A dispute had arisen over the forcible seizure, by order of the Cantonese Viceroy, of twelve members of the crew of the vessel Lorcha Arrow while lying in the river off Canton. The ship was Chinese- owned but registered in Hongkong and was carrying an English master and flying the British flag at the time of the seizure. The British demanded the return of these seamen. This was at first refused and later complied with but in a manner unsatisfactory to the British. The dispute continued until it finally led to open hostilities, threatening the lives and property of American as well as British citizens residing in the “factories” clustered outside the walls of Canton.
The United States was neutral and the mission of our Navy in those waters was to protect the lives and property of our nationals, but the repeated attacks of the Cantonese upon us while engaged in this difficult duty brought about the drastic and salutary punishment they received.
The following account, which it is hoped will prove of timely interest, is compiled largely from letters and reports in the Naval Records and from the private journal of an officer of the expedition.
Early in November, 1856, Commodore James Armstrong was at Hongkong aboard his flagship, the San Jacinto, and had dispatched the other two ships of his squadron, the Portsmouth under command of Commander Andrew H. Foote and the Levant under Commander William Smith, to Whampoa to protect American lives and property at Canton.
On November 10 Commodore Armstrong in the San Jacinto sailed from Hongkong to Macao and in his report to Secretary of the Navy Dobbin, dated November 12, 1856, he quoted from a letter just received from Commander Foote as follows:
Early on the morning of the 6th instant a brisk action lasting more than an hour took place between 23 Chinese junks, the fort known as French Folly, and armed parties on shore, on the one side, and on the other the English Steamers Barracouta and Coramandel, with eight boats mounting 16 guns. The junks, with more than 100 guns, were captured and destroyed, the fort taken (and guns spiked) but not occupied by English forces. The English casualties were 1 killed and 3 wounded. An unsuccessful attempt to destroy the English Steamer Sampson was made on the morning of the 8th. Reports have been circulated that an American sentinal has been shot and an American seaman executed. These are untrue. A shot was fired, striking near a sentinel on a housetop, but, agreeable to my directions, it was more offensively returned by several discharges of muskets at the man who fired. The professions of the Governor General of Canton toward Americans have been uniformly courteous, manifesting every disposition to preserve peace with us. He has expressed a wish that American residents leave the city as a wise precaution for their own safety and desires that our force for their protection be withdrawn. So long, however, as the present state of affairs continues or until further orders from you, our forces will remain.
Our Consul, Mr. Perry, has at my suggestion written again to the Governor General requesting that he be furnished information within 48 hours as to what action has been taken in the case of the American steamer Cum Fa which was fired upon by a Chinese fort in the Macao passage. If this communication does not elicit a satisfactory reply I trust the Consul will see fit to place the matter in my hands. Should he do this and should you not soon arrive yourself I shall proceed to the fort and take such action as circumstances may require in vindication of the insult to our flag. Unless we are assaulted or American interests are in some way endangered I shall strictly forbear from compromising our neutrality. . . .
I have had a long and frank conversation with Admiral Sir Michael Seymour in reference to pending difficulties and told him that in certain contingencies our merchants might leave the city with their effects and in that case our protection would be withdrawn.
On November 12 Commodore Armstrong arrived at Whampoa aboard the an Jacinto and on November 14 dispatched the ship’s launch, with howitzer and crew, arms, and ammunition under Lieutenant R. T. Bowen and the Marine Guard under Captain J. D. Simms to assist the force under Commander Foote in Protecting American citizens and property at Canton.
After a consultation with Commander Foote it was decided not to withdraw the forces from Canton. On returning to the city that same afternoon Commander Foote's boat, flying the American flag, was fired upon by the Barrier Forts but received no injury.
Commodore Armstrong than dispatched Commander Foote and Commander Henry H. Bell, Captain of the San Jacinto, to procure American steamers to tow the Portsmouth and Levant off those forts to redress this outrage to the flag. At daylight on the 16th the American steamer Cum Fa was sent to Canton to bring the marines, men, and launches belonging to the San Jacinto and the Portsmouth down to the latter vessel. Lieutenant Williamson of the San Jacinto, with cutter, armed crew, and pilot, was sent to sound out the channel up to the forts. He returned at noon and reported that he had sounded up to within a distance of less than half a mile from the forts when he was fired upon three times with grape and round shot, and that Coxswain Edward Mullen was struck and instantly killed.
Commodore Armstrong acted with promptness and vigor. As the San Jacinto drew too much water to go up the river and as Commander Smith had been left with a small force to protect the Americans at Canton, he placed Commander Bell of the San Jacinto in temporary command of the Levant and divided the crew of the former ship, with the exception of Lieutenant Williamson and a guard of some 60 men, between the Portsmouth and Levant. He then repaired aboard the Portsmouth accompanied by Fleet Surgeon Wood and his secretary, hoisted his pennant and, in tow of the American steamer Willamette (the Cum Fa towing the Levant), got under way and stood up the Whampoa Channel, anchoring the Portsmouth within 500 yards of the nearest fort, and put his ship in position for shelling.
The forts opened a brisk and well-directed fire upon her before she had come to anchor, which was returned with a rapid discharge of shells kept up until after dark. The Chinese fired exceedingly well and hulled the Portsmouth six times, but did no serious damage to her. The Levant’s position, she having grounded about a mile below, did not permit her to join in this attack. The largest and nearest of the forts was silenced early in the evening and the fire of the others became languid at the close of the action. The Portsmouth had one of her Marine Guard very seriously wounded. During the night the Levant was got off and placed in position, keeping her broadside sprung all the following day upon the forts. On the 17th the Portsmouth was grounded and after that day’s fighting both ships remained inactive and the forts silent.
Commodore Armstrong thought this a favorable opportunity to obtain an explanation of the cause of the unwarranted attacks on our flag and security that they should not be repeated, and returned to the San Jacinto, forwarding a communication to that effect to the Imperial Commissioner at Canton. Commander Smith with the remaining force from Canton joined the Levant and resumed command of her, Commander Bell remaining with the vessels off the forts to be of any assistance.
On November 19 Commodore Armstrong learned that the forts were strengthening their means of assault and having received no satisfactory reply to his protest to the Imperial Commissioner at Canton ordered Commander Foote to prevent this re-enforcement and to take such measures as his judgment would dictate, even to capturing the forts. Commander Foote obeyed these orders with his usual promptness as is shown in the following extracts from his letter to the Commodore dated November 26, 1856.
As there were no other means in my power effectively to prevent the enemy from strengthening his defences, I instantly determined to storm his forts and on the morning of the 20th both ships simultaneously opened fire on the two nearest forts which returned their fire for over an hour, when their fire slackened. The storming party consisting of 287 persons, officers, seamen, and marines, with 4 howitzers, commanded by myself, Commanders Bell and Smith leading respectively the detachments from the San Jacinto and Levant, then left the ships and pulled in three columns for the shore. The company of marines was most effectively led by Capt. Simms. In order to attack the forts from the rear it was necessary to pass through a village where we were fired upon but the streets were soon cleared by the howitzers. When near the first fort the garrison was seen fleeing and many of them swimming to the opposite shore. The marines being in advance opened fire upon the fugitives with deadly effect. The American flag was planted on the walls of the fort by a Lieutenant from the Portsmouth. As the fort opposite was playing upon us with some energy, the guns we had captured—53 in number— were brought to bear on it and soon silenced it. The city of Canton being only 4 miles distant a portion of its army, variously estimated at from 5,000 to 15,000, and which I believe to have numbered at least 3,000, was stationed near us. This force twice advanced but was both times repulsed by the marines and one of the howitzers.
This appears to have been the end of active resistance on the part of the Chinese, who left the forts to be demolished by the victors as described in the following notes from a journal kept by the late Captain George M. Colvocoresses, then a lieutenant and executive officer of the Levant:
On October 1, 1855, I received orders to join the Levant bound on a three years’ cruise to the East Indies. I was her Executive Officer when she cooperated with the San Jacinto and Portsmouth in the bombardment and capture of the “Barrier Forts,” near Canton City, an affair which will compare favorably with any achievement gained by the Navy during the war of 1812. These forts were four in number and mounted 176 guns and were well garrisoned by Chinese who had served for a long time on board the French Squadron. The following notes may not be uninteresting as they relate to the destruction of the forts after they were captured:
Nov. 24, 1856.—This morning I sent in my report of the damages received by this ship during the bombardment. She was struck by twenty-two cannon balls, twelve of which hit the hull and ten struck the spars and rigging. They were all large sized shot, and several of those which hit the hull pierced the sides. Two shots entered very near the water line—planks much splintered in wake of the shot holes—one shot entered ship’s side forward of No. 9 gun, hit the muzzle of the gun, and split it so badly as to be unfit for use. The National Flag, which was hoisted on going into action on all the masts, was struck three different times and was very much torn. A shot entered one of the Quarter Deck ports and after carrying away the breeching of the gun glanced off and wounded a sailor named Edward Riley so badly that his life is despaired of. Other mischief was done, but what I have already related will suffice to give a pretty correct idea of the situation of the ship on the occasion.
Nov. 26th.—Yesterday we knocked down about thirty feet of the eastern front of the fort nearest Canton and dug mines under all the piers between the embrasures and at dusk knocked off, all hands heartily tired and anxious to get something to eat. After supper we had music and those who felt like dancing amused themselves in that way. By nine o’clock all hands were asleep, but at ten the startling long roll of the drum aroused us from our happy slumbers—all hands instantly assembled at quarters, where we remained for a half an hour, the enemy not appearing. Again we retired to refresh our mental as well as physical powers, but at 2 a.m. the rapid firing of muskets, in the hands of our sentries, told us that the enemy was really coming, and we prepared to give him a warm reception but he paused at about fifty yards distance and after cheering us he retired, leaving behind him two scaling ladders, which we now have in our possession. We fired sundry times with howitzer and muskets but he did not fire back except a few rockets. This morning we turned out at daylight and commenced work again. All hands are much fatigued but there can be no rest for anybody until the destruction of the forts is completed. During the night the man Riley, wounded in the bombardment, departed this life and his remains were this morning sent down to the Flag Ship to be interred.
Nov. 27th.—Last evening we got ready to keep 0 the Fire-Ships which it was supposed the enemy would send down upon us after dusk, but he did not appear and upon the whole we passed a very quiet night. All hands feel now much refreshed. In the afternoon we changed the ship’s Position, so as to be nearer the field of operations. All the mines laid for blowing up the first fort were sprung about noon today and nothing now remains of it except a small portion of the North angle which will probably be destroyed in the course of tomorrow.
Nov. 28th.— The enemy allowed us to pass another quiet night. At 9 A.M. the remaining portion of the first fort was blown up and we are now engaged in undermining what is denominated the “Round Fort." It does not extend over so much ground as the one we have just destroyed, but its walls are higher and more massive. I must not forget to mention that we found in this fort one brass gun which excited our astonishment. It measured 22 feet 6 inches in length and 9 feet 4 inches in circumference, and its weight was estimated at 30,000 pounds. It was of Chinese manufacture and seemed to have been cast instead of being bored out.
We received today some provisions from Hongkong, which we needed very much, for since the difficulties the people here have not dared to furnish us with supplies or have any dealings with us whatever.
Nov. 29th.—At daylight the enemy appeared off the fort which was destroyed yesterday and fired off some muskets, but retired again when he discovered we were answering him back with our thirty-two pound shells. This is a terribly destructive weapon, and the time is not far distant when it will entirely supersede the solid shot. The mines laid under the second fort were sprung a few moments since and the result was as satisfactory as that of the first fort, it being completely demolished. Our operations will now be directed against the third fort.
Nov. 30th.—This day being Sunday all work is suspended.
Dec. 1st.—We feel much refreshed by yesterday’s rest and resumed our labors this morning with renewed vigor. Yesterday our consort, the Portsmouth, lost one of her marines by fever contracted while on duty at the forts. I am happy to say that our own officers and men continue to enjoy excellent health. Generally speaking, however, the climate here is not healthy, owing to the large tracts of low flat lands which form both sides of the river, and because, too, there is a great inequality in the temperature; the nights are frequently ten or fifteen degrees colder than the days.
Dec. 3d.—Today the fourth and last of the “Barrier Forts” was destroyed. A very sad accident occurred in the morning while trying to get ready one of the mines for blasting. A spark, produced by a blow struck with an iron bar against a stone, communicated with the powder in the mine and the explosion killed three men outright and wounded eight others four of whom belonged to the crew of this ship. One poor fellow will, I am afraid, lose his right limb. The other four men belong to the Portsmouth. The three who were killed belonged to the Flag Ship San Jacinto; they were buried the day following. It was sickening to see their mangled remains. One man had his head, both arms and legs blown off, while another had his face disfigured to such degree that none of his shipmates could recognize him. We all regarded the accident as the most sad thing that had happened during the operations and it will be a long time ere the gloom, which it cast over every ship in the squadron, is dispelled.
We subsequently managed to reach Canton by the Macao Passage and were on duty before that city until the burning of the “Factories,” when the European and American merchants retired to Hongkong and our services were no longer needed.
Thus it will be seen that this attack exposed us to much danger, as the Chinese fought remarkably well. But we also had during this cruise our full share of the perils of the seas. We got ashore several times on the Asiatic coast, owing to the shallowness of the water in those seas; and we narrowly escaped being shipwrecked on the north bank of the Yangtze-kiang.
It is gratifying to note that these efforts of members of the old Navy to uphold the honor of the Flag were appreciated in their day, though almost forgotten in ours, as is evidenced by the following extract from a letter addressed to Commodore Armstrong by the Navy Department on February 29, 1857, and published throughout the Squadron; and by the splendid General Order of Commodore Armstrong which I quote after it as a fitting finale. The letter read in part:
I approve, therefore, of the course pursued by you and those under your command. The brave and energetic manner in which the wrong was avenged is worthy of all praise. The gallantry, good order, and intelligent subordination displayed by all engaged in the various conflicts with the enemy; the precision and admirable success with which the guns were managed are highly creditable to the service. Be pleased, Sir, to communicate to the Officers, Seamen, and Marines the Department’s very high appreciation of their good conduct.
(Signed) J. C. Dobbin,
Secretary of the Navy
U. S. Flag-Ship San Jacinto, Whampoa, China,
Dec. 6, 1856.
GENERAL ORDER
To Commanders, Officers, Seamen, and Marines of the U. S. Ships Portsmouth, San Jacinto and Levant.
In the midst of peace you have been called upon to redress an assault upon the flag of your country. The necessity of such a step is much to be regretted by us all, though the manner in which your stern duty has been performed is so honorable to yourselves.
I should omit an act of justice to you, to those who have bravely fallen in the performance of their duty, and to the service to which you belong if I hesitated to make this official acknowledgement of the faithful and honorable manner in which all have borne their part. The embarrassment has been to check the earnest zeal with which both officers and men have sought to place themselves in the most daring and hazardous positions and to keep them at any duty, however necessary, which did not bring them in contact with the enemy. Among the satisfactory results of the conflict in which you have been engaged is the proof it presents of the intelligent subordination so generally exhibited in this emergency and also of the magnanimity which has enabled you, under aggravating acts, to respect the rights of the people whose authorities forced you into hostility and thus to do the highest honor to the flag you represent.
Your best reward is in the consciousness of having well done your duty; but, I should fail in mine unless in this public manner I conveyed to you my earnest thanks, with the hope that you will receive, as you have merited, the highest honor of your country.
(Signed) James Armstrong,
Commander in Chief of U. S. Naval Forces in East India & China Seas.
*Factory (from factor-agent) was the name given to a combined house and store by the British East India Co. and other China merchants.
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The repeated conquests of China by foreign invaders have left little or no impression on her ancient morality and polity, the conquerors having fallen instead into Chinese ways and forms. Thus, the last conquerors—the Manchus—have become even ultraconservative of Chinese traditions, while the true Celestials themselves are recruiting the reform parties.
The chief characteristic of Chinese society and the essence of Chinese morality is reverence for the past. Noting the fact that the present state forms have existed practically for 2500 years, and that within this time and under these forms untold millions have been enabled to lead a civilized and peaceful life, we shall cease, perhaps, to wonder at the canonization and worship of the originators of the system.—Reinsch, World Politics.