The Elements Of Leadership
By Captain Dudley W. Knox, U. S Navy
In its broadest sense Leadership encompasses the entire profession of the officer; and is virtually synonymous with officership. But we are not here concerned with those aspects of the subject pertaining to "higher command." In a more restricted, and probably a better technical sense, Leadership relates primarily to the handling of subordinates; which is the paramount function of officers. Even in the multifarious duties connected with material, the officer's primary role is the handling of men who manipulate the material.
The practice of any art is facilitated greatly by knowledge of and skill in related arts. The dentist must know something of medicine and surgery; the seaman and the aviator require familiarity with meteorology, etc. So it is with Leadership. The leader of men is handicapped seriously without a good working knowledge of such arts as organization and administration. This is a necessary foundation for Leadership. Moreover, proficiency in leading men, as in all other forms of human endeavor, is immensely furthered by a knowledge of the governing principles. Once principles are mastered, sound practice follows inevitably. Ignorance of principles limits and retards tremendously the development of proficiency; it compels the practical man to grope and flounder; to learn only through laboriously repeated experience, which he can analyze and profit by only with much difficulty and serious waste of time. Principles serve as a compass—a practical means to point the direct course.
For these reasons it is considered that the most practical and helpful method of treating our subject is primarily to formulate principles; and then to give such consideration to their application as time will permit.
Principle I. A Leader Must Exercise Control Over His Subordinates
This is the basic principle; the need for which is too well understood to require argument. What concerns us here is how to get this control. In the navy, law and regulations provide ample authority for duly constituted leaders. But unless such authority is actually exercised, it is valueless. How often have we seen young officers and petty officers virtually impotent because they knew not how to exercise the authority which was theirs? Occasionally even old officers are seen who have failed to develop in themselves sufficient capacity for Leadership, and hence are unable to use their authority effectively and to control properly their subordinates.
To a great extent control over men is influenced by the leader's "military character," which will be discussed later. Organization is another important element, more especially as the number of men increases. But the basis of control is discipline. Subordinates must obey if the fundamental purposes of a military organization are to be accomplished.
Punishment is usually associated prominently with discipline. It is more logical to link it with indiscipline. The need for excessive punishment, in degree or frequency, is certain evidence of bad discipline; which can be corrected best, not by punishment as a primary agency, but by good morale established by a type of Leadership in which punishment plays a minor role.
On quiescent occasions the specter of punishment, however sorry a substitute it may be for good morale, may be adequate to obtain satisfactory obedience. But in battle, or other emergency—such as "man overboard," fire, collision, etc.—the mere ability to obtain obedience, through either fear or good will, is not sufficient; at such times of crucial test, obedience must be prompt to an extreme, virtually instinctive, if panic, failure, loss of life, or defeat, are to be averted and success achieved.
Instinctive obedience in crises cannot be obtained without enlisting the aid of habit; because under unusual mental tension the average mind escapes the ordinary rule of the will, and habits alone dictate conduct. However important the function of drills in promoting mechanical efficiency, such effect is of less value than of instilling a habit of obedience. The officer who fails to exploit this aspect of drills; who permits men to obey leisurely, to answer back, to be slovenly in bearing, etc., may possibly accomplish something towards improvement in mechanical manipulation, but the net result will be positively harmful, owing to the promotion of a habit of indiscipline—a habit which will cost lives in emergencies.
The need for instinctive obedience in order to save life and ships, and to win battles, is the great impelling reason for the ceremonies and conventions of military life; and for general "smartness" of every kind. These tend constantly to create a habit of subordination and obedience to proper authority. It may appear to be a stretch of imagination to contend that strict observance of the salute and other minor formalities will play an important part in meeting major emergencies successfully, yet it is a fact; because the habits thus formed by repeated daily observance promote in great measure that control without which disorganization and failure readily occur under stress.
It is said that until the first gas attack the Canadians of all ranks were impatient of and inclined to ridicule these seemingly petty conventions. Their bitter experience then, when a great number of lives were lost unnecessarily through the breakdown of military control, convinced them of the vital importance of tautness in minor military etiquette. Thereafter the Canadians made a fetish of such things and soon became a crack fighting army. The earnestness and thoroughness with which the quickly created American Expeditionary Forces observed the salute and other formalities undoubtedly contributed more than any other single factor in their early readiness for active service, and their excellent showing in battle. There can be little doubt of this fact when we contrast the superb performances of American troops in Europe, with the many disgraceful incidents in American history of which troops were guilty who scorned the apparent trivialities. When the Bolsheviki abolished the salute, the troops left the trenches and sold their artillery. It was only after the fallacy of their theories had been proved that the Bolsheviki resorted to the harshest discipline in Europe, and began to be successful.
The hand salute, the " sir," the cheery " aye, aye," standing at attention, piping the side, parading the guard, gun salutes, etc., are all marks of respect, subordination and courtesy, of the highest utility in promoting control through habit. It is not a trivial duty that every officer shall himself be punctilious in these matters; nor that he should take sufficient pains to keep others up to the mark. In view of the regulations and well established custom in these conventions, their neglect constitutes an act of indiscipline; which if repeated often will surely lower our cohesion and efficiency in emergencies, through the strong psychological influence of habit. To blink at these things is to train falsely.
On the other hand, there is danger in overdoing etiquette, ceremony and smartness, and of defeating their own ends by reaction. An overdose, psychological or physical, is frequently more harmful than an underdose. It is just as essential not to keep men standing at attention without sufficient reason, as it is to do so when proper occasion demands. Subordinates should not be expected, nor required, to salute when engaged in occupations requiring their concentrated attention; nor under unusual circumstances where its omission does not constitute obvious neglect. Tact and a sense of appropriateness are required. When the occasion calls for etiquette and ceremony, habitual and punctilious smartness should be insisted upon; but when they are out of place, informality and relaxation should be provided for just as carefully. The preservation of this balance is a mark of good officership.
The stabilizing influence of habit facilitates greatly the needful control over men's volition. Discipline, built up by habit, furnishes a strong impulse to obey orders from higher authority, when excitement in any form tends to undermine the mental control which men normally exert over their individual actions.
Habit serves the purposes of Leadership control in another way also. Occasions will arise when emotion is so strong as almost to eliminate volition and will power, and men's actions will become largely mechanical. Under such conditions habit will dominate their actions; they will automatically revert to the mechanical processes to which they have been habituated previously. For example, a well drilled gun's crew, under a fire so heavy as to upset their mental equilibrium, will continue to serve their gun in a purely mechanical way, much longer than will a gun's crew whose drill has been neglected. The mechanical habits established by conscientious drill may become of vital consequence to control in battle. Habit is then doubly essential as a stabilizer for control. It furthers control through discipline, while volition is active, and also through automatism, when actions become merely mechanical.
But when the emergency is great, or emotion from any cause is at its height (when the gun's crew gets panicky), habit alone cannot be relied upon to ensure adequate control; more especially when it becomes necessary to perform some act to which the organization has not been habituated. Under such circumstances a leader may require not only the emergency brake of habit, but also an accelerator; which will be at his command if he is proficient in the art of suggestion, and understands the elements of crowd psychology. Such knowledge will also be useful as an aid to control under normal circumstances.
Both for individuals and crowds the following conditions favor their responsiveness to suggestion:
(a) Highly concentrated attention on one subject.
(b) Monotony of external surroundings.
(c) Restriction of bodily movement.
(d) Fatigue.
(e) Emotional excitement.
If the suggestion to be made is for immediate action, the most effective manner of making it is by example, more especially the example of a recognized leader of high prestige. Oral persuasion or direction is useful, but not so effective as the example of immediate execution.
When the object is not one calling for the immediate action of the crowd, but is to impregnate their minds with beliefs, other means of suggestion are best utilized. Simple affirmation, free from reasoning is very effective; especially if repeated constantly, monotony of repetition being carefully avoided by interspersing a variety of other related ideas. In addressing a crowd the effect of the last impression given is much greater than any previous ones, and this fact should always be utilized.
Psychology is rapidly emerging from the domain of fakirs and becoming more and more the concern of those practical men whose work requires the handling of other men collectively. In these modern times no leader can be considered proficient until he is able to turn to practical account some of the well proven aspects of psychology.
Besides certain attributes of character in the leaders themselves, and good organization, the principle of control requires first of all good discipline, in attaining which habit is the most valuable aid; second, sufficient drill and training to induce excited men to perform their respective tasks automatically; and third, facility in utilizing the power of suggestion.
While it is essential that leaders shall establish mental supremacy over their men by the above means, in order to control them properly; it is equally necessary that such domination shall not be so prominent as to incur their constant instinctive resistance. It is much better that the control be achieved almost without the subordinates themselves realizing it. This can be made possible only through a condition of psychological harmony; which will itself react in furtherance of control.
Principle II. Psychological Harmony within an Organization Is Indispensable to Its General Efficiency
This is the second great principle of Leadership.
Whatever control is enforced over inwardly rebellious men costs undue friction and effort to overcome their hostility; and consequently the efficiency of the work in hand is lessened by the wasted effort involved. But, worse than this, repeated control in spite of covert opposition, forms a pernicious habit of insubordination in those so controlled, which inevitably will prove a serious menace in emergencies.
On the other hand, a condition of psychological harmony is a constant aid to the efficient performance of any task; and whenever such condition is habitual, it furnishes a most valuable means of inculcating instinctive obedience, and of creating the very highest state of discipline and general efficiency.
When we consider the importance of psychological harmony, together with the adverse influences of normal military and naval conditions—such as the surrender of personal freedom, the discomfort, hardship, and danger, and the many other detrimental circumstances familiar to all—it is apparent that this question requires constant attention, and proficient handling, if the officer is to be a successful leader.
(a) Justice in the exercise of authority is a basic element in psychological harmony. This truth is too well understood to require argument here. It is important to note, however, that what counts most in establishing the spirit of harmony is not the fact of justice prevailing; but a general belief that such prevalence exists. The justice must be obvious to all. Pains must be taken by leaders, without undignified advertising, to establish the conviction among their subordinates that impartial justice is a primary consideration in the exercise of authority over them.
(b) Understanding.—As a rule the men and younger officers lack conviction as to the genuine need for many of the apparently minor requirements of military and naval life. Without such conviction these things undoubtedly assume an aspect of imposition and sometimes even of persecution; and cheerful compliance with requirements is then impossible. To couple an excuse or an explanation with every order obviously is to weaken authority and control. Yet if men are kept habitually in ignorance of the purpose of their orders, a great incentive to a cheerful spirit is necessarily lost. They must be kept generally informed of events pertaining to their work and of the intentions of those in authority, if the human interest and good will essential to the best accomplishment are to be aroused and maintained.
Of course it is not always expedient immediately to inform subordinates fully of the reasons for orders. But pains should be taken to do so as early as practicable. Meantime it is of the utmost importance that officers refrain from habitual growling and impugning the motives of higher authority. This is a most pernicious practice which promotes serious misunderstanding and a spirit of mutiny.
Information pertaining to current work is not all that is needed. If men are to submit cheerfully and willingly to our somewhat annoying customs and conventions, they must first be convinced that these troublesome usages play an important and necessary role in naval efficiency. The good health of men crowded together on board ship requires scrupulous cleanliness both of person and of habitation. This obvious fact is overlooked by many thoughtless men unless their attention is drawn to it with some frequency; preferably supported by data. Neatness and orderliness are indispensable to coordinated effort; more especially under crowded conditions and in emergencies. Cleanliness and neatness both stimulate self-respect, without which men and efficiency degenerate rapidly. The role of etiquette, form and ceremony of all kinds, in creating and maintaining discipline—the lifesaver in emergencies—is more difficult to make men understand. But the pains needed to explain the underlying reasons for all these matters, so peculiar and inexplicable to the average recruit and even to many others, is more than repaid by the gain in psychological harmony.
Men must understand the objects and reasons for any troublesome effort, if they are to give a whole-hearted response to the demands made upon them.
(c) Comradeship.—Probably the most important of all the elements of psychological harmony is a spirit of comradeship. It is the surest antidote to the inevitable enmity felt by men reared in a democracy against what seems to them the despotic leanings of the military services. Strangely enough there has been less comradeship between American officers and men than between those of some European services. During the late war, the principal point emphasized by the British in the training of the large number of new officers was the imperative necessity for their establishing a bond of comradeship between themselves and their men. British practice in this regard perhaps would have a color of paternalism and patronizing that would be objectionable to American men. Nevertheless the principle is sound, and there is ever)' reason why we should apply it; adjusting our methods to suit the conditions confronting us. It is of course very essential to avoid undue intimacy and familiarity, which the men themselves dislike and which experience has shown to be so disastrous to discipline and proper control over men. The requirements of Leadership impose some degree of reserve on the part of seniors and appropriate deference from juniors. When these bounds are overstepped Leadership is undermined; yet if they are too inelastic the consequences are equally detrimental. Good leaders learn and follow a middle course; which is not difficult for officers who have acquired poise, self-possession and savoir faire, and who have a fraternal feeling towards their subordinates.
Those who really feel comradeship will give unmistakable evidence of the fact in the numerous ways in which feelings are manifested to others—by bearing, manner, tone, general expression, etc.—ways difficult to define but familiar to all. Officers should strive to foster by their own expression reciprocal feelings towards themselves by the men; and to avoid careless rebuffs to their subordinates, who are apt to be hypersensitive.
An active earnest practical interest in the general welfare of subordinates is essential to feelings of comradeship on their part towards seniors. A good officer will keep an eye on his men's mess, to see that they get good food well served. He will be watchful that excessive work is not required of them without necessary cause; that through accident or design they are not deprived of money, leave and privileges which are their due; that unnecessary discomfort or other aggravating conditions are not imposed upon them; that they are not punished unjustly; that they have adequate opportunity and means for healthful recreation, etc. In these and many other things the officer must exercise foresight and take the initiative to safeguard the general welfare of his subordinates; many of whom through ignorance or diffidence will refrain from making reasonable protests, yet will harbor feelings of dissatisfaction and resentment against annoying circumstances.
Furthermore, a good officer will not hold himself too much apart from his subordinates—be they officers or men. Nothing contributes so much to a proper spirit of comradeship as a degree of sociability; more especially when combined with courtesy, cheerfulness and humor. Subordinates should be talked to, frequently, in a friendly human way, and not treated as though they belonged to a different species. A kindly "good morning" with a few words of personal interest goes a long way towards maintaining a spirit of comradeship.
It is also highly important that a directly personal relationship be established with each subordinate. Each one should feel that this individuality is not submerged into the impersonal mass of the organization; but that his own self is a distinct personality in which his seniors have a direct human interest. The daily work will offer ample opportunities for this; but it can be done most effectively whenever men are in trouble, or desire a special favor. A keen personal interest exhibited at such times solidifies the personal relationship in an amazing way. Such a relationship makes it possible to handle successfully those with incorrigible leanings, and to command the good will and comradeship of all, to a degree that is otherwise impossible.
(d) Recreation.—A reasonable amount of recreation is normally essential to the mental well being and contentment of men; especially when they occupy positions of but little responsibility. It is an important part of a leader's function to provide diversion of a form sufficiently interesting to serve as recreation for their subordinates. The peculiar conditions of military and naval life frequently deny men opportunity for ordinary kinds of recreation, and at times unduly attract their attention to pernicious amusement. A good officer will be active and resourceful in devising and providing means for healthful, interesting recreation for his men, and will encourage their participation in it. Some tact is required on his part in guarding against too much paternalism, or too great a color of officialdom, both of which are distasteful to men in matters of recreation. If the means and opportunity are provided at the men's own suggestion, so much the better; but in any event the officer should keep in the background once any particular form of recreation is well started.
Justice in the exercise of authority, Understanding by subordinates of the reasons for the requirements and orders of higher authority, a Spirit of Comradeship between all ranks and ratings, and adequate Recreation, are four primary factors in the principle of psychological harmony. This principle is closely affiliated with that of control, the first one considered. They afford each other mutual support and furnish a good groundwork for leadership of men. But these are not all of Leadership; otherwise we might be content to command a herd of cows, in which control and psychological harmony are normally developed highly. With organizations of men, idealism or some other kind of inspiration is indispensable, if great achievement is to be counted among their capabilities. This leads us to the third principle.
Principle III. Some Degree of Emotional Inspiration Is Essential to the Highest Efficiency
The old prejudice against "too much contentment" has its origin in a belief that marked contentment can exist only as the result of slackness, and therefore of inefficiency. There is some ground for this belief; but only in cases where the officers are deficient in the art of Leadership. With good leaders the most efficient organization is the most contented; a combination accomplished principally through various forms of emotional inspiration, the most important of which will be discussed below.
(a) Interest is a great stimulus to effort and achievement. When interest flags efficiency necessarily depreciates. When interest is aroused and maintained at high pitch, capacity for work and for accomplishment is greatly enhanced. A common method of killing interest is by unwarranted interference in the province of subordinate officers and petty officers. Both their province and their pride must be respected if their interest is to be sustained. Many ways of exciting and maintaining interest will suggest themselves to the resourceful leader; but most important of all is for him to exhibit repeated evidence of his personal interest in the endeavors of those under him. The influence of interest upon successful achievement is so great as to require the studied attention of leaders.
(b) Self-respect lies at the roots of all the higher instincts, and furnishes a foundation for the kind of inspiration a leader needs to give to those under him. Without a man possess self-respect no appeal to him, except of the most sordid and selfish origin, will awaken any higher response. A military organization composed of such men would surely disintegrate, unless held together by the most iron discipline based on fear and spoils.
It is almost universal practice to stimulate the development of self-respect by requiring men to keep themselves and their surroundings clean and neat; to maintain a smart carriage and manner; and to comport themselves respectably. This has a sound basis in the peculiar psychological principle that what attributes men habitually pretend to have they will actually acquire. Progress is doubtless often slow and imperfect, but nevertheless is real; and when assisted by public opinion and stimulated by the force of example it is usually rapid. Herein we see the reason for the emphasis laid on these seemingly trivial, but really very important, matters in all highly efficient services. Through generations of experience they have learned this fundamental lesson.
All ranks and ratings would doubtless take kindly to the necessarily irksome and constant task of keeping up external appearances, if they appreciated better the genuine need for it. The profound influence of example, and of the opinion of others, in these matters imposes upon officers the important duty of themselves setting a good example of neatness, smartness and deportment; and of creating general opinion within the service in support of high standards in these respects.
A good leader will studiously avoid assailing the self-respect of his subordinates; by requiring lowering duties of them, by his manner towards them, or in other ways. He will on the contrary seek every means and occasion for developing their self-respect.
The pleasurable feeling of self-satisfaction and the human to the of pride furnish excellent self-respect builders. Praise and reward when merited, if utilized with judgment and moderation, are very useful to increase men's pride and satisfaction in their work and in themselves. It is good practice to be punctilious about giving due credit to men who have performed a special task well. Many other methods of fostering pride and self-respect will suggest themselves in the course of routine duty to officers who desire to make the most out of this method of giving needed inspiration to their men.
(c) Esprit de corps is based on collective self-respect; which furnishes a higher form of inspiration than does individual self-respect, because it is less selfish.
The relationship between esprit and loyalty is exceedingly close. One cannot exist without the other; they progress hand in hand. We cannot have adequate cohesion or coordination without loyalty and we cannot have effective loyalty without esprit de corps.
Good tradition is a great aid to esprit and is too much neglected in the navy; which should profit by the superior example of the marines in this respect. Men and officers should be made more familiar with the notable deeds of their predecessors in the navy, and in their own ships, or ships of the same name.
Competition offers one of the most useful means of stimulating pronounced pride and esprit de corps. Good leaders make it their habit to introduce the element of competition whenever practicable; between gun crews, boat crews, turret crews, divisions, watches, ships, or any other units which organization or circumstances shape into the semblance of a "team." Competition is all the more effective when successful efforts result; but even when a unit is frequently beaten its benefits will not be lost if officers take pains to point out evidences of improvement and to give encouragement for better efforts in the future.
When recruits are being handled, either in competitions or in ordinary work, the repeated suggestion that they are making constant progress has an excellent effect in creating esprit and in promoting the desired progress. Necessarily some criticism cannot be avoided with inefficient men, and it is a mistake to fail in frankness with them; but the practice of offering them nothing but criticism, more especially when couched in such tone or language as to offend their self-respect, individually or collectively, is ruinous to esprit, and is a certain indication that the officer so doing is not a leader. It is essential that a habit of pride and confidence be created; and this can be done only by repeated praise and encouragement.
An organization permeated with a firm belief in its own abilities is stimulated to undertake cheerfully much more difficult and daring tasks and to exert greater efforts to accomplish them, than if such confidence was lacking. Obviously, then, esprit is an element of great military value. It is important for leaders to understand that esprit is an abstract conviction of excellence, rather than the concrete excellence, and has a strong coloring of vanity in it. Men must be made to believe in their organizations' efficiency; probably to a greater degree, but certainly no less, than is justified by the facts.
Esprit can also serve many commonplace uses. It is said that at one period the higher command of the American Expeditionary Forces in France were greatly concerned over the serious congestion of the roads due to disregard of the traffic regulations. The ordinary road signs appeared to have no effect and the only solution seemed to be to increase greatly the traffic police force, at the expense of the trenches. A free use of the sign "Play the game!" posted near the traffic signs, proved an effective solution of the difficulty. The success of this simple appeal was due to the high esprit and loyalty of the American Expeditionary Forces.
Another example of utilizing esprit, while at the same time stimulating it, is given by the following quotation from a sign posted conspicuously near the gangway of a destroyer tender:
"Yes, you can have it. If we haven't got it we'll get it; if we can't get it we'll make it. What is it?"
To a marked degree esprit de corps is a measure of the spirit of the officers. None but they can create it; only they can easily destroy it. It is no unimportant part of the duty of officers to build up their organization spirit by studied suggestion at every opportunity, and by unremittingly scrupulous example.
The inspiration resulting from esprit has an important bearing on all forms of efficiency, and is cumulative in its effects. Esprit promotes special endeavor and therefore high efficiency. Successful achievement in its turn creates pride in, respect for and loyalty to one's organization, and hence still higher esprit.
(d) Patriotism.—Considering the oath taken by all officers on accepting their commissions, there can be no question but that officers who refrain from inculcating high patriotism in their subordinates commit a grave breach of faith and moral duty. This is obvious; but what is not so clear is that such neglect also denotes inefficient Leadership; in that the important source of inspiration to be found in loyalty to a high cause is not utilized.
Loyalty to a cause is the highest and most effective form of emotional inspiration. It will spur men on to undertake more difficult tasks, to exert greater efforts, to endure greater suffering, and to make greater sacrifices than any other incentive. The higher the cause, the more idealism it embodies, the greater will be the incitement. Excepting religion, there is contained in patriotism the highest and most idealistic cause that can animate man. Past history abounds in examples of the extraordinary inspiration due to patriotism. The future will offer an even greater impulse; since recent events have demonstrated that nationalism must survive if anarchy is to be avoided, and the greatest good to the greatest number is to be ensured. Such a cause is capable of inspiring the highest loyalty.
Even if neglectful of his moral duty actively to promote and foster patriotism among subordinates, an officer who is a good leader will not fail to utilize patriotism as an instrument of leadership. An appeal to patriotism, where it can be used appropriately, will rarely fail to bring spontaneous response; once loyalty to the country, its institutions, and its ideals has been firmly established in men's hearts.
The American officer is prone to be diffident before his men about so sentimental a thing as patriotism, and to take it for granted that their patriotism is sufficient for the practical needs of the navy and Leadership. Considering the youth of our men, their heterogeneous racial character, and the great amount of Bolsheviki and other pernicious propaganda that has been disseminated recently, it appears to be necessary for officers to undertake seriously the inculcation of patriotism.
Loyalty to any cause presupposes inner conviction of its justice and efficacy, and firm belief in the ideals for which it stands. Our men must be made to understand that the sane development of American institutions is the hope of humanity, and that such development is not possible unless stability and security are afforded the country by an efficient army and navy; which are under a solemn obligation, at all costs, to safeguard and further the country's interests at home and abroad whenever called upon to do so.
A valuable means of promoting patriotism is offered by inspiring tradition, in which American naval, military, and political history is rich. Few of our men are sufficiently familiar with this history to cause a pronounced feeling of patriotism towards the country. They should be thoroughly acquainted with the inspiring facts; and if the best results are to be obtained these should be brought to their attention repeatedly, because repetition is one of the strongest factors in creating a habit of thought.
Above all officers themselves must set an example of fine patriotism; scrupulously respecting the flag, and taking every occasion, by word and deed, to stand for America.
Patriotism, together with Interest, Self-respect and Esprit de Corps are four principal agencies through which men receive the inspiration needed to meet adequately the unusual exigencies of military life. An equally important element of inspiration is the example of the leader, but since this factor is very potent in all other aspects of Leadership it assumes the importance of a cardinal principle.
Principle IV. The Leader’s Example and Character Are the Most Potent Elements in Leadership
In exercising Control, in creating Psychological Harmony, and in inducing a needful measure of Emotional Inspiration, the value of the example of the leader can hardly be overestimated. This is largely due to the fact that his position renders him so conspicuous that every act constitutes a suggestion to others; and the influence of repeated suggestion upon crowds is very great.
The leader should personify the principles for which he stands; the captain or executive who lies abed until noon cannot expect the ship to be cleaned in the morning watch. If officers are slack their subordinates are sure to follow suit; if they practice what they preach, the struggle to make subordinates live up to the same principles is furthered tremendously.
In addition to the example of conduct, bearing and appearance which it is so necessary to set, one who aspires to be a leader must possess certain attributes of character; developed to a much higher degree than is required for proficiency in lower ratings. Before proceeding to a consideration of these character attributes, it is well to reflect that character development is a slow and tedious process requiring persistent effort. The earlier it is begun the greater will be the ultimate development.
The subject of military character is too broad and complex to be treated fully within the scope of this paper. All that can be attempted here is to furnish an outline upon which a reflective officer may formulate an adequate conception of the attributes most needful of development in his own particular case.
The essential qualities of character required by leaders segregate themselves naturally into three principal classes.
1. Basic attributes of individual efficiency.
2. Attributes pertaining to cooperation.
3. Combative qualities needed to cope with an enemy.
Let us consider these in sequence.
1. Basic Attributes of Individual Efficiency.—If the respect and confidence of subordinates are to be commanded, a mind which is to think for and direct them should be an efficient mind; and this means developed mental capacity in many respects. The decision which precedes every order should be a sound decision; it should have a background of good knowledge and memory; and should be based on accurate observation and reasoning processes, both of which presuppose well developed powers of application and concentration. Very often decisions must be made quickly; hence a capacity for quick thinking is exceedingly useful to officers Many circumstances require good imagination if due foresight and resourcefulness are to be exercised; imagination is the great creative agent and needs to be highly developed in officers. A correct decision will frequently need the quality of understanding, which has its origin in judgment and a sense of proportion and reality. Finally the officer must possess a strong will, so that he will surely order done what his mind tells him is the correct decision, and will adhere to such decision in the face of subsequent obstacles.
The foregoing qualities of mental capacity should be combined with high ideals. "Honor, virtue, patriotism, and subordination" are prescribed by custom and regulations; to which should be added high ideals of loyalty, justice and duty. An intellectual rogue is as undesirable in a military organization as a stupid saint. An officer must embody the reverse combination if his individual efficiency is to meet the requirements of his position.
2. Attributes Bearing on Cooperation.—It is not enough that each officer or man shall possess only those attributes which render him individually proficient. In armies and navies one of the most prominent and governing conditions is that great numbers of men are thrown into close association, and that their efforts require to be harmonized and coordinated if success is to be attained. Minor friction between personalities may readily prevent due cooperation, and reduce the capacity for useful collective effort to a dangerous minimum.
First let us consider a group of cooperation qualities which may be generally classified as Social Attributes. The fundamental basis of harmonious association with others is Charity; which is manifested by unselfishness, sympathy, consideration, and tolerance. Besides charity the quality of Sociability is of great use in promoting harmonious association. Sociability includes civility and a sense of obligation to the community; it is promoted further by amiability and volubility, and to a marked degree by sprightliness, cheerfulness, and humor. In addition to Charity and Sociability human experience demonstrates that a degree of Polish is essential to the permanence of harmonious association. One cannot be too unconventional without giving offence to some who may misunderstand his motives and intentions. Good manners are a much safer and more rational rule of intercourse, since they have a universally accepted meaning. Polish also presupposes sufficient savoir faire to give a degree of assurance and tact without which sociability is marred greatly. The foregoing Social Attributes embodied in Charity, Sociability and Polish are indispensable to harmonious intercourse and cooperation.
Another class of attributes bearing on cooperation may be grouped under the heading Personality. Foremost in this class is personal magnetism, which is probably less susceptible of cultivation than any other quality of military character. Yet its development is so important as to call for special efforts. Poise and prestige are also needed to round out a good military personality, and their acquisition will also further the development of personal charm and magnetism. Poise and prestige go a long way towards creating in the minds of subordinates a belief in the leader's fitness to command them.
The third group of qualities needful in cooperation may be called Expressive Attributes. Obviously a leader must express to his subordinates clearly and effectively his ideas and orders if his men are to interpret them accurately, intelligently, and coordinately. A leader should be at ease when talking to a crowd, and be able to express himself with facility, either orally or in writing. Otherwise it will be impossible to get into other heads what is inside his own head, and coordination necessarily will be hampered.
Coordination is one of the cardinal factors of efficiency in every field of naval and military activity. The three groups of character qualities considered above, Social attributes, Personality, and the Expressive attributes, all have a vital influence upon a leader's ability to get cooperation among his subordinates.
It is necessary to consider, finally, the
3. Combative Qualities Needed to Cope with an Enemy.—Hostile operations require first of all that leaders be pugnacious.
Pugnacity implies a degree of arrogance towards an enemy. It includes courage; which normally is not so much a question of character as it is a product of conditions—feelings of confidence in strength and efficiency, high morale, etc. Pugnacity presupposes great determination; together with self-reliance and decision. It includes abundant activity, as well as boldness, dash and ardor.
The great balance wheel to pugnacity is Steadiness. Coolness and clear-mindedness under tension are especially desirable in 00A who must make the responsible decisions. To carry plans through in the face of inevitable discouragements there are required hopeful buoyancy and much patience; besides highly developed endurance—both physical vigor and mental persistence. All these give steadiness.
Pugnacity with steadiness combine the principal combative characteristics, essential to cope with an enemy.
This completes the necessarily brief outline of the qualities most desirable in the military character.
Let us sum up the elements of Leadership. The basic principle is:
I. A leader must exercise control over his subordinates. Control requires first of all, discipline—i.e., instinctive obedience—and second, mechanical drill.
These agencies facilitate control not only in ordinary circumstances but also under the adverse influences presented by emergencies ; and are established primarily through the medium of habit. A third factor in control is the proficiency of the leader in utilizing practically the power of Suggestion.
It is necessary that a leader shall establish supremacy over his subordinates through the above means; yet equally necessary that their inner hostility be not incurred. A paradox is avoided through the second principle, namely,
II. Psychological harmony within an organization is indispensable to its general efficiency.
Such harmony is obtained primarily through (a) a general belief in the prevalence of justice; (b) understanding on the part of subordinates of the need for the troublesome requirements of naval life and current work; (c) a spirit of comradeship, avoiding undue familiarity, between all ranks, and (d) adequate provision for interesting recreation.
The principle of psychological harmony is allied closely to that of control. They afford each other mutual support, and together furnish a good foundation for Leadership. Yet a third element is necessary, to avoid apathy and to supply an impulse for special effort.
III. Some degree of emotional inspiration is essential to the highest efficiency.
The most valuable agencies at the disposal of leaders, to give needful inspiration, are (a) interest, which may furnish a strong incentive under all circumstances; (b) self-respect, which is at the root of all the higher feelings; (c) esprit de corps (collective self-respect), which supplies constant inspiration for special effort and achievement by an organization; and (d) patriotism, a cause to which all can give the highest loyalty.
A capable leader will develop and make use of all these inspiring aids to the highest efficiency of his subordinates, and will utilize also to the same end the influence of example. The importance of the latter is so great in its bearing upon all three of the preceding principles as to constitute a fourth cardinal principle of Leadership.
IV. The leader's example and character are the most potent elements in Leadership.
The force of the leader's example results from his being so conspicuous that his bearing and actions become constant suggestions for imitation by those under him. The example set necessarily depends to a great degree upon the leader's character. Military Character has three primary subdivisions: (1) Attributes of individual efficiency, whose principal components are ideals and mental capacity; (2) qualities bearing on cooperation, which comprise social attributes, personality, and expressive ability; and (3) the combative attributes, which are a compound mainly of pugnacity and steadiness.
A thorough understanding of the foregoing principles, together with facility in their practical application, is required of any officer before he can fulfill his primary role of a leader.