to be custom-tailored to the man. For some it may mean leather tooling and for others earning college credits or qualifying for an advancement in rating.
The social dynamics of the Polaris situation are very similar to an Antarctic situation. Where a group of men must live together for long periods of time in a confined area, the problems of interpersonal relations are of major importance.
Even on a well-run cruise there is a need to let off a little steam. One of the best outlets arises naturally and inevitably: humor or "horsing-around." Self-appointed jokesters tend to come to the fore. Even though not all of the laughter provoking methods of these self-styled wits are strictly funny but rather aggressive in nature, these antics are almost as inevitable as "griping" and serve as relatively healthy reactions to frustration, however annoying to those who serve as the butts.
Occasionally serious conflicts may develop between individuals. The key to pouring oil over troubled personnel waters resides in leadership, particularly that of the skipper. Polaris skippers of course will be highly selected for the qualities of maturity and stability as well as technical competence. It may be worthwhile to consider indoctrination in the psychology of boredom and monotony and how to cope with such conditions.
Boredom and monotony induced by sensory impoverishment is only one source of stress which has a deleterious effect on performance and morale. Some outlet for reduced opportunities for physical activity must be provided within the confines of the submarine. Provision is being made for compact but inherently interesting types of physical exercise facilities.
Another possible source of stress is concern about the welfare of one's family. Effective means of providing for this type of problem is being seriously studied.
Still another stress inducing factor is the perceived hazard of the mission, whether real or imagined. Individuals differ widely in this regard even as they react differently to reduced sensory input. In general, research findings offer little real guidance as to ways of reducing anxiety due to perceived danger. The consensus is that by providing realistic orientation about the situation and training people for emergencies, stress and anxiety may be reduced. Group discussion of perceived hazardous conditions would provide opportunity for "catharsis," which in itself tends to reduce anxiety and, probably more important, would provide a focus for remedial indoctrination to reduce apprehension regarding specific aspects of the operation. A high degree of training not only increases proficiency in carrying out hazardous operations, but, as far as morale is concerned, increases confidence in their accomplishment.
Factors in the physical working environment which tend to result in performance degradation are mostly the concern of the human engineer and hence beyond the scope of this paper. One of these factors, because of its relationship to sensory impoverishment, should be mentioned. On extremely dull tasks, such as watch on a sonarscope, a deterioration of alertness sets in rather rapidly. Laboratory experiments on "vigilance" tend to indicate degradation of performance after about thirty minutes. One possible solution to this problem is to shift tasks where practicable, e.g., from plotting to maintenance.
Major Conclusions
Now is the time to sum up what psychological research has to say about Polaris submarine habitability. The foregoing discussion has emphasized the role of personnel management for a good reason. Good personnel management techniques serve to maximize the number of men who will function effectively in the Polaris submarine situation. Obviously it is also important to pick the "right" men insofar as possible. So a few remarks about personnel selection are in order before proceeding to summarize.
Selection must be broadly conceived with all of the Navy's needs considered in terms of total available pool of talent. Aptitude measurement is a well developed discipline which provides an extremely useful bag of tools and procedures for assigning men to the kinds of training in which they are likely to succeed.
The big research problem in selection is the development of personality measures which will be useful in identifying which of a group of otherwise qualified men will function most effectively in a Polaris submarine environment. Lacking such devices, personality selection will have to be based exclusively on the judgment of more or less astute naval officers in addition to the conventional psychiatric screening which has been fairly successful to date. There are advantages, however, in moving from the "art" to the "science" of selection, especially as personnel needs increase.
Attempts to develop devices to measure "motivation for submarine duty" and traits believed to be important for prolonged submergence in highly critical billets are in order. Such research is already in progress. Similar efforts in the past have been rewarded with relatively small success, consequently new approaches are being experimented with.
The evidence obtained from wartime experience, the polar cruises and the Sea Wolf, and the considered opinion of seasoned submarine and medical officers indicate fairly conclusively that man can perform under Polaris submarine conditions but requires the will to perform effectively.
Various factors affect this will to perform effectively. One of the more important of these is based on a moot point: how relevant is sensory deprivation or impoverishment? Most seasoned submarine officers believe that a couple of months in a Polaris submarine does not pose any special problem in habitability. They can point to any number of veteran submariners who are content to hole up indefinitely in a submarine and appear to be as snug as a bug in a rug. Psychologists and medical officers who take a look at the problem can see possibilities of sensory impoverishment. There is probably some validity in both views, the resolution being in terms of individual differences: some individuals have different requirements than others have for sensory stimulation.
Whatever an individual's needs however, motivation has a countervailing effect. There is no mystery to this. Even an eight-hour day shore-based desk job can be awfully dull or interesting depending on motivation. Most personnel management techniques are designed to raise the level of motivation to counteract environmental stresses which would be reflected in performance degradation or lowered morale.
Psychological habitability may, in fact, be equated to leadership and the problems of social interaction. Some men are more naturally suited to the Polaris submarine environment. It is the task of selection research to determine for whom this is the case. As the Polaris submarine system expands to include greater numbers of men it is inevitable that there will be less perfect fits. More attention will have to be given to making the submarine more habitable for them. An attractive physical environment helps, but the more intangible factors underlying needs and motives must also be given their due. Informed leadership can meet this challenge!
Since January 1958 Dr. Levine has served as Psychological Research Adviser (GS-14) to the New Developments Research Department of the Personnel Research Division, Bureau of Naval Personnel. Just prior to this assignment he served as Head of Selection Research Section in the Bureau of Naval Personnel for about five years. He has also worked as a psychologist with the U. S. Air Force both as a civilian during 1950-51 and in uniform during World War II. His academic background includes a B.A. in psychology from the University of Iowa in 1941 and a Ph.D. in psychology in 1950 from the University of Minnesota.