While it may seem a somewhat ambitious idea to attempt to devise a standard naval program for a number of countries differing so much in geographical location, racial peculiarities, and national wealth as the various small nations of the world, the problem is not as difficult as first appears. The general requirements of a naval force suitable for the needs of small nations are so similar that with a little study they may be fairly easily determined. The following features would seem to be essential for such a naval force:
(1) It must be capable of furnishing the maximum of naval defense with the minimum of cost, so as not to embarrass the finances of a small country.
(2) Be inexpensive as to upkeep so that a small defense budget will suffice to maintain it.
(3) Not require too large a body of personnel.
(4) Meet the special naval needs peculiar to the country.
(5) Furnish protection to territorial waters, fisheries, commerce, etc.
(6) Maintain national prestige and show the flag in foreign ports.
(7) Train officers and men.
(8) It must have such combat power that even a large naval power would be glad to seek its assistance as the navy of an ally and hesitate to have it augment the fleet of an enemy.
What are needed are types of ships and aircraft which can prevent an enemy force from approaching the small country’s coast without the danger of serious losses, can furnish patrols of coastal and inland waters, and protect commerce and colonies.
Let us examine these requirements for minor navies a little more closely, and then apply them to some specific cases; or to put it another way, let the student of the subject imagine himself the Minister of Marine, or the Chief of the Naval Staff of one of these small countries and charged with the responsibility of preparing a suitable naval program, not forgetting that the money for the naval defense must be obtained and that he will have to justify its expenditure before hard-headed legislators or a close-fisted Secretary or Minister of Finance.
The first consideration is to buy as much naval defense as possible for the money to be expended. In a sense this is of equal importance to larger and richer countries but with the smaller nations it is a positive necessity. They cannot afford to invest in expensive naval programs. For this reason alone smaller vessels must form the basis of their forces. A single large battleship would cost too much. Its loss would be too great a disaster, a case of “putting all the eggs into one basket”; and in addition this class of ship would not be able to satisfy the needs of the country for naval protection as well as other types of naval craft.
The small vessels having the greatest threat to the approach to a coast are submarines, fast motor torpedo craft, destroyers, and by no means to be despised, the mine layer in any form. A well-balanced, land- based naval air force; a flotilla of small submarines; a number of fast motorboats with torpedoes; a few mine-laying gunboats— these would cause even a formidable fleet of a first-class naval power to approach a coast with extreme caution. If the small country possesses colonies or fisheries, some sturdy oceangoing ships such as the destroyers could be used to show the flag in foreign ports. A training ship which might be a sailing vessel and a small survey ship or two would complete a satisfactory naval force for a small country. Special craft such as river gunboats, and armed launches for inland waters might be required in certain cases. Such a naval force would have real value in diplomatic relations for it would fulfill well the requirement that even a first-class naval power would desire it as an ally against another naval power and would most emphatically not want it acting in concert with the fleet of an enemy. This then might be considered as a model naval force for any small nation anywhere on the globe.
Important and favorable knowledge for the small power are the lessons learned, both in World War I and the present war, as to the primary weapons most useful for various types of ships and the great value of relatively small and inexpensive surface and subsurface craft if properly armed. One of the clearest lessons taught by the naval experiences of both World Wars is that the gun is the primary weapon of large surface vessels and the torpedo is the natural weapon of small surface vessels and submarines. In other words, with either surface or subsurface ships the greater the displacement of the vessel the greater is the value of the gun as the primary weapon, and the smaller the vessel the more successful is the torpedo as the primary weapon. Another way of stating it is to express it in the manner of a mathematical law as follows: In general the successful employment of the gun is directly proportional and the successful employment of the torpedo is inversely proportional to the displacement. It must be remembered that this is no theoretical rule deduced in the study, no product of the ivory tower, but on the contrary a rule based on the hard lessons of modern war.
The meaning for the lesser naval powers is plain. The small submarine (350 to 500 tons) used so effectively by Germany during World War I, and still being built 25 years later, is an ideal type for small countries, furnishing the maximum of protection at a low cost. The fast motor torpedo boat is another economical and formidable craft. These patrol torpedo boats, however, have been developed into very sturdy seagoing types larger than the original types and they have performed well in every ocean under very severe operating conditions. In fact the extensive and successful use of the patrol torpedo boat has been one of the outstanding features of the naval operations of World War II. These boats did wonderful work in the Asiatic and Southwest Pacific theater and the British cannot praise enough the performances of their own boats in the Channel and the Mediterranean. They are triple threat ships for they carry torpedoes against larger vessels, depth bombs against submarines, and enough dual purpose battery to fight aircraft, or submarines on the surface. Their great speed and maneuverability add to their fighting value against any of their enemies. They furnish a lot of protection at low cost to the small naval force of the small nation.
Vessels of 900 to 1,100 tons primarily intended for the use of torpedoes and for night attacks or day attacks in times of low visibility, for anti-submarine work, convoy work, and mine laying are also boats of great use to the small navy. The modern destroyer escort ship is an example of these vessels. The new United States destroyer escorts are about 1,300 tons, have a powerful dual-purpose battery, torpedoes, and depth charges. They cost money, $3,500,000, but are not beyond the naval budgets of many small nations. The large destroyer or what in World War I was described as a destroyer leader, are really cruisers of 2,000 to 2,500 tons. They represent the largest tonnage which could be afforded by some countries.
The largest ship in these navies should be cruisers of around 3,000 to 5,000 tons armed with 5- or 6-inch guns, a strong anti-aircraft battery, and a few planes. In time of peace these might be used for training, for showing the flag in foreign ports, and visits to colonies. In war they would furnish anti-aircraft protection, be used as guards for convoys, and for scouting or commerce raiding. A small aircraft carrier might be substituted for one of these cruisers or a combination of carrier and cruiser such as the new Swedish aircraft cruiser Gotland might be a still better vessel for these purposes.
The Gotland is of 4,800 tons with six 6-inch guns and carries seven planes, some on deck and others folded in hangars. Her speed is 28 knots. Her 6-inch guns have a range of 15 miles. She also carries a remarkably strong anti-aircraft battery and two triple torpedo tubes. She is flush-decked and makes an excellent man-of-war-like appearance, and during her recent shakedown cruise she proved to be a very good seaboat. Such a vessel represents a compromise of various kinds as respects military value, but would seem a good investment for the small country.
A small aircraft carrier such as the aircraft escort vessel is another type very suitable for a small country having overseas possessions of considerable extent. With the large destroyer or small cruiser such as the new destroyers of our own Navy, or the light cruisers developed by French and Italian navies, the Avisos and Exploratores, they make the best type of surface squadron for a small country with colonial or extensive oversea trade interests.
To visualize more clearly the requirements considered theoretically most desirable for the small navy, a table showing the types of ships and the principal characteristics such as tonnage, speed, and armament is given. The number of each type of vessel considered necessary has also been included in the table. These numbers are intended as an approximate figure only, varying with the individual needs of the country as well as the finances available. The table may be looked upon as a general guide by which building programs may be planned but with variations due to geographical peculiarities, colonies, finance, and political forces favorable or unfavorable to defense programs. The naval aircraft program has been made a part of this table and the number and types indicated.
A study of some of the smaller countries and their navies show many interesting problems. As an example a nation such as Greece may be taken. The numerous islands of the Greek archipelago, the indented coast line with many harbors and coves, and the relatively calm waters of an inland sea, make the area ideal for the operation of small submarines, motor torpedo craft, and small destroyers. With such a naval force and aided by the strategic position at the entrance to the Dardanelles and the approach to the Suez Canal, Greece, though a small country, commands respect from the important powers. As a nest for submarines and motor torpedo boats her broken coast line and geographic position are perfect. The naval force of Greece according to Jane’s Fighting Ships for 1936 consisted of two cruisers and ten destroyers, six torpedo boats and six submarines, and she was building four destroyers and two submarines. It is evident that more small submarines and motor torpedo craft, with scouting and bombing aircraft, would have greatly increased her naval power with minimum financial outlay and would have rendered her Navy more effective against the German and Italian attacks when they came. The types of aircraft most useful would have been patrol bombers, torpedo planes, and some heavy bombers and fighters.
Denmark is another small country for which the submarine and small motor torpedo craft are ideal naval weapons. As Greece has a strategic position in regard to the entrance to the Black Sea, Denmark commands the entrance to the Baltic. The numerous islands with narrow channels between make ideal lurking places for small surface craft or submarines and as bases for the operation of seaplanes. Denmark had before the present war 2 coast defense ships, 4 sloops admirably adapted to colonial and fishing protection, 38 small torpedo boats, and 9 submarines. Three of these latter are 400-ton boats of the coastal type with five 18-inch tubes, one #3 gun and two 1.6-inch anti-aircraft guns. Denmark had under construction a submarine and two torpedo boats as well as a mine layer, three mine sweepers and a survey ship. In addition to Iceland, which occupies an independent political status under the Danish King, Denmark had Greenland and the Faroe Islands to furnish naval police protection. Survey ships or a few sturdy gunboats built with arctic service in mind were therefore among her naval needs and were present in her Navy.
Norway, not commonly thought of as a colonial power, nevertheless, possessed a considerable colony in Spitzbergen or Svalbard as it is now called. She also owned the little island of Jan Mayen far out in the North Atlantic and had a very large Merchant Marine. Norway has a long indented coast line extending the full length of the Scandinavian Peninsula, a distance of about 1,200 miles, with an outer fringe of islands, the Lofotens.
Table of Theoretical Requirements for the Navies of Small Maritime Countries
Type |
Number |
Tonnage |
Speed |
Armaments |
Light cruisers |
1-4 |
2,500-4,000 |
30 Knots |
8-12 4" or 5" dual purpose main battery in single or twin turrets 4—40-mm. twin A.A. and 16—20-mm. A.A. 1 triple torpedo tube |
Small aircraft carriers of escort type |
1-4 |
4,000 |
22 “ |
8-24 planes 8—40-mm. twin mount dual purpose guns 16—20-mm. A.A. |
Submarine |
10-15 |
250-400 |
15 “ |
4 tubes 1—3" 1 machine gun A.A. |
Small destroyers |
5 |
600-1300 |
30 “ |
4 tubes 2-4—40-mm. dual purpose guns 12—20-mm. A.A. Depth charges |
Motor patrol and torpedo boats |
30 |
10-15 |
40 “ |
2 torpedoes, 2—1 pdr. 2—.50 cal. machine guns Depth charges |
Mine layers and surveying |
2-4 |
250 |
15-20 “ |
1—40-mm. dual purpose 3—20-mm. A.A. |
Gunboats for colonial protection |
2-4 |
600-900 |
15-20 “ |
|
River gunboats |
2-10 |
250 |
10-25 “ |
1—3 pdr. 4—20-mm. A.A. 3 machine guns |
River launches |
10-20 |
10-30 |
15 “ |
1—1 pdr. 1 machine gun A.A. |
Aircraft |
80-500 |
|
|
Combat 40% Bombing 40% Torpedo planes 20% Training planes about J the number of total combat planes |
This island chain consists of about 150,000 individual islands ranging in size from mere rocks with sufficient space for a few seabirds’ nests, to islands of nearly 900 square miles. One-fourteenth of the land area and one- eighth of the population of the country are contained in the Lofoten Islands. Though exposed to severe storms on the western side they are the site of one of the greatest fisheries in the world and furnish admirable operating areas for submarines and small surface craft, and as aircraft bases. A lesson in the value of small navies may be learned from the Norwegian experience in the brief conflict which ensued upon the invasion of this country by Germany in the spring of 1940. Norway had four coast defense ships dating from about 1900. She also had 8 destroyers, 17 torpedo boats, 9 submarines, 4 mine layers, and a number of mine sweeps and patrol vessels. A number of them besides the coast defense vessels were pre-war boats. Three destroyers of 550 tons had been recently completed. They made 30 knots, carried three 4-inch, a 40-mm. gun, four 21-inch torpedo tubes and 4 depth charges and were equipped as mine layers. These small destroyers were splendidly fitted for Norway’s needs, being coastal defense craft of considerable striking power, and would normally not be required to go far from home or to keep the sea for long periods of time. She had also three 220-ton, 25-knot torpedo boats built in 1917. They carried two 3-inch guns and four 18-inch tubes. Of her submarines 6 were post-war boats with displacement of 420 to 545 tons, four 18-inch torpedo tubes and one 3-inch gun, and speeds of 11 to 15 knots. The three pre-war boats were of 250 to 335 tons, with three 18-inch tubes and speed of 9 to 14 knots. These were the size and character of submarines with which the Germans used so effectively during the war.
Because of her arctic colonies of Svalbard and Jan Mayen, and her extensive fisheries, a few stoutly built gunboats were needed for patrol duties or station ships. These requirements were met in an excellent manner by several vessels which in addition to patrol, escort, or station duties were mine layers or mine sweepers. The largest of these was a ship of great interest as she represents a most useful type for small navies in general. She was the mine layer, Olaf Tryggvason of 1,596 tons, with four 4- to 7-inch guns, a 3-inch anti-aircraft gun, 4 smaller guns and a capacity for 60 mines. Her speed was 20 knots. The Tryggvason played a most gallant and effective part in the resistive effort to the German task force in the invasion of Norway. Other smaller craft of this same general type included a 760-ton, 22-knot mine layer, which in addition to a powerful battery carries two 18-inch torpedo tubes and 200 mines; and two 325-ton mine layers armed with two 3- inch guns and 120 mines, and 4 mine sweepers of about 300 tons each.
Norway’s ordinary defense budget was about 50,000,000 kronen. In 1939 it had been increased by a similar amount although these amounts included military aviation and the army as well as the navy. The important problem from a naval standpoint was the replacement of obsolete units such as her old coast defense ships and older destroyers and submarines. Probably light cruisers or aircraft cruisers of the Gotland type might have been the best replacements for the coast defense vessels. More small submarine and small surface torpedo craft would also have made her Navy more formidable. Before these were built the German invasion put this small navy to the bitter test of war and it proved its value. In the defense of the homeland, assisted in some instances by shore batteries and by naval aircraft, it sank the following:
1 heavy cruiser
2 light cruisers
2 destroyers
14 large supply ships and transports.
This damage was done in spite of the fact that surprise resulted in the loss of many Norwegian naval units without an opportunity to really make any defense.
The study of Norway’s Navy as an example of the type and value of war craft of most value to a small nation is of particular interest both because of the peculiar problems of a small country with colonies and one of the largest merchant fleets in the world. Furthermore, the German invasion afforded an opportunity to appraise the resistance given by the naval forces of the country and to form an opinion of the relative value of these different types in the resistance. Aside from the effects of surprise, which can be expected at any time in war or as part of the opening of a war, it is doubtful if the old coast defense ships were of any value and the country would have been better served by more fast torpedo patrol boats, and bomber and torpedo planes.
Another small country with many naval problems is Portugal. With a long and famous maritime history this country has the third largest colonial empire in the world, the extent of its possessions being exceeded only by Great Britain and France. In addition to the Azores, the Cape Verde Islands, and Madeira, Portugal has a colony on the gold coast of Africa as well as Portuguese East and West Africa, part of the island of Timor, and the small Portuguese colony of Goa, the remnant of the once extensive Portuguese empire in India. In China is the city of Macao. This together with Portuguese Timor is now occupied by Japan.
A naval establishment to deal with the naval needs of such a colonial empire is not easy for a small country to maintain. A larger and richer country would find it difficult to meet all the requirements and a compromise between an ideal size for the navy and the financial resources of the country must be made. Such a compromise, however, would permit the creation and maintenance of a navy that would meet most of the situations with which it might be confronted.
The navy of a colonial country such as Portugal has as its mission three main tasks:
(1) Protection of the homeland;
(2) Protection of its colonies;
(3) Protection of commerce and the merchant marine.
Three classes of naval vessels and armament would be needed to fulfill this mission.
(а) A force of submarines, patrol torpedo craft, mine layers, and land-based aircraft to jeopardize an enemy force operating against Portugal itself or its major colonies.
(b) A flotilla of small gunboats for general police duties in the colonies.
(c) A small flying squadron normally kept in home waters but capable of going to any threatened point in the colonies and also of rendering a certain amount of convoy protection.
The number of the first group should be as considerable as the finances of the country would allow. Fighter, torpedo and bombing planes, small fast patrol boats carrying torpedoes, and small coastal type submarines would form this group and none of these are so expensive as to be beyond the means of the small country.
Gunboats should be of two types, one a small oceangoing vessel of 600 to 900 tons capable of making the voyage to the colonies and armed with a strong anti-aircraft battery or a dual purpose battery. Machine guns of .50 and .30 caliber should be included in the armament and depth charges and perhaps a few mines carried. A few shallow draft gunboats armed with a one powder, a .50 caliber anti-aircraft, and two .30-caliber machine guns would be desirable for patrol of colonial rivers or lakes.
The flying squadron, squadron of evolution, or emergency task squadron, should be a small trouble-shooting group of light cruisers and small carriers or combination, cruiser and carrier vessels of the Gotland type. These would be available to proceed to any of the colonies or any other point where Portuguese interests were affected, and it might be desirable to send them. Such a force too in times of peace could be used for international good-will visits, such as to the daughter country of Brazil, or to New England ports of the United States where there are many Americans of Portuguese descent.
Among the smaller Latin American republics are many with interesting problems in naval protection.
Ecuador is an example of a small South American country with certain definite requirements in a maritime way. The country is roughly triangular in shape. The principal city and seaport is Guayaquil situated on the shore of the largest gulf between Panama and Chile. The capital Quito is 300 miles distant in the heart of the Andes at an altitude of nearly 10,000 feet. The eastern slopes of the Andes contain numerous rivers flowing eastward as tributaries to the Amazon River system. This eastern slope is covered with dense forest, is sparsely populated, and has a number of Indian tribes still in a savage state, so that military protection of settlers is required somewhat as in the early days of the American West, though on a much smaller scale. West of Guayaquil are the Galapagos Islands, also the property of Ecuador and distant about 700 miles. The naval force needed here would be a few armed launches and armed river steamers for the Napo and other eastern rivers, and small gunboat mine layers capable of police duties for the coast and the Galapagos. Ecuador’s Navy practically consists of such a force. A force of naval planes and small submarines could be added with advantage.
Each of these small countries mentioned may be said to have met the unvarying naval problems successfully, and it is of interest how closely they approximate with their actual naval forces what would have been built by adherence to the definitely formulated plan outlined in this article. By building and maintaining a naval force in conformity to this plan the naval needs of any small country can be met. The principal variations are in the number of vessels, and the personnel for them. These variations will depend in great measure on the naval budget of each country, the interest of its people in naval protection, and the foresight and knowledge of the national leaders.