The United States has the greatest inland waterway system in the world. This waterway system, which includes the Great Lakes, canals, improved and canalized rivers, and the intracoastal waterways, has about 28,000 miles of navigable waters. The Great Lakes have outlets to the Atlantic Ocean and to the Gulf of Mexico. The vast Middle West is interlaced with many waterways radiating from the Mississippi River. The other rivers which (low into the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific Ocean penetrate great distances into the interior from the seaboard.
These waterways have been an essential means of transportation since the discovery of the New World. In the early development of this country, before the advent of the locomotive and the great railroad expansion, the transportation of goods and persons was largely dependent upon our inland waterways. The founding fathers who wrote the Constitution realized the importance of our inland waterways to peace-time commerce and to national defense because under Section 8 of Article I they empowered Congress to place on the shoulders of the Army Engineers the responsibility to investigate, to develop, and to maintain necessary navigable channels and other facilities so that the inland waterways of the United States will function to the advantage of the people in their peace-time needs, and that they can be made to quickly adjust themselves to handle increased cargo tonnage during periods of national emergencies.
In this article no attempt shall be made to compare the various' modes of inland transportation, to discuss freight rates and the cost of different kinds of transportation, to explain the methods and forms of competition, or to make observations on inland waterway port cargo handling methods and terminal facilities. Instead, this article shall first deal with the geographical, social and economic aspects of our inland waterways and then with their value in time of war.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Inland Waterways
Inland waterways, like land masses and ocean areas, are possessed of both advantages and disadvantages. The usage of most of our inland waterways is seasonal because of ice during the winter months. Their routes were fixed by nature. Transit on rivers is sometimes affected by droughts and floods. And from the accompanying table of data one can glean that most of the inland waterways are only navigable to light drafted vessels which would be unsuitable for transoceanic service. To put this another way: the inland waterways of the United States are only navigable to ocean-going vessels to a limited extent. Ocean-going vessels can only proceed up the Hudson River to Albany, N. Y., up the Delaware to Trenton, N. J., up the Mississippi River to Raton Rouge, La., up the Columbia River to Portland, Ore., and up the San Joaquin River to Stockton, Calif. Some small ocean-going vessels can proceed to Chicago or Duluth on the Great Lakes, via the Welland Canal and St. Lawrence River.
The inland waterways, whenever navigable, enable man to move one ton of freight with less power than is required by other modes of inland transportation. They are natural rights of way which require less capital and labor to make them useful in the transportation of goods and persons. They aid in the rapid development of communities along their routes because they not only provide the needs of water for human beings and some industries, but they also offer cheap transportation. And they are valuable additional means of communication in national emergencies.
Types of Inland Waterway Floating Equipment
Since about 95 per cent of the total traffic on inland waterways is bulk cargo, special types of craft have been designed and built for navigation on these waterways.
The largest self-propelled vessels operated on the inland waterways ply their trade about eight months of the year on the Great Lakes. These vessels are shaped like rectangular boxes with continuous unobstructed series of hatches between their wheel houses and their engine room and crew quarters aft. The larger ones can carry about 10,000 tons on a single voyage. These lake freighters are the most speedily loaded and unloaded ships in the world. It is nothing unusual to load one of these vessels with about 10,000 tons of bulk cargo in four hours of time and to unload that cargo at the other end of the lakes in seven or eight hours.
Mileage of Navigable United States Inland Waterways |
|||||
Geographic Location of Group |
Under 6 Feet |
Six Feet & Under 9 Feet |
Nine Feed & Under 12 Feet |
Twelve Feet & Over |
Total Miles |
Atlantic Coast |
2,470 |
1,026 |
539 |
1,799 |
5,834 |
Mississippi Valley |
5,368 |
2,668 |
3,811 |
226 |
12,073 |
Gulf Coast |
2,729 |
610 |
637 |
24 |
4,000 |
Intercoastal Waterways |
435 |
— |
898 |
975 |
2,308 |
Great Lakes |
— |
— |
— |
1,541 |
1,541 |
Pacific Coast |
803 |
256 |
97 |
222 |
1,378 |
Miscellaneous Others |
260 |
539 |
— |
— |
799 |
Grand Totals |
12,065 |
5,099 |
5,982 |
4,787 |
27,933 |
On the other inland waterways comparatively little cargo is carried by self-propelled vessels. Most of it is conveyed in barges propelled by tugs or towboats.
The “old lime” colorful packet boats are now a rare sight on our rivers. Today hundreds of inland waterway communities, many with up-to-date freight terminals, are being served by modern types of steel floating equipment. This inland waterway fleet consists of (a) over 1,700 towboats equipped "with propulsion machinery capable of developing 30 to 4,000 horsepower, and (b) over 4,400 dry cargo and 1,400 wet cargo barges whose carrying capacities range from 500 tons to 5,000 tons each. When we include the floating equipment operated on the Great Lakes, intracoastal waterways and coastal rivers the total fleet totals nearly 4,000 self- propelled vessels and about 14,000 non-self- propelled vessels.
The barges can be placed into three groups. The open barge group is used to transport such bulk commodities as bauxite ore, coal, sand and gravel, and sulphur. The closed, or covered, barge group is used for the carriage of such goods as cottonseed meal, grains and grain products, machinery and other finished steel products, matches and sugar. And the special type group consists of automobile carriers, and barges especially designed for the transporting of and the safe and efficient handling of such liquid commodities as acids, chlorine, and petroleum and petroleum products. T
The familiar stern-wheel towboats arc- being rapidly replaced by towboats with screw propulsion machinery. The Diesel engine had a great influence on the design of these modern towboats. Because of its compactness it has permitted smaller overall dimensions of towboats than would be required for steam powered towboats of comparable horsepowers. Diesel engines require a smaller engine department crew. They are economical to operate; and they reduce the over-all horsepower operating cost of towboats.
The use of the Diesel engine has resulted in hulls that have been designed with modeled bows and with tunnel sterns. The funnel sterns provide a more constant flow of unbroken water to the screw propellers to enable the towboats to attain greater speed, to permit the housing of propellers to control the flow of water to increase propeller efficiency, to obtain maximum maneuverability, and to protect the screws and rudders in shallow water.
The modern inland waterway towboats are equipped with comfortable and attractive quarters for their crews, well planned galleys, mess rooms, and lounges. They are provided with powerful searchlights, with shore-to-shore telephones, and with radar equipment. These gadgets were installed to reduce delays in foul weather, to attain an increased usage of floating equipment, and to provide safer movement of traffic.
One modern Diesel powered towboat of 3,300 horsepower will normally tow eight barges with a total carrying capacity of 92,000 barrels of liquid cargo, or about 15,000 tons of dry cargo. To move the same amount of freight by railroads would require three hundred 50-ton freight cars, or six trains of fifty cars each.
Methods of Operation
A speed of 4 miles per hour was attained with the old type of towboats and out-moded barges. In contrast a speed of 17 miles per hour is now attainable with the modern towboats and barges. This increase in speed is due to the use of more powerful towboats and the use of integrated barges which have to overcome less water resistance. These barges are fitted together so snuggly that only one bow piece cuts the water instead of the bows of a number of barges.
This new integrated Mississippi Valley push-tow system, consisting of one towboat and a number of barges lashed together with steel cables and ratchets, has increased upstream speed 65 per cent and downstream speed 19 per cent. The average tow consists of seven or eight 1000-ton barges; but the powerful towboats can handle fifteen or twenty 1000-ton barges.
The Mississippi Valley push-tow method of hauling barges is not used on the intracoastal waterways and on the coastal rivers. On these waters the customary pull-tow method with tow lines is used.
The inland waterway vessel operators are of three classes. The common carriers are those who offer general public freight services at published rates filed with the Interstate Commerce Commission. The Contract Carriers usually transport bulk cargoes for certain shippers at specified rates agreed upon between the carriers and the shippers. The third class are private carriers who convey exclusively their own goods.
Inland Waterway Routes
The most important inland waterway route is the Great Lakes route. Next in importance is. the Mississippi Valley waterway system which reaches out into the most important industrial and agricultural areas of the United States. The Atlantic and Gulf intracoastal waterways, with their protected waters, from Massachusetts to the Mexican border, are the next important routes. In addition to these there are many Atlantic Coast, Gulf Coast, and Pacific Coast river routes which are navigable considerable distances into the interior from the seaboard.
Mode of Transportation |
1939 |
1944* |
1946 |
1948 |
Railways |
62 |
69 |
68 |
64 |
Inland Waterways, including the Great Lakes |
18 |
14 |
14 |
15 |
Pipe Lines |
12 |
12 |
11 |
12 |
Motor Trucks |
8 |
5 |
7 |
9 |
|
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
*Peak year in total volume of traffic |
Population and Inland Waterways
A study of a map of the United States will reveal that most of the industrial centers and cities have the advantage of water transportation. Every city with a population of 300,000 or more, with the exception of Atlanta and Denver, is located on waterways. About 65 per cent of the cities with a population of 100,000 and less than 300,000 are located on waterways. And most of cities in excess of 100,000 persons are located on inland waterways.
The Mississippi Valley waterways system serves the states which are inhabited by 60 per cent of the total population of the United States, and of that system the Ohio, Monongahela and Allegheny rivers serve the states inhabited by 25 per cent of the total population of this country. This condition points out clearly the importance of our inland waterways from national defense, social and economic points of view.
The Economic Value of Our Inland Waterways
From the accompanying table it will be seen that inland waterway carriers transport from 14 to 18 per cent of the total inter-city freight traffic of the United States. To put this another way, the total volume of inland waterway freight traffic increased from 215,000,000 tons in 1934 to 459,000,000 tons in 1948. Of these totals about 5 per cent is package freight and the remainder is bulk cargo.
History indicates clearly that industrial development is largely along the seaboard and inland waterways of this and other countries because water transportation is less costly, and because of the need of water for some manufacturing purposes. As a result tens of thousands of firms are served by the inland waterways of the United Stales. Huge quantities of iron ore are moved down the Great Lakes from Duluth, Superior and Escanaba for the steel industry which depends on these inland seas for its iron ore shipments. Millions of tons of coal are moved up the Great Lakes from Buffalo, Sandusky and Toledo to the industries located at the head of the Lakes. Other commodities moved in large quantities on the Great Lakes are sand and gravel, petroleum and petroleum products, wheat and other grains, and iron and steel products.
The chief commodities moved on the Atlantic Coast rivers, in order of volume of traffic, are petroleum and petroleum products, sand and gravel, coal, pulpwood, wheat and other grains, fertilizer ingredients, marine products, logs and lumber, sugar and paper.
Petroleum and petroleum products are the chief commodities transported on the Gulf Coast rivers. They are followed by coal, sand and gravel, iron and steel products, logs and lumber, pulpwood, marine products, nitrates and sulphur.
Logs and lumber are the leading commodities hauled by water carriers on the Pacific Coast rivers. Next in order of volume are petroleum and petroleum products, sand and gravel, wheat and other grains, iron and steel products, Hour meal, canned goods, sulphur, marine products, and rice.
The Mississippi River and its over 30 tributaries are collectively called the “Mississippi River System” or the “Mississippi Valley Waterway System.” This system reaches out into that area of the United States which produces 50 per cent of the total manufacturing product of this country, of which about 30 per cent is produced in the states bordering on the Ohio River and its tributaries. A large segment of the chemical industries depend upon the Mississippi River System and the Gulf intracoastal waterway. To a certain degree the enormous oil refineries of the Ohio Valley depend upon the Mississippi River System and the Gulf intracoastal waterway. The great agricultural areas of the Middle West find the Mississippi River System a useful means of transportation. The lumber industries, depend, in a large measure, on the Mississippi River and other inland waterways of the United States.
Tens of millions of tons of coal and coke are moved from the ports along the Monongahela, Allegheny and Kanawha rivers, and thence down the Ohio River, which flows through one of the greatest industrial areas of this country. In this Ohio Valley area there is produced such commodities as plate glass, towboats and barges, iron and steel products, chemicals, rayon, petroleum and petroleum products, cement, and electrical equipment. Huge quantities of chemicals from Texas are delivered in barges to the Ohio Valley makers of plastics and explosives. Other commodities moved in large quantities on the Mississippi Valley waterway system are stone, sand and gravel, sugar, wheat and other grains, and sulphur.
World War II and the Inland Waterways
An analysis of World War II freight traffic reveals that the Inland waterways performed an important function in the carriage of strategic commodities. An outstanding performance was the transporting of a grand total of 1,731,030,485 barrels of petroleum and petroleum products during the period extending from December, 1941, to August 15, 1945. Next in importance was the hauling of huge quantities of sulphur from Texas ports along the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, Mississippi River and other inland waterways to the plants which were engaged in the making of explosives and other strategic materials
Sea-Going War Vessels Produced on Inland Waterways and Moved by Inland Waterways to New Orleans and Beyond for the Period January 1, 1942 to September 30, 1945 Inclusive |
|||
Number of Vessels |
Types |
Number of Vessels |
Area of Construction |
135 |
LCT-6s |
100 |
Cumberland River |
167 |
PTs |
927 |
Great Lakes, via Illinois River |
188 |
LCIs |
176 |
Illinois River |
200 |
Patrol Boats |
256 |
Missouri River |
403 |
LCTs |
203 |
Mississippi River above Cairo |
704 |
LSTs |
210 |
Mississippi River, Memphis Eng. Dist. |
2,146 |
90 different types |
1,097 |
Mississippi River, New Orleans Eng. Dist. |
|
|
859 |
Ohio River |
|
|
115 |
Tennessee River |
3,943 |
96 types |
3,943 |
|
The movement of coal on inland waterways kept the industrial areas of the Middle West supplied with fuel. Large quantities of machinery and other iron and steel products for the war machine were transported down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and up the Mississippi, Missouri and Illinois rivers. On the Mississippi River System there were
The movement of coal on inland waterways kept the industrial areas of the Middle West supplied with fuel. Large quantities of machinery and other iron and steel products for the war machine were transported down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and up the Mississippi, Missouri and Illinois rivers. On the Mississippi River System there were down the rivers to the sea. In addition to the number of vessels constructed, as indicated in the table, there were also built on the inland waterways 6 Navy floating dry docks and 23 other dry docks. shipped to various shipyards a total of 43,744 tons of ship sections, 500 tons of sectional bulkheads, and 50,546 tons of structural steel for ships.
Perhaps one of the most unusual war achievements was the construction of nearly 4,000 sea-going vessels at inland waterway shipyards. All were moved along inland waterways and down the Mississippi River to the sea. Those which were too large for transit to the sea under their own power because of the shallowness of the inland waterways were mounted on pontoons and floated down the rivers to the sea. In addition to the number of vessels constructed, as indicated in the table, there were also built on the inland waterways 6 Navy floating dry docks and 23 other dry docks.
Defense Value of Our Inland Waterways
These few highlights indicate the great importance that inland waterways were to this country in World War II, and they point to their potential value in the event of another war for they must be considered in in planning a national defense policy.
During World War I and II the railroads were the backbone of our inland transportation. But in World II highway and inland waterway transportation were important factors in the smooth flow of weapons, supplies and civilian needs.
In a future war the railroads will not only be supplemented by highway and inland waterway transportation, but they will also be aided by cargo aircraft, for in times of national emergencies there can never be an excess of transportation facilities. If the enemy should partially disrupt our railways, destroy some of our roadways, and make air transport difficult, we would still have the facilities of our inland waterways to perform transport services within the limits of their capacity.
The national defense value of our inland waterways arises from their ability to meet a sudden need, to stand up under the strain of a national emergency, and to supplement, or substitute for, other modes of transportation which may be insufficient for war-time needs. Thus inland waterways diminish our chances of delay to deliver weapons and supplies to our armed services if one or more of our other transport agencies has been crippled.
To move materials and finished products swiftly and with a constant even flow, and to prevent freight congestion, in war-times the rail, truck, air and water lines should be coordinated. This requires a plan which will get the cooperation of all transport operators. But, all operators will not pull as a team, if they recognize that the plan will destroy competition between the various modes of transportation during the war and with the coming of peace.
Since the industrial revolution changed the technique of warfare we now fight with all sorts of mechanical, electrical and chemical products such as atomic bombs, radioactive dust, gases, germs, guided and homing missiles, supersonic aviation, anti-personnel artillery shells with proximity fuzes, multiphase rockets, and a myriad of other products. In fact our armed services need over 2,000,000 different items to keep the war machine going. This means that the wars of the future will be primarily fought by the factories of this country. It also means that our armed services cannot be expected to be victorious if for the want of transportation guns and ammunition are in factories, tanks at railroad sidings, and engine parts in warehouses.
Unfortunately we are not self sufficient in raw materials to make the many products needed in modern warfare. For this reason we must bring to our industrial areas by inland waterways and other modes of transportation, such imported materials as antimony for the making of storage batteries, bearing metals, bullets and shrapnel balls; chromium for the manufacturing of ferroalloys, chemicals and refractories; manganese for the production of steel; Manila fiber and sisal for the fabricating of cordage and rope; nickel for the making of monel metal and electrical resistance wire; quartz crystals for the production of lenses and radio equipment; quinine for medical purposes; rubber for the making of tires and gas masks; silk for weaving into parachutes and powder bags; tin for the manufacturing of tinplate, solder, bronze and bearing metal; mica for insulating electrical appliances; mercury for the production of drugs, dental amalgam, paints and scientific instruments; tungsten for the making of special hard cutting tool steels; bauxite ore for the making of aluminum; asbestos for the production of brake-bands, clutch facings, and fireproof fabrics; cadmium for the making of automotive vehicle bearings, pigments and solder; graphite for the production of crucibles needed in making special steels; and wool for the making of wearing apparel. We must also import wood pulp, shellac, cattle hides, flax fiber and seed, coffee, tea, sugar, cacao beans, bananas, and many other things, including oil.
All of this means that we must have an adequate trans-oceanic merchant marine which will bring to this country the essential raw materials for delivery by railroads and inland waterways to the industrial areas of the United States and for the delivery of the finished products where they are needed by our armed forces.
In war times no merchant marine can safely operate on the high seas, or enter or leave ports, or operate on intracoastal waterways without a Navy to protect such vessels from attack by enemy submarines or other types of warships. And the Navy is necessary to protect our inland waterways against invasion by enemy submarines which may aim to establish bases on these waterways or to discharge guided missiles for the destruction of our industrial areas and cities. For this reason the Navy should be strong enough to help keep the conflict as remote as possible from our shores for the security of our industrial areas and internal transportation facilities, to control the sea for the protection of our merchant marine, and to protect the inland waterways.
Naturally an enemy will aim to demolish our factories and transportation facilities, and to destroy our civilian morale. In previous external wars we had the advantage of time and distance. In the next external war that will no longer be possible.
Some of our industrial areas and key cities may be temporarily put. out of action by the enemy. But destroyed plants can be rebuilt, even in war-times, if we have the necessary materials and transportation facilities.
The Federal Government, during World War II, recognized the importance of inland waterway transportation in its location of strategic industries. These industries, when possible, were located 200 or more miles from the seaboard. Seven of the twelve designated strategic production areas were served by about 6,000 miles of navigable inland waterways.
Since 1945, as part of the national defense industrial dispersion program, many concerns have arranged for the location of plants and warehouses in fair sized cities and small towns located either on, or near to, inland waterways.
In these new establishments there will be produced or distributed many kinds of commodities which range from agricultural implements to petroleum products, from alcohol to cement, from boats to radiators, and from aluminum to automobiles.
Some day our aircraft plants of the coastal areas may be moved within easy reach of inland waterways of the Middle West. When these and other industries are moved into the Mississippi Valley area the inland waterways will increase in importance as a means of transportation.
These shifts in the location of industrial plants, which will be built both underground and on the surface, are being made in recognition of the condition that with the invention of the atomic bomb and guided missiles industrial plant location must now be based on strategic considerations rather than on economic desirability.
Of course industrial dispersion, with the accompanying re-settlement of our urban population, is very expensive for it may cost billions of dollars. Modern world conditions are compelling us to make this sacrifice.
If during a national emergency our railroads and highway transportation facilities should become crippled, our inland waterways in so far as it is within their power can prevent a complete stoppage of the flow of raw materials and finished products between most of the key industrial areas of the United States. For example, goods can be moved between Great Lakes points and seaports via the New York Barge Canal and Hudson River, or via the Illinois Waterway and Mississippi River. The Ohio Valley industrial area is within reach of Great Lakes points, with communities along the Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee, Cumberland and other rivers, and with ports located on the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards, via the intracoastal waterways.
These intracoastal waterways not only provide a protected waterway for light drafted vessels operating between Massachusetts and the Mexican border in the carriage of petroleum products and other war and peace time necessities, but they are also beneficial to countless communities located on the navigable Atlantic Coast and Gulf Coast rivers whose waters flow into the intracoastal waterways.
These and other inland waterways of the United States are well suited for a progressive people. The Great Lakes are a natural barrier, and the most extensive chain of navigable lakes in the world. The Mississippi River System, the Columbia River System, and other rivers, give us an incomparable inland waterway system of immeasurable value in both peace and war.