However, on account of Indian warfare and disappointment in the search for riches, Almagro returned in 1538 to Cuzco to support Pizarro, who by this time had become hard pressed by the Inca Manco. Almagro drove away the Indians who were besieging Cuzco and released Pizarro from a difficult situation, but the jealous and ungrateful Pizarro denied Almagro and his force access to the city. Almagro thereupon promptly took the city by storm, and instead of wreaking vengeance upon his ungrateful countryman extended him the hand of reconciliation. Pizarro soon disposed of Almagro at the Battle of Salinas in that same year, 1538.
After the death of this explorer there was no one immediately inclined to push forward the exploration of Chile, called by the Spaniards “New Toledo.” The stubborn resistance of the Araucanian Indians in the Chilean valleys together with the severity of the climate discouraged further exploration. Moreover, there was no definite assurance of wealth in Chile, and the Spaniards available in Peru for an expedition were busy among themselves quarreling over the spoils of the Inca dynasty.
In 1540 Alonso de Camargo received a commission from Charles V to explore the straits that had been discovered in 1520 by Magellan. At the head of an expedition he passed through the straits but after losing one ship and suffering many difficulties the undertaking was abandoned and Camargo returned to Spain.
In the same year, 1540, Pedro de Valdivia, who had taken part in the wars in Europe and who had assisted in the conquest of Venezuela and Peru, entered Chile by way of the desert of Atacama. After five months of hardship he captured the beautiful valley formerly known as Mapocho. There on February 12, 1541, he founded the capital and now flourishing city of Santiago, establishing at the same time a government and declaring himself governor of the new territory. Needing additional resources to complete his conquest, he decided to return to Peru, and in 1550, on his way, he founded Concepción, the third largest city in Chile, and, in 1552, Valdivia. His lieutenants founded La Serena and Villa Rica.
On December 3, 1553, at the Battle of Tupapel, Valdivia lost his life in combat with the Araucanians under Lautaro and Caupolican. He was succeeded by Villa- gran, and then in 1557 by Hurtado de Mendoza who came from Peru with a large expedition and explored Chiloe Island.
In 1567 the government of Chile, though supposedly independent of Peru, was placed under the general direction of the Viceroy of Peru.
In 1578 the famous English navigator Drake passed through the Straits of Magellan on his voyage of circumnavigation.
In an expedition to the straits under Sarmiento de Mendoza in 1584, there were founded two settlements, one called Nombre de Jesus and the other San Felipe. The colonists at this latter place starved or froze to death and some time later the explorer Cavendish discovered the mummified bodies of these unfortunate settlers. He changed the name of the place to Port of Hunger (Puerto del Hambre).
In 1592 Juan Fernandez discovered the islands that bear his name, one of which later became famous as Robinson Crusoe’s Isle. In 1598 the Dutch, who had become free in 1579 after the defeat of the Duke of Alva by William the Silent, seized the Chiloe Islands. During this period, the Spaniards were forced to wage constant warfare against the Araucanian Indians broken only by temporary truces sought by the Spaniards. This retarded colonization. In 1641 the Marquis de Baldes conquered the Araucanians but Spain conceded the independence of the Indians and gave them a tract of some 30,000 square miles of land with the understanding that the Indians would not tolerate in Chile any enemies of Spain. War was soon renewed, however, and continued until 1773 when the Indians were forced to yield. The Araucanians were probably the fiercest tribe in all the Americas.
In 1643 the Dutch attempted to occupy Valdivia but were repulsed.
In 1743 the University of Santiago was established.
In 1778 the Governor of Chile was created a Captain-General and in 1798 the colony was officially declared separate from the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Chile experienced no serious internal revolt against Spain until influenced by the creation on May 25, 1810, of the movement at Buenos Aires for self-government during the crisis in Spain. Finding herself in the same relative position to the Spanish crown as the Viceroyalty of the River Plate, Chile decided to follow the example of her fellow colonists across the Andes and on September 18, 1810, overthrew the Governor and organized a Junta under Toro Zambrano. This Junta was not at first animated with any idea of separation from Spain but was to govern the country in the name of Ferdinand VII while Spain was under the control of Napoleon. The formation of the Junta was precipitated when Carrasco, the Governor, suddenly began to imprison the most influential and important of the “Criollos.”
With the advent to power on November 1, 1810, of Juan Martinez de Rozas as Head of the Junta there was prepared a comprehensive plan for combined action against Napoleon on the part of a united Spanish America which, however, never bore fruit. In February, 1811, the Junta opened the ports of Coquimbo, Talcahuano, and Valparaiso to all nations and declared for free trade.
The Spanish régime allied to Napoleon undertook to oppose these seemingly radical movements and organized an active movement against the Junta, but this was successfully overcome by Rozas. A regularly elected assembly convoked by Rozas thereupon undertook to administer affairs and from this time the feeling for absolute freedom began to grow.
But the affairs of the patriots did not progress peacefully. Juan Egana, who up to this time had been a collaborator with Rozas, disagreed with him on the question of the future policy of the colonists. Rozas became an advocate of freedom and complete independence from Spain, while Egana was for the establishment of a separate monarchy in the New World, to be self-governing but at the same time to be a part of the Spanish Empire. The latter advocated the selection of some Spanish Prince to be the ruler of the new monarchy. Rozas, finding himself in the minority, fled with his followers from Santiago to Concepcion where he established a Junta of his own and attempted to foment a reaction against Egana who had taken charge. A military movement, organized by Rozas against Egana but led by Jose Miguel Carrera, was successful in overthrowing the government of Egana, and Carrera became leader of the party and head of the Government. Carrera willingly accepted the sovereignty of Ferdinand VII, whereupon Rozas then took up arms against him and the civil war was again in progress.
In October, 1811, the Congress, controlled by Carrera, passed a law freeing all slaves born in the country and prohibiting future traffic in slaves. Free instruction in convents was ordered and in October, 1812, a resolution was adopted which stated that from then on no authority outside of Chilean territory was to interfere in Chilean affairs.
While the two rival factions were preparing for conflict, word was received that the Royalists from Peru were preparing to deal a crushing blow to the divided forces of the patriots, and Rozas and Carrera, suddenly recognizing the value of discretion over valor, discarded their differences, made peace with each other, and agreed to support unitedly the cause of Chilean independence.
Cognizant of the state of affairs in Chile, the Viceroy of Peru, Fernando dc Abascal, had decided to crush the revolt and the liberal ideas of the colonists of Chile. He sent a large expedition into Chile under Antonio Pareja. On April 26, 1813, at the Battle of Yerbas-Buenas, the Spaniards were defeated by Carrera, one important result of the battle being that after the battle the “Criollos” in the Spanish force deserted to the Chilean cause.
Juan Francisco Sanchez succeeded Pareja in command of the Spanish forces and on October 17, 1813, he defeated Carrera at the Battle of Roble, Carrera fleeing across the River Itata. Colonel Bernardo O’Higgins, a man destined to be very prominent in Chilean history, saved the remnants of Carrera’s army.
About this time the Chilean Congress at Santiago decreed liberty of the press, ordered public schools established in every town of over 50 inhabitants, and created a National Library.
O’Higgins was placed in command of the Army to repel the oncoming Spaniards. He defeated the enemy under Savino Gainza at Quilo, but he did not follow up the victory and Gainza after resting and reassembling his forces marched on Santiago, the road having been opened by another Spanish force under Ildefonso Elorreaga who had captured Talca.
In the face of this situation, the Chilean government at Santiago fell and Francisco de la Lestra was on March 7, 1814, appointed Supreme Dictator to undertake strong military measures. At the same time a second Chilean army was formed under Blanco Encalada.
Blanco Encalada was defeated by Elorreaga near Talca, but O’Higgins succeeded in defeating Gainza at the Rio Maule, whereupon Gainza joined Elorreaga at Talca.
O’Higgins was in the midst of preparing a strong movement against the enemy when he received word that an English frigate had arrived with important correspondence from the Viceroy of Peru. O’Higgins was instructed by De la Lastra to negotiate with the Spaniards with the view of returning to the old regime. This was brought about by the news of the downfall of the French in Spain and the liberation and coronation of Ferdinand VII of Spain. On May 3, 1814, at Lircay, a treaty was signed by which the Chileans recognized the sovereignty of Ferdinand VII, but preserved the right to govern themselves. The Spanish in return agreed to respect the constituted Chilean Government and to evacuate the country within 30 days. Gainza, however, did not carry out this latter part of the agreement but remained in Chilean territory awaiting reinforcements in anticipation of renewed hostilities.
Carrera, who had fallen into the hands of Gainza at Chill in, escaped, and fleeing to Santiago provoked a national reaction. Supported by the troops, he overthrew the government and took charge. O’Higgins refused to recognize Carrera and with his own troops marched against Santiago. In the first battle between these two factions, Carrera was victorious, and while preparations were under way for a renewal of the conflict, word was received that the Viceroy of Peru had refused to recognize the Treaty of Lircay and that a large Spanish force under Mariano Osorio was on its way to reconquer Chile.
For the second time in Chilean history leaders of the two factions within the country cast aside their differences to support a common cause. In consequence of the Spanish menace, O’Higgins patriotically withdrew his opposition to Carrera and loyally offered his services, pleading for the command of the vanguard of the army so that he might be the first to open fire again—at the Spaniards.
The Spanish expedition under Osorio captured all before it and at the Battle of Rancagua on October 1, 1814, O’Higgins’ army was practically annihilated, so stubborn was the heroic resistance of the force under his command.
From this time until assistance was received from the River Plate some two years later, the Chileans were once more under the severe and cruel domination of the Spaniards. The treatment accorded the patriots was in keeping with the brutal measures previously used by Pizarro and Cortes in the New World.
The success of the colonists in the Viceroyalty of the River Plate in overthrowing Spanish rule led them to consider assisting their suffering brethren on the west coast and incidentally safeguarding their own independence. Accordingly, the River Plate General, San Martin, organized at Mendoza the “Liberating Army of the Andes” and in 1817 marched across the Andes. Despite the hardships of the expedition, San Martin’s efforts were crowned with success and at the Battle of Chacabuco, on February 12, 1817, the Spanish under Marco del Pont, who had succeeded Osorio, were decisively defeated. At the same time, O’Higgins administered a crushing defeat to a detached army of the Spaniards under Moroto at Santiago, whereupon the Spaniards opened the gates of the city to the oncoming army of patriots and themselves fled to Valparaiso to embark for Lima.
On February 15, 1817, San Martin and O’Higgins occupied Santiago, and the people in general assembly offered San Martin supreme authority within the state, an honor which he refused in order to permit that favor to be awarded to a native Chilean. San Martin feared that the assumption of this authority on his own part would cause the results of his work to be considered a River Plate conquest which would antagonize the greater mass of the Chileans.
Accordingly on February 16, 1817, O’Higgins was proclaimed “Dictator.”
After the Battle of Chacabuco most of the royalist forces retired toward Peru with the view of reorganizing, and, with the support of the Viceroy, launching a vast expedition against Chile. However, Spanish troops in the south assembled at Chilián under Sanchez and at Concepcion under Ordoñez. Fearing attack by the patriots, Ordoñez ordered Sanchez to unite with him for a strong defense at Talcahuano. Had the Chileans, soon after Chacabuco, conducted a vigorous campaign to the south, it is probable that these Spanish forces could have been defeated before they concentrated and strongly entrenched themselves at Talcahuano, but as it was, a small force of patriots at Talca had instructions to await the arrival of Las Heras who was to conduct operations south of the Rio Maule. As this officer was very slow, operations were delayed, and when he reached Concepcion, Ordonez was then strongly concentrated and impregnable at Talcahuano, and Las Heras was forced to abandon his enterprise and return north to assist against a reported Spanish invasion from Peru.
Fearing that the convocation of a Congress might retard rather than promote the organization of the country, O’Higgins refrained from so doing, but by plebiscite referred to the people the question of officially declaring national liberty and independence. The country returned a verdict almost unanimous in favor of independence. Consequently under date of January 1, 1818, O’Higgins at the time at Concepción with Las Heras signed the solemn document, and on February 12, 1818, the first anniversary of the Battle of Chacabuco, the freedom and independence of Chile was proclaimed throughout the country. O’Higgins as “Supreme Director of the State” assumed control.
However, the troubles of the new State were not yet over. The Viceroy of Peru, the same Fernando de Abascal, once more called Mariano Osorio into service for the purpose of repeating the reconquest of Chile that he had accomplished in 1814. At the Battle of Cancha Rayada on March 19, 1818, the patriots suffered a severe defeat and a disorganization in the government became general. However, General San Martin and O’Higgins managed to inspire confidence and to rally their forces and on April 5, 1818, the allied forces decisively defeated Osorio at the great Battle of Maipo. This battle is very important in South American history in that it established the independence of Chile, assured the independence of Argentina, and prepared the way for the liberation of Peru where patriots throughout South America confidently believed would be the last stand made by the Spanish. San Martin and his soldiers then desired to push on into Peru, but Chile, freed from the Spanish, was for the time being lukewarm in offering support.
Continuing control of the government of Chile after the Battle of Maipo, O’Higgins desired to establish a strong centralized organization that would be capable of carrying on successful military operations, of insuring stability of the nation during the period of adjustment, and of suppressing social and political anarchy. Though at heart a firm believer in democratic institutions, he did not consider that his country was as yet ready to handle democracy, and therefore preferred powerful executive authority with infrequent elections. In May, 1818, as Supreme Director of the State, he appointed a commission to prepare a tentative Constitution which recommended a Senate of five members and a Supreme Court of five, all to be appointed by the Supreme Director. The result was that O’Higgins, despite a weak acquiescence to the semblance of republican and constitutional government, actually became a virtual dictator.
O’Higgins had, however, early decided that the security of the independence of Chile lay primarily in expelling the Spaniards from Peru. Until that had been accomplished Chile could not be safe. He also realized that one of the first steps needed to defeat the Spanish in Peru was to obtain command of the sea off both Peru and Chile. Accordingly in 1817, he initiated measures toward acquiring ships for a Navy and in that year his special emissary to Europe, José Alvarez Condarco of Tucuman, contracted for the services of Lord Cochrane, a British Admiral.
In November, 1818, Lord Cochrane arrived in Valparaiso with several British officers and seamen and began at once to organize the Chilean Navy with the able assistance of Admiral Blanco Encalada, the senior Chilean naval officer. During 1819 and several months of 1820, Cochrane with about five or six ships conducted very successful operations against the Spaniards on the high seas and in various ports along the Chilean and Peruvian coast, from Chiloe Island to Callao including two expeditions against Peru.
Cochrane’s successes made safe the transport of San Martin’s liberating army to Peru by water, and accordingly on August 20, 1820, River Plate and Chilean forces embarked at Valparaiso, and, escorted by Cochrane’s squadron, reached Pisco, Peru, on September 8, 1820, where they disembarked. San Martin then proceeded to march on Lima, while Cochrane operated against the defenses of Callao and along the coast, proceeding as far north as Acapulco, Mexico.
Various parleys were held between San Martin and the Spanish leaders but with no satisfactory results. On July 21, 1821, San Martin occupied Lima and on the 28th the independence of Peru was proclaimed.
San Martin as Protector of Peru found his forces inadequate to conquer the whole of Peru and dissensions grew within his ranks. Though he occupied Lima, his position was unenviable in sustaining the independence that had been declared, especially as he had had differences with Lord Cochrane and the two had practically severed relations.
Bolivar coming from the north had freed Quito (Ecuador) after the Battle of Bombona (April 7, 1822) and the Battle of Pichincha won by Sucre (May 24, 1822), and was preparing for the liberation of Peru. Learning of San Martin’s presence in Lima, Bolivar went to Guayaquil.
San Martin, being informed of the above, went to Guayaquil to confer with Bolivar on July 26, 1822. While the details of the conference are unknown to history, the result was that San Martin returned to Lima, resigned as Protector of Peru, and on September 22, 1822, started practically alone on his return to the River Plate. Chilean and River Plate forces returning south were defeated by the Spaniards in the southern part of Peru at Moquegua and Torata.
In the meantime O’Higgins had been governing in Chile, according to his own ideas of a government best suited for the times. Civic spirit had, however, been aroused and there were many who believed his system little better than a return to the colonial order. His difficulties with the Senate, which he had dissolved, and the unexpected turn of events in Peru weakened his prestige. He supported San Martin in the latter’s troubles with Lord Cochrane, with the result that Lord Cochrane entered into relations with O’Higgins’ political rival Freire, thus provoking, during the latter part of 1822, the practical dismissal of Lord Cochrane by O’Higgins. These happenings led to political pronouncements in Santiago, Concepción, and Coquimbo, and a revolution in Concepcion, inspired by Carrera and led by General Ramon Freire, broke out against the Supreme Director, which on January 28, 1823, forced his resignation. Freire became “Supreme Director” and O’Higgins retired into Peru.
The new government called together a Congress which prepared a Constitution and freed all the slaves. Freire then drove out the last remaining Spaniards from Chiloe Islands and, in order to leave himself free to suppress the anarchy which was threatening the country, he dissolved Congress and called for new elections. A revision of the Constitution in 1826 provided for a Republic and for a President and a Vice-President. Freire’s persecutions of the Church and his dictatorial actions led to his downfall, and in 1827 he was forced to resign in favor of the Vice-President, Pinto, who was duly elected under another Constitution adopted in 1828.
During Pinto’s régime, the two political parties, the “Pelucones” or Conservatives, under Joaquin Prieto, and the “Pipiolas” or Liberals, under Freire, became organized. Civil war broke out between these two factions and in 1830 the Liberals were defeated by the Conservatives at the Battle of Lircay; whereupon Prieto became President and Portales, Vice-President. In 1833, another Constitution was adopted for the Republic of Chile which lasted this time almost 100 years.
In 1836 Prieto was re-elected. During his administration, war was declared against Bolivia and Peru, which countries had formed a Confederation of North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia, each independent but under the Supreme Protection of Santa Cruz of Bolivia. Chile considered the formation of this Confederation a menace to her security. On September 15, 1837, an expedition under Blanco Encalada left Valparaiso but was defeated at Arequipa by General Santa Cruz of Bolivia who offered to make peace. Chile, however, continued the war, feeling that it was necessary to break up the Confederation. A second expedition under Manuel Bulnes landed in Peru while an attempted insurrection at Chiloe Island led by Ramon Freire was suppressed. The Bolivians and Peruvians, who had quarreled among themselves, were both defeated, Santa Cruz losing the Battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839. The Chileans then became firmly established on Peruvian soil. Considering that the Confederation had been successfully shattered both from within and without, Bulnes returned to Chile where in 1841 he was rewarded by being elected President.
During the 10-year régime of Bulnes, Spain recognized the independence of Chile. The University of Chile was established and a naval school instituted. Bulnes did much to strengthen the public credit of Chile.
In 1864, Chile joined Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador in a struggle against Spain brought about by attempts of Spain to press Peru for a settlement of claims made by Spanish citizens in Peru incident to the revolution. A Spanish fleet attacked and bombarded Valparaiso, but neutral countries brought about a cessation of hostilities and eventually each of the four South American allies made a separate treaty of peace with Spain.
In 1873 President Errazuris made great efforts to strengthen the Chilean Navy due
to the fact that there still existed a tension between Chile on one hand and Peru and Bolivia on the other hand growing out of the dormant Confederation of the latter two.
At this time the boundary along the sea- coast between Bolivia and Chile had not been definitely established satisfactorily to both parties, after the creation of the Republic of Bolivia. In the early days this desert had not given either country much concern as it was not considered of importance, but penetration into this area was rather to the northward by Chileans than southward by Peruvians or Bolivians. Bolivia, paying little attention to these desert areas, concentrated on the development of mining in the upper plateau, while the Chileans discovered the advantages of exploiting the vast nitrate beds to be found in this neglected region.
When Bolivia awoke to a realization of the situation, an agreement was entered into with Chile whereby both governments shared in the profits derived from the exploitation of the region between the 23d and the 25th parallels of South Latitude in the area in dispute. As is natural when any area suddenly becomes valuable and the ownership is in litigation, trouble was not long in brewing. Bolivia, dissatisfied with her share of the revenue and anxious to justify her claims to jurisdiction, applied a special tax on the companies that were operating with considerable success at Antofagasta in the center of the area in dispute. These companies were mainly Chilean and they promptly applied to the Chilean government for protection, which immediately protested to the Bolivian Government and sent a warship to Antofagasta.
The Bolivian Government was not inclined to negotiate, and Peru stepped into the breach by offering her services as mediator. However, Chile learned of an apparent collusion between Peru and Bolivia and that Peruvian troops were being concentrated on the southern border of Peru. Chile then demanded the denunciation by Peru of any secret agreement she might have had with Bolivia and also a declaration that Peru would remain neutral in the conflict between Chile and Bolivia. This Peru refused to do, and on April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on both Peru and Bolivia.
President Prado of Peru went to Europe to buy warships and munitions, leaving Vice-President Pierola in charge. The latter promptly assumed a dictatorship.
Chile realized the necessity of prompt and vigorous action. Troops were sent into Bolivia and a Chilean Fleet attempted the blockade of Peruvian and Bolivian ports. The Peruvian squadron under Admiral Grau, with main reliance upon the ironclad Huascar, obtained initial successes against the Chileans and operated from Antofagasta as far south as Valparaiso. However, the Chileans won naval successes at Pisagua and Iquique, and on October 8, 1879, Admiral Grau in the Huascar was overpowered and defeated at the Battle of Angamos. The Huascar went down after Grau and practically all hands on board had been killed and the ship put out of action. Sea power then passed to the Chileans.
After a defeat at the Battle of Los Angeles, the province of Tacna was lost to Peru, whereupon Bolivian forces under Daza retired into Bolivia, and Peruvian forces retired to defend Lima. Chilean forces under General Baquedano continued to advance despite the stubborn defense of the Peruvians, and after the Battles of Miraflores and Chorillos in 1881, Lima fell.
Chile made separate treaties of peace with Peru and with Bolivia but it was not until many years later that the final adjustments of territory were made. In 1884, Chilean troops of occupation evacuated Peru.
The Treaty of Ancon (1883) between Chile and Peru provided that the Peruvian Province of Tarapaca was to be transferred definitely to Chile and that the Provinces of Tacna and Arica were to be administered by Chile for a period of ten years after which a plebiscite in those provinces would decide their sovereignty. The plebiscite was never held and this fact was a constant source of tension between the two countries. The good offices of the United States were invoked in 1925 and continued until 1929, when a settlement of the so- called Tacna-Arica problem was agreed to by both Chile and Peru. In the final adjustment, the Province of Tacna and a free port to be constructed in the Bay of Arica at Chilean expense were returned to Peru, whereas the Province of Arica was retained by Chile. A clause in the final ratification signed by the two countries in Lima prohibited the acquisition of any of the territory involved by a third party, thus effectively barring Bolivia from attempting to regain an outlet to the sea through that area.
The formal adjustment of differences between Chile and Bolivia was not completed until 1904 when Bolivia officially surrendered her provinces of Antofagasta and Atacama definitely to Chile but not without protest at being cut off from the sea. Chile, however, conceded certain indemnities and railroad rights.
In the struggle in 1886 for the Presidency of Chile, affairs were very active. By his ability and personality, Balmaceda, a member of the Liberal party that had long been out of office, succeeded in uniting the various factions of his party and was elected. He soon, however, became involved with the Federal Congress which he dissolved. Civil War then broke out, Balmaceda being supported by the Army, the Liberals, the Radicals; and the Congress by the Conservatives and the Navy. Balmaceda was defeated in the Battles of Aconcagua and Valparaiso, and Admiral Jorge Montt, the leader of the opposition, became President. He granted amnesty to the Balmacedan party and endeavored in many ways to overcome the effects of civil war by instituting civil reforms.
In 1896 Errazuris, son of a former President, came into power. A boundary dispute with Argentina threatened the peace of both countries, but King Edward of England as arbiter rendered a decision that was accepted by both nations.
The Trans-Andcan Railway was completed in 1910, connecting Santiago with Buenos Aires. In the mountains near where the railway crosses the boundary between the countries there was erected a monument, “The Christ of the Andes,” (see page 329, March, 1941, Naval Institute PROCEEDINGS) typifying a vow taken by the two countries to maintain peace.
During the World War Chile remained neutral, reaping a vast revenue from her great nitrate beds. The naval Battle of Coronel between Cradock and Von Spec took place off Chile, November 1, 1914.
In 1924 President Alessandri was overthrown by a bloodless revolution and General Luis Altamarino came into power as head of a Junta. In 1925 a counterrevolt took place and Alessandri was recalled from Europe where he had fled. Alessandri instituted reforms and resigned whereupon Borgoño, the Vice-President and Secretary of the Interior, took charge pending an election which chose Larrain. In 1927 Carlos Ibanez became Vice-President and Premier and on May 4 President Figueroa Larrain resigned. On May 22, 1927, Ibanez was elected President. He was overthrown by a revolution in 1931 following economic disturbances, and Montero served as President until Alessandri finally again won the office, which he held until 1938. In that year, Cerda was elected.
Chile is one of the few countries producing natural nitrates and iodine. She also has immense beds of borax. Her production of natural nitrates constitutes practically a world monopoly but her market has been considerably disturbed since the discovery and perfection of methods of extracting nitrogen from the air. Nitrates are used for fertilizer, nitric acid, saltpeter, pyrotechnics, gunpowder, and other explosives.
Iodine is used in medicine and also in photography. Chile produces about 90 per cent of the world’s supply.
Borax is used as a cleansing agent, an antiseptic, and in various forms or derivatives in medicine. It is also of considerable value as a flux in glass manufacture and in smelting operations.
Chile is the second largest producer of copper.
The word “Chile” in the language of the Inca Tupac Yupanqui meant “White,” and he gave that name to the region when he first saw the snow-capped Andes. However, in the language of the Quichua Indians, it is said to mean “Cold.”
Chile is the seventh country in size and fifth in population among the South American Republics. Valparaiso is almost directly south of Cape Ann, Massachusetts, which makes it to the eastward of New York, a fact not generally realized, so that all of Chile is practically cast of New York. The port of Punta Arenas in the Strait of Magellan is the southernmost port of any consequence in the world, and one of the very few satisfactory anchoring places for large vessels passing through the Strait.
Santiago, the capital, with an estimated population of almost 700,000, is reached by rail from Valparaiso and Buenos Aires. In latitude it is about equivalent to that of Los Angeles, California. It is almost due west of Buenos Aires.
The principal ports, of which there are a great many due to the extreme length of the country, are Arica, Magallancs (Punta Arenas), Antofagasta, Valparaiso, and Iquique. Valparaiso is 4,633 nautical miles from New York via Panama Canal and 5,919 from San Francisco.
There is extensive domestic air service with connections to other countries of South America, to Europe, and to the United States. The principal companies are the Linea Aerea Nacional, Pan-American Grace Airways, Air France, and the German Condor Syndicate.
In 1937, Chile’s balance of trade as a whole was as follows:
Total exports......................... $195,298,000
Total imports......................... $ 88,398,000
Exports to U. S...................... $ 43,918,000
Imports from U. S................. $ 25,711,000
Chief exports during the above year were copper, nitrates, iodine, wool, sheepskins, beans, gold and silver bars and ore, iron ore, grain. The United States was mainly interested in copper, gold and silver ore, bullion and specie, iron ore, beans, hides and skins, for which she sent in exchange chiefly machinery, petroleum and products, iron and steel, automobiles and chassis, and cotton goods.
In 1937, Chile’s markets with reference to certain countries were, in percentages of total Chilean trade, as follows:
Exports sent to | Country | Imports received from |
22.5% | United States | 29.1% |
19.6% | United Kingdom | 10.9% |
9.5% | Germany | 26.0% |
1.6% | Italy | 2.6% |
4.6% | Japan | 1-9% |
THE TRUTH IS that the classes of ships which constitute a fleet are, or ought to he, the expression in material of the strategical and tactical ideas that prevail at any given lime, and consequently they have varied not only with the ideas, but also with the material in vogue. It may also be said more broadly that they have varied with the theory of war, by which more or less consciously naval thought was dominated. —CORBETT, Maritime Strategy.