From August 3 to October 3
LATIN AMERICA
Revolution in Argentina. Although there had been warnings beforehand, including concentration of troops and war vessels, guard on the president’s living quarters, and mob disturbances in Buenos Aires, the complete abandonment of President Irigoyen of Argentina by the military forces, and his overthrow on September 6, came with surprising suddenness. On September 5, apparently as a temporizing measure, Irigoyen turned over the government to Vice President Martinez, though without actually resigning. But during the following night troops controlled by opposition military leaders marched into the capital and assumed political control. There was some violence on the part of mobs which raided Irigoyenista newspaper offices and political headquarters, but the total casualties from the coup d’etat numbered only thirty-two killed and some three hundred injured. President Irigoyen, though suffering from illness, fled to La Plata and took refuge in an army barracks, but was later held aboard a government cruiser. On September 8 General Jose Uriburu, chief of the revolutionary junta, took the oath of office as provisional president, pledging constitutional rule and new elections, though it developed later that constitutional changes were to be made which would postpone the elections for at least six months’ time. Within ten days thereafter the new government was recognized by the United States, Great Britain, and practically all other countries with which Argentina has commercial relations.
Irigoyen’s downfall, carrying with it the ruin of the Radical party organized around his personality and with the aid of which he had maintained himself in power for fourteen years, was attributed primarily to the hard times in Argentina due to a tremendous decline in exports, especially grains and meats. Politically, there had developed an increasing weariness of one-man rule, with corruption in public office, hostility toward Congress and the moneyed classes, and a narrow, unenlightened conduct of foreign affairs.
Leguia Overthrown in Peru. A political upheaval occurred in Peru on August 25 when President Auguste B. Leguia, who since 1919 had ruled the country with practically absolute power, was forced to resign and put to sea in a still loyal Peruvian cruiser. The revolution was carried through without bloodshed by a military junta headed by Lieut. Col. Luis Sanchez Cerro, who led the beginnings of the revolt at Arequipa and in the southern provinces. Opposition to Leguia centered on his ruthless method in carrying out policies looking toward Peru’s ultimate economic development, and his alleged favoritism toward American capital. American investments in Peru amount to about $250,000,000.
The cruiser on which Leguia escaped was recalled by wireless and the ex-president was later put on trial for peculation and other offenses, together with ex-premier Heros and numerous other former officials. The provisional government under Cerro was formally recognized by the United States on September 18, along with the new regimes in Bolivia and Peru, Secretary Stimson justifying his quick recognition of these governments set up by revolution on the ground that this action would tend to help American trade and relieve economic depression. American recognition was facilitated by the release on September 7 of Lieutenant Commander Harold B. Grow, U. S. Naval Reserve, of the American Naval Mission, who became head of the Peruvian air forces and had been despatched by Leguia on a bombing raid against Arequipa.
Other Political Disturbances. The epidemic of revolution which spread quickly from Bolivia to Peru and Argentina appeared threatening also in other Latin- American states. Uprisings were reported in Brazil in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, but were quickly though not authentatively denied.
WORLD COURT
Kellogg Elected Court Judge. Former United States Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg was on September 25 elected by the League Council and Assembly to serve as a judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice for the full term of nine years from January 1, 1930. He had previously been elected to fill the vacancy up to that date caused by the resignation of Charles E. Hughes. Fifteen judges in all, together with four deputies, were chosen by the Council and Assembly. Five of the judges selected had previously held the office, and two were former deputies. Three judges were chosen from Latin-American states.
Delay in Ratifying Court Protocols. Progress toward bringing about American participation in the World Court was held up when it developed in a League Committee that Cuba, alone among member-nations of the Court, had raised objections to the protocol revising the original World Court Statute of 1920. Cuba’s objections were apparently trivial, relating to the increased number of judges, increased expense, and also the new requirement that judges remain permanently at The Hague. Her stand nevertheless barred the way toward American entry, since the proposed changes are necessary to meet the conditions stipulated in the United States Senate reservations. No great regret at the delay was fdlt in government circles in this country, for there would have been little time to submit the question to the Senate before the end of the next session on March 4, and little prospect of favorable action if it were submitted.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
League Council and Assembly Sessions. The eleventh session of the League of Nations Assembly and the sixtieth session of the League Council opened at Geneva on September 10, in a general atmosphere of discouragement arising from world-wide economic depression, political uncertainty in Europe due to friction between France and Italy and the strong nationalist trend in the German elections, and revolutionary disturbances in China, South America, and British possessions. Nicolai Titulescu was elected president of the Assembly, and the first week of its session was taken up chiefly by speeches of delegates from the chief powers. Foreign Minister Henderson of Great Britain insisted on September 11 that England wanted definite progress toward disarmament before entering into further pledges or agreements for security, whereas Foreign Minister Briand, appealing on the same day and later for his scheme of a European union, with its inherent idea of mutual political guaranties, made it very clear that France still stands for security first, and in M. Briand’s own words “holds it her duty not to be a dupe, lest she in turn become a victim.”
Covenant and Kellogg Pact. At the opening of the Assembly, the British delegation, supported by France, Italy, and other powers, introduced a resolution calling for a committee to consider revision of the League Covenant in order to eliminate definite sanctions of war, and thus bring it into harmony with the Briand-Kellogg Peace Pact. This would call for changing Articles XII and XV of the Covenant by cutting out the right of a nation to “resort to war” three months after an arbitration decision, the right of a disputing nation to resort to war against an opponent who rejects a League Council decision, (c) the right of all League members to take such individual action as they may consider necessary if the Council fails to reach a unanimous decision in any dispute laid before it. This matter was referred to the first committee of the League, but there was considerable sentiment against any changes in the phrasing of the Covenant, especially on the part of Japan and some of the smaller powers, and it appeared highly unlikely that anything would be accomplished this year.
Aid to Victims of Aggression. The Assembly on September 29, after four years’ consideration, finally approved the draft convention providing financial assistance for states victims of aggression, and on October 2 it was signed by twenty-eight nations. Action on this convention was hastened by assurances from the British government of readiness to sign it, with the stipulation, however, that any nation in order to benefit by it must have fully accepted the treaty of disarmament which, it is assumed, will be the outcome of some future conference. It is estimated that the amount available for such assistance may be as high as $250,000,000.
British support for this measure was in line with the Labor government’s manifest enthusiasm for the cause of world peace, shown earlier in the ratification last August, by the United Kingdom and also the dominions, of the “optional clause” signifying acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of the World Court in all legal disputes.
Disposal of Pan-Europe Plan. At a meeting of the twenty-seven European powers at Geneva early in the Assembly session it was unanimously agreed that the question of a European union should be put on the agenda of the Assembly, thus carrying out the idea of those nations led by England which insist that the union must be an offshoot of the League and created by it. The Assembly proceeded to turn the matter over to a committee, consisting of representatives of the same twenty-seven powers, which was to report to the Assembly next year with a concrete plan for “closer collaboration” of European nations, acting in consultation with the League secretariat and non-European powers, and always with the stipulation of accord with League Covenant and ideals. M. Briand accepted chairmanship of the committee and Sir Eric Drummond, League secretary general, was made secretary. The first meeting is to be held in January, and study is to be based on M. Briand’s original memorandum and the comments of the governments to which it was sent.
LIMITATION OF ARMAMENT
Preparatory Committee Meeting. Despite the breakdown of Franco-Italian naval negotiations, Chairman Loudon of the Preparatory Committee for a Disarmament Conference recommended that another meeting of his committee should be held on November 3, and this date was approved by the League Assembly. There was considerable agitation among the delegates in favor of fixing a definite date for the disarmament conference next year, but according to the final phrasing of the resolution the preparatory committee was only called upon to complete its work in order that a general conference might be convoked “as soon as possible”—and this will almost certainly not be before 1932. From Washington came the announcement that Ambassador Hugh Gibson would again head the American delegation at the meeting on November 3.
Franco-Italian Naval Deadlock. On September 24 it was announced that negotiations which had been going on between French and Italian naval experts had again reached an impasse and had been called off, though there was still a possibility that the problem might be tackled once more by the diplomats. It was said that the Italians were willing to accept a 35 to 40 per cent superiority of French naval tonnage up to 1936, but insisted on a preamble definitely recognizing the principle of parity between the two navies.
Although there is an agreement between the two nations not to begin new construction this year, Italy is said to be advancing rapidly with cruisers already laid down.
Japan Ratifies London Pact. After long delay the special committee of the Japanese Privy Council which has been considering the London Naval Treaty on September 17 recommended its unconditional ratification; and the Council accordingly completed ratification on October 1. Contrary to earlier expectations, no rider was attached censuring the government for accepting the treaty in the face of opposition from the naval general staff. This point, involving the constitutional question of supreme command, was in reality the matter which chiefly occupied the time of the council. Failure to include the censure was doubtless due to the strong support for the Government’s action by press, court, and public opinion.
GREAT BRITAIN
The India Problem. Complete failure of the unofficial peace negotiations with Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders of the Indian nationalists became evident when the government announced in early September that the Mahatma’s demands included recognition of full dominion status for India, with admission of the right to secede, and the further stipulation that the Labor government should enter the October conference with this as its announced policy. Meanwhile acceptances from sixty-six Indian leaders to the October Round Table conference indicated that it would bring together representatives of all parties, races, and religions in India except the extremists of the Gandhi faction. The delegates include twenty-two Hindus, fifteen Moslems, and ten native princes.
The Imperial Conference. The imperial conference of prime ministers and other high officials representing all the states of the British Commonwealth of Nations, the last meeting of which was held in 1926, opened in London on October 1 with prospects that the session would continue for about six weeks. The agenda of the conference appeared under three general headings: (1) constitutional problems arising out of the new relationship of complete equality between the dominions and the United Kingdom, including plans for creation of an empire court to consider disputes between states of the commonwealth; (2) political problems of foreign policy and defense; and most important of all, (3) the problem of bringing about an economic union based on tariffs and preferential trade agreements to bind together the parts of the empire.
According to a press announcement of J. H. Thomas, British Minister of Dominions, the question of the right of the dominions to secede from the empire need not come up in the conference, since this right is admitted to be inherent in the position of equality in which the dominions now stand. “You cannot prevent a man from committing suicide,” said Mr. Thomas. But if this statement may be taken as truly representing the view of the British government, it is evident that the British Commonwealth of Nations is a very loose and precarious confederation. One may wonder what would now happen should the Irish Free State decide for secession. By General Herzog, premier of South Africa and its representative at the conference, this right to leave the empire has been frankly insisted upon, as a preliminary to economic cooperation. The work of the conference will be carried on in secret, chiefly in committees but with occasional plenary sessions.
GERMANY
Nationalist Swing in Elections. The German Reichstag elections held on September 14 resulted in sweeping gains for the extreme right Fascist party led by the ex-Austrian agitator, Adolf Hittler, at the expense of the Nationalist and Center parties. The Socialists nearly held their own as the largest party in the Reichstag with a total of 143 votes, while the Communists of the extreme left increased from 54 to 76. Most astonishing was the rise of the Fascists from 12 to 107 members. As a result of the large number of votes cast, the size of the Reichstag, which is based on the vote, will increase from 476 to almost 576 members.
Despite the weakening of the center parties, Chancellor Bruening decided to carry on with his present coalition cabinet, which with the support of the Center and the friendly attitude of the Socialists can hope for a majority of about 128 votes. In the event of a defeat in the Reichtag at the opening of its session in mid-October, the Chancellor’s plan was to call on President Hindenburg to adjourn parliament, and proceed to carry out his financial measures without parliamentary sanction. This might appear close to dictatorship, but, as pointed out in an article “Dictatorship in Germany” in October Foreign Affairs, Article 48 of the German Constitution provides that “if public safety and order is materially disturbed or endangered, the President may take the necessary measures…” Germany’s budget deficit and critical economic situation would seem to justify strenuous action, though dissolution of parliament is a long step away from democratic control. The Chancellor’s schemes for balancing the budget include a $150,000,000 loan, salary cuts for all government officials, increased tobacco tax, and a reduction in the unemployment dole.
Light on German Espionage. Echoes of the activities of German agents in America during the World War were heard in the testimony during September before the German-American Mixed Claims Commission, at The Hague, supporting the efforts of the American agent to justify a claim of $40,000,000 for injuries to American commerce and manufacturing during the period of American neutrality. It was admitted that Germans on interned liners had cultivated anthrax and tetanus germs for inoculation of horses and mules collected for export to the Allies, and there was considerable evidence connecting German agents with the Black Tom munitions explosion in 1916 and the explosion at Kingsland, New Jersey, in January, 1917.
SOVIET REPUBLIC
Soviet Dumping in Foreign Markets. Much excitement was aroused on September 18 by the revelation that the Amtorg Trading Corporation, American agency of the Soviet government, had engaged in heavy short selling of wheat on the Chicago exchange, thus contributing to the fall of wheat prices. Although described by Soviet agents as a hedging operation, with no design of driving down the price of wheat, the sales led to an investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture and the adoption of a rule by the directors of the Chicago board of trade against “selling of futures upon our exchanges by any foreign government.” News of the Soviet operations in this country was soon followed by reports of wholesale dumping of Russian commodities in the European markets—including not only wheat, but meats, hides, lumber, oil, and a score of staple products—at prices so far below market quotations as to suggest a deliberate aim to demoralize the markets of the capitalistic countries.
FAR EAST
Manchuria Enters Peiping. Coincident with the defeat of the Northern rebels in Shantung and along the Yellow River front, and possibly to prevent the menace of Feng’s Army retreating into the northern maritime provinces, the Manchurian dictator, Cheng Hsueh-liang, early in September entered definitely into the Chinese civil strife by advancing about 40,000 Manchurian troops southward into the Peiping area. Notice of this movement was given to Nanking, but it was also based on an understanding with the Northern rebel leaders, for the forces of Yen Hsi-shan turned over Chili province without opposition. Although the Nanking government professed satisfaction at Manchuria’s assumption of control in North China, it was significant that northern men were retained in the customs, telegraph, and telephone offices, with instructions from Mukden against their transfer to Nanking. Orders were also issued against the reopening of the Kuomintang party headquarters at Peiping. There appeared more than a possibility ot renewed warfare next spring to oust the Manchurian dictator from his hold on North China.
Defeat of Northern Rebels. By the close of September the defense of the Northern rebels in the Lanfang area and along the Yellow River front had completely collapsed. On October 1, Marshal Feng Yu-hsiang gave up his command on pressure from his subordinate generals, and the latter assembled their forces at Chengchow preparatory to turning them over to the direction of Nanking.
Attacks on Foreign Vessels. While the Nanking government was reestablishing itself by victories in the north, bandit and “communist” outrages continued with increasing violence in the Yangtze provinces. According to despatches at the close of September, fifty attacks on foreign vessels in the Yangtze river had been made in the preceding three months. American gunboats of the Yangtze patrol were repeatedly attacked by rifle fire and also by field guns in the middle Yangtze above Hankow. To an attack on September 25, the Guam replied with 300 rounds from machine guns, and the Luzon, flag of Rear Admiral T. T. Craven, has repelled several similar attacks. There has been slight or no injury to the American vessels.