PROFESSIONAL NOTES
Prepared by Lieutenant W. B. Jupp, U. S. Navy.
ARGENTINA
Protest New Barred Zone.—A number of Argentina newspapers consider that the extension of the German barred zone to include the trade routes between South America and Europe is an unfriendly act toward that country. The papers renew their demands that the government sever relations with Germany.—N. Y. Times, 12/1.
GREAT BRITAIN
Big Inland Harbor Planned by Britain.—For a considerable time there have been reports that the British Board of Admiralty had had before it definite plans for a big ship canal to join the firth of Clyde to the west coast of Scotland. These reports are now confirmed. They provide for a canal from the firth of Forth to Loch Lomond and thence out to Loch Long, an offshoot of the firth of Clyde, and so to the open sea. The Mid-Scotland Ship Canal National Association has been informed that the Admiralty is disposed to favor the Loch Lomond route on naval grounds. The association has been working hard for a long time past in favor of a canal by another route altogether.
At present the Loch Lomond route seems to be most in official favor. This route would take the canal from the firth of Forth, as far up as that estuary is navigable for large vessels, by way of low-lying ground to the southern end of Loch Lomond. The northern end of Loch Lomond is only separated from Loch Long by two or three miles of land, and it would be an easy matter to cut through these two or three miles and join the inland loch to the sea loch, and so to the firth of Clyde.
In order to make the waterway capable of carrying large war vessels it would be necessary to raise the level of Loch Lomond by about 22 feet and a number of locks would be required between Loch Lomond and Loch Long, as well as elsewhere on the canal. It would not be by any means a sea-level canal, and therein would lie one of its principal disadvantages.
The "direct route," on the other hand, would be from Grangemouth to a point on the River Clyde a few miles below Glasgow, and by it a canal would be on the sea level. No locks would be necessary anywhere, but there would have to be a "Seagate" at either end, so that the rise and fall of the ocean tides would not affect the level of the canal. The Mid-Scotland Ship Canal National Association claims for this route many advantages as compared with the route by way of Loch Lomond. It would follow very largely, if not almost wholly, the line of the present Forth and Clyde barge canal, which in its turn follows the natural valley which joins the firths of Forth and Clyde. It would pass through or near the majority of the most important industrial areas in the Scottish midlands, and its western end would be right in the middle of the great Clyde shipbuilding area, to which war vessels could be taken from the new naval base at Rosyth for overhaul or repair.
Loch Lomond is a large and beautiful stretch of water, and if its level is raised by 22 feet it will provide sufficient depth for the largest of warships. It is likely that the authorities have in their minds the conversion of Loch Lomond into a great inland naval base, from which war vessels could emerge to either coast, as they might think fit. There is something remarkably attractive in the idea of having great squadrons of British battleships, battle cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers and submarines moored in absolute safety away up among the highland hills, far from the dangers of the ocean and also from the dangers of enemy attack, but ready at any moment to slip out either to the Atlantic or the North Sea. There is nothing impracticable in the idea, while there are no insoluble engineering difficulties.—Washington Star, 27/12.
Sir John Becomes Peer and Is Succeeded by Second Sea Lord.—London, December 26.—Vice Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss has been appointed First Sea Lord, in succession to Admiral Sir John R. Jellicoe, according to an official announcement issued this evening.
Vice Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss was appointed Second Sea Lord of the British fleet last summer. He has a distinct reputation as a fighter of the first order throughout the British Navy. He was born in 1864.
He took a foremost part in the Jutland battle and acquitted himself admirably. He comes of one of the old conservative families of England, being a son of the late J. H. Erskine Wemyss, of Wemyss Castle, Fife. He entered the navy in 1877, was made a lieutenant in 1887, a commander in 1898 and captain in 1901. He was commander of the Royal Naval Barracks in 1911 and 1912, rear admiral of the second battle squadron in 1912 and 1913 and was an extra equerry to the King.
Vice Admiral Wemyss represents the old aristocratic element. As Second Sea Lord he was responsible chiefly for the appointment of the personnel of the navy, and he was undoubtedly taken as first assistant to Admiral Jellicoe because of his knowledge of men and his reputation as a fighter.—N.Y. Herald, 27/12.
New British Warships.—M. Rousseau, the naval expert of the Paris Temps, writes that on a visit to the yard of the Fairfield Ship-Building and Engineering Company, Ltd., Goven, he saw, with wonder and amazement, "the extraordinary dimensions of certain new British warships, beside which the size of the Queen Elisabeth and Tiger would seem very modest." Although complete discretion was observed, he adds that as to actual size one need only to remark that the slips on which these two earlier vessels had been laid down had to be enlarged to realize that the new types were bigger than the old.—Nautical Gazette, 3/1.
What British Ships Carry.—Ninety-one per cent of the tonnage of British ships is now reserved for war munitions, grain and other government supplies. Seven per cent is reserved for cotton, canned goods and other essential shipments. The remaining 2 per cent is unrestricted.—Marine Journal, 12/17.
More Men for British Navy.—A supplementary estimate issued on November 26 provides for the addition of 50,000 officers and men to the navy during the current financial year. The original number voted for 1917-18 was 400,000, so that, with the increase now asked for, the total strength will be raised to 450,000.
At the outbreak of war the establishment stood at 151,000 of all ranks.—Army and Navy Gazette, 12/1.
British Name Naval Board.—The new Admiralty Board is announced officially. There is nothing sensational or dramatic about the list of names, and only one naval member of the board was not serving at the Admiralty when Admiral Sir John R. Jellicoe was the head. He is Rear Admiral Sydney R. Fremantle, who becomes deputy chief of staff to Vice Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss, the new First Sea Lord.
Archibald S. Hurd, the naval critic, in commenting on the new board, says it is apparent that no revolutionary disturbance of the main lines of the naval policy is indicated. He adds that behind the new board is the reorganized war staff, for which some of the most brilliant younger officers have been chosen.—Washington Post, 13/1.
Nearly 10,000 Lives Lost on British Merchant Vessels.—It is announced that the number of lives reported as lost on British merchant vessels owing to enemy action from the beginning of the war until June 30 last is 9748.—Marine Engineering, January, 1918.
GERMANY
New German Cruiser.—On September 15 a Berlin telegram reported that a large cruiser had been launched at Danzig that day, and named the Graf von Spee, after the admiral who commanded the German ships in the action off Coronel, and was lost in the Falklands battle. Prince Henry of Prussia made the baptismal speech, and the widow of the late admiral, Countess von Spee, christened the vessel.—Journal United Service Institution, November.
New German Submarines.—Early in September news from Copenhagen stated that Germany was in possession of a number of submarines of a new type, 340 feet in length, with a tonnage of 1500. It was said that they carried 40 torpedoes and a large number of shells and mines.—Journal United Service Institution, November.
Larger German Submarines.—According to advices received in this country from abroad, the impression prevails among British naval officers that the Germans have designed and constructed and are about to place in action an underwater craft of increased power, capable of vastly extended radius of action and endurance, with the expectation that these vessels will be capable of enlarging their zone of operation to American waters.
It is understood that the new submersibles are considerably larger than the Deutschland and can store enough oil to carry them 9000 miles or more, while they also can carry an abundant supply of torpedoes.
Moreover—and this is not their least important feature—the living quarters have been greatly improved. Each member of the crew has almost double the amount of cubic space that could be allotted in the earlier types, the ventilation is superior, and the broad decks enable the men to take exercise. It is doubtful if life on board a destroyer would be any more comfortable than on such a submarine.
That such a big, ocean-going submarine may prove an awkward customer is admitted, but it will not become particularly formidable until in the open sea, and even there the boat will not be as immune as the Germans seem to think. A submersible craft, whether a tiny coastal boat or a 3000 tonner, is subject to the same inherent limitations. If the boat is detected when submerged, the large one is equally at the mercy of the various devices that were devised for the destruction of the small boat, and the large one is under the same disadvantages during the brief interval that must elapse between changing from submersion to surface trim.
German writers lay great stress on the formidable armament of the new U-cruisers, which are reported to carry 6-inch guns, and they assume that with such an armament such a raider may boldly come to the surface and accept an artillery duel with any armed merchant ship or even with a destroyer. However, in the first place, it is doubtful whether 6-inch guns have been mounted on any underwater craft yet built, for there are technical difficulties to be overcome in connection with the mounting of really heavy guns in the submarines, and the best-informed authorities do not accept the German stories on this point.
It might be possible to devise an arrangement to carry a gun of 6-inch bore, but it would have to be a short, low-velocity weapon, which would be inferior in range to the standard 4-inch gun. It is well to remember that the latest 6-inch gun is more than 25 feet in length; also that the gun and its carriage are very heavy.—Washington Post, 6/1.
Germany's New U-Boats—A Spanish Description.—On the supposition that anything throwing light on the construction and equipment of Germany's submarines will prove of interest, we publish a brief description translated from a Spanish weekly. The article makes the astonishing statement that the latest type of U-boat can go around the world without having to replenish its fuel supply—a statement which can hardly be accepted as authoritative. The article follows:
"The latest large German under-seas boats are so well equipped that they are able to go around the world without having to replenish the fuel supply for their motors. The motor engines on these new U-boats have been so improved and have developed such a horsepower that they are in every respect equal to the type of engine now installed on fast cruisers.
"Other nations do not possess, so far as known, this novel and intricate class of engines, for they have been unable so far to connect up more than 1000 horsepower double-phase or quadruple-phase motors in 6-cylinder units, and to secure at the same time absolute safety of operation combined with the maximum speed and power of endurance. The combustion motor is just as capable of being kept in motion and of having its speed accelerated when under as when above water. The combustion gases are passed over a composition of calcium, whereby they lose their water and carbonic-acid contents. To the passive elements of these combustion gases there is then added so much oxygen as is necessary for perfect combustion. Naturally this oxygen has to be taken aboard in a very compressed form, and for this purpose flasks are used. In this method of propulsion a battery composed of flasks filled with oxygen takes the place of a storage battery.
"It can be easily seen that this system possesses no inconsiderable advantages as regards weight over the method of propelling submarines by electricity.
"However, the most important thing of all is that an almost noiseless motor has been created. Enemy vessels equipped with the most effective underwater sound detectors and such as will give warning of the approach of a vessel driven by ordinary motive power, even while it is a great distance off, and perhaps invisible, will pass by a submarine proceeding under water without being aware of the presence of the undersea boat. On the other hand, a German submarine, even when under water and not making use of its periscope, is promptly notified when a vessel is near at hand.
"Mention should also be made of the fact that thanks to the latest improvements, namely, through the employment of oxygen-flask batteries, the interior of a submarine is made a much more pleasant place of sojourn for those on board. They are no longer obliged to suffer from having to inhale poisonous vapors, combustion gases, and oil exudations, which formerly made life on a submarine almost intolerable, especially in cases of long cruises under water, or of enforced submersions for safety."—Nautical Gazette, 27/12.
Additional Secrets of the Super-Zeppelins.—With the dismantling of the Zeppelin L-49 which was forced to land at Bourbonne-les-Bains and captured practically intact by the French on that eventful day when five or more German air raiders came to grief, further details concerning the construction and equipment are now available.
It is understood that the present intention of the French authorities is to exhibit the more interesting parts of the L-49 at the Invalides in Paris, where so many war relics and trophies have been exhibited since August, 1914. Later the reconstruction of the gigantic German dirigible will be attempted; this task, it is now believed, will require several months of painstaking effort. At any rate, the dismantling operations have brought to light many details which were overlooked in the preliminary inspections of the craft, just after it had landed on a hillside.
The framework of the present super-Zeppelin contains three distinct varieties of aluminum, namely, pure aluminum, aluminum alloyed with zinc, and duralumin. The last-mentioned variety is a well-known alloy of copper, manganese, and about 93 per cent aluminum; and although its weight is about equal to that of pure aluminum, it has three times the tensile strength. The framework of the L-49 has been estimated at 600 feet in length, 75 feet extreme diameter, and with a capacity of 55,000 cubic meters.
Along the bottom of the huge bag runs a triangular-shaped passageway walled in by a light metal framework, with its apex at the top. The gas bags fold over the triangular framework of this passageway, so that anyone passing through it is virtually surrounded by the gas bags on two sides and the aluminum framework and outer covering, surmounted by the footway, underneath. This gangway or "cat-walk" forms the keel of the big cigar-shaped bag, and serves to connect the various power plants and gun platform of the Zeppelin, with the forward or commander's quarters. The passageway is usually quite dark; but the footway is provided with a hand rail, while at intervals along the framework members small disks of radium paint serve clearly to mark the way. Indeed, control dials and sign boards in the main passageway and the branch passageways are provided with radium dials and characters, making the use of dangerous lights unnecessary.
Aside from affording a means of communication between various parts of the aerial leviathan, the "cat-walk" serves as sleeping quarters and as storage space. The sleeping quarters are represented by a number of hammocks supported a few inches above the outer fabric cover, to one side of the pine board-walk. Fuel tanks and ballast tanks are suspended from the framework on either side of the board-walk, and it appears that the bombs are also supported in the passageway. The fuel reservoirs are aluminum cylinders of 300-liter capacity, and are suspended in groups of two or three. Means are provided for readily releasing these tanks through trap doors in the bottom of the passageway, in the event that every pound of weight which can be spared has to be dropped to lighten the Zeppelin so as to ascend rapidly. Tubes connect the fuel tanks with the engines in the nacelles below, and aside from the main fuel tanks a number of others, not piped to the engines, are kept on hand as an emergency supply.
The ballast reservoirs which replace the former sand bags are made of waterproof cloth and provided with an aluminum spout at the bottom. Each ballast unit has a capacity of 1000 liters of alcoholized water, and it is of interest to note here that the freezing of this liquid ballast prevented the L-49 from making for the higher altitudes to escape hostile battle-planes, after the gas supply had become seriously depleted through long flight. The ballast reservoirs are suspended from the framework of the "cat-walk" by means of steel cables.
Four nacelles house the engines—two laterally suspended near the center of the airship, and one near each end. The rear nacelle carries two motors, one of which is an emergency unit. In the former description of the L-49 the statement was made that each nacelle carried two engines which could be employed singly or in tandem in driving the propeller. This statement, it now appears, only applies to the rear nacelle, all the other nacelles being provided with a single engine and propeller. Each engine is rated at 240 horsepower, making a total of 1200 horsepower for the airship. Each propeller measures 5 meters in diameter. The nacelles, which are more or less egg-shaped, are occupied mostly by the engines, and it is reported that little space is left for the tenders; in truth, the crew in this respect are working under conditions no more enviable than sailors aboard a German U-boat.
The front nacelle is divided into two compartments, the forward or commander's quarters provided with sliding plate-glass windows in front; and the rear or engine room. The commander's quarters appears in one of the accompanying illustrations, and it will be noted that all the controls of the huge airship are centered here. Among the instruments appearing in the view are a compass and the steering wheel in the center, the bomb-sighting apparatus at the right, with a tank of compressed oxygen just below, and the commander's parachute rolled up at the left. By means of a keyboard the cargo of bombs can be dropped one by one, while a battery of electric lamps shows which bombs have been released. A signal telegraph permits of instant communication with the various engine rooms.
That the present super-Zeppelin is a vast improvement over its predecessors is evident from a study of its lifting power, which is said to be 60 metric tons. This is distributed about as follows: Framework, 30 tons; two middle nacelles, 2 tons; two end nacelles, 4 tons; fuel for 24-hour flight, 7 tons; equipment and accessories, 1 ton; 19 passengers, 1 ½ tons; bombs, 2 tons, making a total of 47 ½ tons. This leaves a margin of 12 tons of lifting power, which is ample for all navigating conditions.
The crew comprises 19 men and two officers, who are posted as follows: Two in each of the middle nacelles, three in the rear nacelle which contains two engines, and four in the front nacelle. The remaining members are placed in the passageway or "cat-walk," where they take care of the ballast tanks or snatch a few hours' sleep until called upon to relieve other men. The crew of such a craft, it goes without saying, must be composed of exceptional men—men who can withstand extreme cold, lack of oxygen, and constant nervous strain.—Scientific American, 22/12.
U-Boats under Separate Bureau.—All imperial decree prescribing for the duration of the war the formation of the new section in the German Imperial Navy Department to be called the U-Boat Department has just been published, according to an Amsterdam dispatch to Renter's. Limited. The new department deals solely with U-boat affairs, which heretofore have been handled by the dockyards section of the Navy Department.—N. Y. Herald. 17/20.
German Mutinies.—More trouble in the enemy naval forces is reported. It is a curious thing that discontent in a military nation usually appears first in the navy. The Russian Navy is the latest example of this, the mutinies on the Black Sea warships being the first serious forerunners of successful revolutionary movements. Why this should be true is not clear. But possibly it is due to the fact that a warship is a separate unit: and that, once a crew is organized for trouble, it can pretty well pursue its own course. From the outside, it would seem as if a post on the Kiel fleet would be about as tempting a position as exists to-day in the armed forces of Germany. There is a minimum of danger and a maximum of leisure.—Montreal Star.
German Naval Gunnery.—Russian newspapers recently to hand give interesting details of the naval engagement in the Gulf of Riga, arising out of the German attack on the Oesel, Moon, and Dagoe islands. It appears that the Russian battleships Slava and Grazdanin (ex-Tzarevitch) were engaged by a German dreadnought division, consisting of four ships of the Kaiser-Koenig class. The enemy opened fire at a range of 15,000 meters on the Russian ships, and upwards of 200 12-inch projectiles were discharged without scoring a single hit. Observing the ineffectiveness of their fire, the Germans closed the range to 12,000 meters, which was just beyond the range of the antiquated guns mounted in the Russian squadron. Out of a large number of salvos fired at this reduced distance the Slava was hit by two 12-inch shells. She sustained no vital injury, but a conflagration was caused, and under the vigorous German cannonade it was impossible to get it under. In the end the commanding officer of the Slava ordered the sea-cocks to be opened, and the ship went down with her colors flying, after the entire crew, including the wounded, had been transferred to destroyers. The Grazdanin was also hit several times, but was not seriously injured. Towards the close of the action the German ships came within range of the heavier Russian guns, which registered several hits. In this unequal action the German gunnery appears to have been very indifferent.—The Engineer, 7/12.
Terrible Conditions in Towns of Germany.—Chancellor von Hertling made his first appearance as a member of the Prussian cabinet in the Prussian upper house on Tuesday to support the housing bill. He said the conditions which had grown up around the large German towns and industrial centers were such as might fill the members of the house with serious anxiety, real pain and occasional sorrow. Not only had the maintenance of repairs to houses been impeded and the increase of housing facilities become almost impossible, but the government desires to provide homes for returning soldiers which will be adequate and healthy.
Dr. Dernburg, speaking on the same bill, said that the conditions in the large towns were terrible and must be abolished. The decline in the number of births had been very great and the mortality of children under 12 months had been still worse.—Evening Star, 17/1.
German Doubts U-Boat Success.—Captain Persius, the German naval writer of the Berliner Tageblatt, takes a rather gloomy view of the submarine situation in his article of November 8. He says General Hindenburg on July 2 predicted that "the war is won for us if we withstand enemy attacks until the submarine campaign has done its work." The only thing lacking, comments Captain Persius, is the submarine "work." Captain Persius says there seems to be little proof that England is being starved, making the trite remark:
"Just as the German people does not allow itself to be starved straight away, so it is with other peoples," and then he observes: "It may hardly be assumed that a scarcity of food will induce England to sue for peace in the next half year."—Washington Post, 23/12.
Von Tirpitz Full of Gloom.—A gloomy picture of Germany's future was painted by Grand Admiral Von Tirpitz in his recent speech in Essen, according to the Hamburg News. Regarding a successful economic war against Germany after the war, he said:
"Imagine the position if we simultaneously have to bear the burden of taxation which must fall on every German and, despite the fallen value of German money, we still have to buy the most necessary food and raw materials from abroad. Can anyone in his heart of hearts really believe that in these circumstances, without an increase of power, without indemnity and without security, we could avoid Germany's ruin?"
Germany's plight at the hands of England he bemoaned as follows:
"Not only has England taken our colonies and Mesopotamia, but everywhere she has made deeper and firmer bases for her maritime and colonial supremacy. She has tarnished and trodden down the prestige and honor of Germany by unprecedented calumnies. In the whole transatlantic world we are considered as conquered and done for."—Baltimore Sun, 29/12.
New Krupp Plant in Switzerland.—According to a dispatch from Geneva, Switzerland, the Krupps have opened a branch factory at Lucerne with a capital of $7,500,000. Among the directors are Arthur Krupp and Counsellor Ernest Hauer. director of the principal Krupp factory at Essen. The Swiss law demands that when new enterprises are established in Switzerland their objects shall be set forth; and complying with this the company declares its purpose to be the fabrication of arms, cannon and munitions of war; the acquisition of factories, mines and metals, and also their sale. There is evidence that Germany realizes that the concentration of her munition and armor plants in the Essen district, which is only some 40 to 50 miles from the German frontier, is a permanent risk; and during the war, particularly during the latter phases, she has been developing large munition factories at points more remote from danger.—Scientific American, 29/12.
Promises Kind Treatment for American Prisoners.—The following statement has been issued by the Wolff bureau, the semi-official news agency in Berlin:
"The report is published from American headquarters that the Germans intend to treat American prisoners systematically worse than British, French and Italian prisoners, and is based allegedly on an official German statement that Americans are hard of understanding and unable to conduct themselves like gentlemen. Such an official statement was never made.
"American prisoners will be treated just as kindly and considerately as all other prisoners."—Evening Star, 9/1.
JAPAN
Japan's Single Aim.—While the eyes of the world are at present directed to United States shipping operations in the North Atlantic in rushing supplies and troops from this country to France to help win the world war, a glance at what is going on in the Pacific is enlightening, to say the least. In 1914. For example, our trade with Japan amounted to $158,000,000 in value. Of this, $81,000,000 worth was carried in Japanese vessels. In the year just closed, our trade with Japan had increased to $338,600,000, while the amount of exports and imports carried in Japanese vessels was $529,000,000. In other words, vessels flying the Japanese flag carried all of our trade with Japan in 1917 and $200,000,000 of our trade with other Far Eastern countries.
Anyone who has observed the Japanese policy in regard to her merchant marine since the outbreak of the European war is aware that that government has pursued without a single deviation the policy of creating a great merchant marine which would enable Japan to participate largely in the future control of the world's trade when the war is over. To this end ships to fly the Japanese flag have been built as rapidly as possible, and from the beginning of the war Japanese shipping has side-stepped the war zone. The Japanese steamship lines have not been commandeered by their government as have ours, and when the war is over they will be ready to go right on, while readjustment must be made in the United States from government to private control—another disadvantage for American shipping added to the many it is already laboring under when brought into competition with foreigners under normal conditions.
As a result of Japan's wise shipping policy, the Japanese Steamship Company announced recently that its capital will be more than doubled in the near future, from $22,000,000 to $49,000,000, and that it has plans in hand for building 50 vessels, mostly freighters, aggregating some 400,000 tons. It is the purpose of this company to extend its American and European passenger services, which plan is made possible by a permanent subsidy to be received from the Japanese Government. The increased capital will be in effect in March. Were we making the most of our present opportunity, similar announcements by American steamship lines would be forthcoming.—Maritime Journal, 12/1.
PORTUGAL
A Mutinous Outbreak on the Portuguese Battleship Vasco de Gama was checked by artillery fire from a fort in Lisbon harbor after the warship had fired a few shots at the land battery, according to a government announcement, January 9.
The crew in part was landed and disarmed, surrendering to the army and the republican guard, and government forces later gained possession of the battleship.
Measures taken to insure the maintenance of order are declared to have been effective. The statement issued by the government reads:
"The Vasco de Gama having left the .Santos docks against the government's formal orders and having taken a position in the Middle Tagus before Fort St. George, a battery in the fort opened fire on the cruiser, which replied with a few shots and then hoisted the white flag. Parts of crews of other ships landed some men from the crew who, after being disarmed, surrendered to the republican guard and the army on Commerce Square and at the naval arsenal.
"The government took immediate measures to insure the maintenance of order and the Vasco complied. The latter now considers the prevalence of order completely assured.
"The Vasco de Gama is already in the government's hands."
A revolution occurred in Portugal early in December, the government capitulating to the rebels after three days' fighting during which 70 persons were reported killed and between 300 and 400 wounded. A new government was formed under Dr. Paez, the revolutionary leader, and President Machado, of the republic, was banished. The movement appears to have been prompted by dissatisfaction with the alleged inefficiency of the old government. There had previously been numerous strikes and riots attributed largely to food scarcity and high prices, and any monarchist influence in the uprising was denied. The new government pledged itself to continue cordial support of the cause of the Entente Allies.—Baltimore American, 10/1.
UNITED STATES
Naval Vessel Construction.—Little has been done at the Navy Department in the matter of preparing new designs for warships of the larger classes, besides the accumulation of information derived from the experiences of the allied fleets that will be valuable when that work is taken up. This is because of the fact that the greater part of the naval construction next year will be confined to building destroyers, minesweepers and other small craft, which can be completed and placed in service in a shorter time and for which there is a continuing demand in the plans for meeting the submarine menace.
It is considered to be more advisable to adhere to this policy and suspend all work on the larger vessels, which will be pushed to completion later on when the rush of work on the smaller craft lessens.
Everything in the way of ship construction is being standardized as far as possible, in order to simplify the work and expedite completion. As rapidly as destroyers are placed in service and fitted out, they are being sent abroad, and in this connection officers that have commanded the older destroyers in foreign waters are returning to this country to take out the latest types.—Washington Post, 23/12.
The Destroyer Building Program is making rapid progress. Through an agreement with the Shipping Board priority has been obtained for destroyer construction, the Navy Department in return affording priority for the construction of larger merchant ships, supplying ways and slips and permitting a delay in the building of larger naval vessels authorized by Congress. Parts of destroyers are being built in plants in all parts of the country, shipped to certain destinations when completed and there assembled, thus making possible the more rapid construction of the boats. The navy has not been seriously affected by the labor situation, which is causing distress to some industries. It is said that the navy yards have twice as many workmen employed now as they had a year ago, and that during the last six months they have made shipbuilders out of mechanics who before were not fitted for the construction of ships. Plants for the building of destroyers are being erected at several places, consisting chiefly of additions to existing plants, and it is hoped to have these soon in operation.—Shipping, 15/12.
U. S. Submarine Fleet.—Chairman Padgett of the House Naval Committee, says that within a year the United States will have a submarine fleet as good as that of Germany or better.
"The number of submarines now under construction is a naval secret," he said, "and all that can be said is that the 138 which are being built under the authorization of the program of August, 1916, are only a part of the whole number."—Evening Star, 18/1.
Submarine Chasers to be Completed by March.—Although the submarine-chaser program of the Navy Department has been delayed by slow delivery of engines, it was stated to-day, it will be completed by March 1. When the contracts were let it was believed the work could be done by January 1.
The number of boats involved has never been made public. A considerable number are already in service, however, some of them having been turned over to France and most of the remainder are more than 85 per cent completed. No more are to be built as they are regarded as useful only for inshore work.—N. Y. Herald, 15/1.
United States Navy.—Surveys of possible aviation, submarine and navy yard sites south of Cape Hatteras and in the Gulf of Mexico, including Key West, recently were made by the navy-yard commission, of which Rear Admiral James ]M. Helm is chairman, and a final report of this commission, which also during the past year has investigated suitable locations for naval purposes in practically all sea-coast parts of the country, will be submitted to Congress some time this winter.
In its preliminary report, the board expressed the opinion that immediate steps should be taken to improve the navy yard at Charleston, S. C, so as to permit full utilization of its docking and repair facilities for work of all kinds within the limits of the capacity of the dry dock and the depth of the water that can be maintained, without undue annual expenditure, in the channel approaches from the sea.
Notwithstanding occasional damage from hurricanes, the board indicates the desirability of using the Pensacola yard as an aeroplane station, for which purpose it now is being employed. It is practically closed as an industrial yard for general service of the fleet, but the board recommends its additional limited development as a base for submarines and destroyers.
The board does not favor the development of the station at New Orleans as a first-class naval base, but believes that it has possibilities as a naval station for the repair and maintenance of light-draft vessels operating in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, especially as a base for submarines, destroyers and auxiliary vessels in time of war.—Washington Post, 17/12.
New Record by Destroyer.—A new record for sustained endurance has been established by one of the new "flush-deck" destroyers, the Navy Department announced, January 16.
The voyage was from a Pacific to an Atlantic port and occupied 10 ½ days, the average speed being 19.15 knots. A new record also was set in the construction of the destroyer, only 51 weeks elapsing from the laying of her keel to the date of launching.—N. Y. Times, 17/1.
Secretary Daniels on the Naval Flying Corps.—In his report to the House Sub-Committee of the Naval Affairs Committee as well as in the discussion which followed. Secretary of the Navy Daniels gave the following information regarding the expansion of the Naval Air Service:
The increase in the naval aircraft material has been approximately 1400 per cent: in personnel, 3000 per cent; in stations and training schools, 3200 per cent, and better results are steadily obtained. An estimate of 10,000 machines and 5000 aviators is well within the correct number to be expected for next spring.
The naval aircraft factory at Philadelphia which was completed within 90 days, is about 400 feet long and has a floor space of approximately 140,000 square feet. It is expected to produce something like 1000 machines a year of the smaller type, or perhaps one-half that number of the larger type, when in full operation. In addition to relieving other manufacturers for army work, the naval aircraft factory will conduct experimental work. The production end will also supply the navy with correct figures as to the cost of machines and so protect the service as to expenditures.—Aviation, January.
U. S. NAVY
Praises Bureau of Navy Ordnance.—The war activities of the Navy Department, especially the preparations made by the Ordnance Bureau, under Rear Admiral Ralph Earle, arc told in detail, so far as is consistent with military policy, in a statement made, January 13, by Representative William B. Oliver, chairman of the special committee investigating the work done by the navy in the war. The statement is based to a great extent on the testimony given before the committee in executive session by Rear Admiral Earle and Commander Thomas A. Kearney, assistant chief of the bureau.
Representative Oliver prefaced his summary of the accomplishments of the Navy Department with the statement that the committee had been so impressed by the activities of the Ordnance Bureau that it had directed him to make a summary of what had been ascertained in the hearings, most of which were held behind closed doors.
Since the war began the expenditures of the bureau have increased from $3,000,000 a year to more than $560,000,000, and the experts have been called upon to develop new materials and inventions. More than 1100 vessels, the statement says, have been equipped with armor and armament since the fitting out of the Campana, on March 14, 1917.
While the Ordnance Bureau of the War Department refused to approve the Lewis gun, the navy's Ordnance Bureau conducted a test of this weapon in April, 1917, and as a result ordered several thousand of these guns. The second detachment of marines which left for Europe was entirely outfitted with the Lewis gun, and "recent reports from the war zone indicate that this gun is giving entire satisfaction."
Representative Oliver's summary of the important activities of the navy follows:
The importance of the readiness and adequacy of the navy's ordnance cannot be over emphasized. Upon this efficiency depends the success of our overseas operations. Guns that will shoot straight, shells that will penetrate the thickest armor, powder that is dependable are the essential requisites of naval supremacy. Ships and men without guns and ammunition are useless.
The bureau, so far as could be learned, has fully satisfied the demands made upon it by the vessels operating in European waters. A letter from Vice Admiral Sims compliments the work and spirit of the Ordnance Department. Other officers in the war zone, writing in similar vein, have given like testimony.
As a preliminary to its hearings, the committee visited the offices of the Bureau of Ordnance and personally examined into the organization and operation of the bureau's administrative details. The committee was most favorably impressed with the business organization, capacity, and capabilities of the bureau to handle expeditiously and efficiently the important war work that comes under its immediate cognizance—the procurement of guns, mounts, shells, powder, fire-control instruments, and the numerous accessories required in the arming of our naval forces.
The organization of the bureau in time of peace had been developed so as to make it an organization for war, with the result that, notwithstanding the enormously increased demands and responsibilities recently placed upon it, that organization is working smoothly and efficiently, notwithstanding the fact that the expenditures have increased from about $3,000,000 to more than $560,000,000. It has gradually been augmented by taking into it retired officers, officers of the naval militia, officers of the coast-guard service, former graduates from Annapolis, and able men from civilian life as needed.
Despite the pressure placed upon the bureau by the demands for more ordnance material of standard type, it has been able to develop much new material, including large depth charges, new submarine bombs, non-ricochet shells, bomb-dropping sights, howitzers, guns for throwing depth charges, smoke-screen apparatus, heavier ordnance on aircraft, and many other important designs which the bureau feels it unwise to disclose, and made much progress on essential articles of lesser importance.
Where there were shortages in the market of various materials, the bureau took steps immediately to develop new sources of supply. It placed contracts rapidly, and the committee is confident that the navy's needs for ordnance during this war are fully covered by existing contracts and with the capacity now under its control.
Over 1100 vessels have been furnished and equipped with guns, ammunition, spare parts, and all their auxiliaries since the fitting out of the Campana, the first ship to be so fitted out, on March 14, 1917.
Reserves of ammunition and shell have been acquired; and money placed at the disposal of the Bureau of Ordnance, the committee finds, has been spent wisely and has been obligated practically as soon as it became available. The testimony convinced the committee that the prevalent belief and opinion as to the navy's readiness was well founded. The Bureau of Ordnance had for years been preparing for war.
Guns, mounts, shell, powder, and ordnance equipment in large quantities had been manufactured and held in readiness for eventual use. With the declaration of armed neutrality, guns and ammunition were promptly placed on the merchant ships of the United States. Upon the declaration of war, telegrams long held in readiness were put on the wire and the wheels were in motion—without a jar the machinery took up the load placed upon it. There has been no breakdown, no let-up. On the contrary there has been increasing speed and greater momentum.
New capacities have been developed for the production of gun forgings and the larger types of broadside gun mounts; firms that prior to the declaration of war had been engaged solely in commercial work have been induced to specialize in ordnance production with most gratifying results. Practically all the contracts made by the Bureau of Ordnance have been on a fixed-price basis as the result of competitive bidding, less than 10 per cent being on a cost plus a fixed-profit basis ; cost being as defined by the internal revenue act, and the profit being per pound of gun forgings, or per gun, or per mount.
The navy's industrial ordnance plants have been and are being expanded as rapidly as practicable without interfering with their production. The results of much of this expansion will be felt this spring in the increased deliveries of all types of ordnance material. Without direct control of the gun factory, torpedo station, naval proving ground, powder factory, and ammunition depots, the work accomplished would have been impossible.
It may be pertinent to here state that the bureau has furnished in appreciable quantities the governments of England, France, and Italy with guns from the largest to the smallest caliber, together with proper supplies of ammunition therefore, and is continuing the supply of such munitions to our Allies. In addition to vessels of the regular navy of our Allies, it has armed a considerable number of their merchantmen.
Anticipating the needs of the naval service and Marine Corps for additional machine guns, the bureau wisely conducted a test of the Lewis machine gun early in April, 1917, with a view to definitely determining its serviceability when using the United States small-arms ammunition, and as a result of this test, placed an order for the manufacture of several thousand of the guns. Each company of marines leaving for foreign service has been provided with its proper quota of machine guns, the second detachment being entirely outfitted with the Lewis infantry machine gun, and recent reports from the war zone indicate that this gun is giving entire satisfaction.
Depth charges, which the committee thinks may be properly termed "the terror of the submarine," have been produced in quantity, and are in use by our destroyers and submarine chasers. An adequate reserve of ammunition for all classes of guns has been accumulated, and is held in storage ready for the use of the fleet.
It was especially gratifying to note that the skill, ingenuity, and inventive resources of the bureau have been productive of new designs demanded by the present methods of modern warfare. Advantage has been taken of every suggestion, irrespective of its source. Intimate contact has been established and maintained with the ordnance bureaus and fleets of the allied nations, the greatest freedom of interchange of information and material being the order of the day. The relationship with army ordnance, Signal Service, Aircraft Production Board, and the Shipping Board has been most intimate and cordial.
The committee was gratified at the executive ability shown by naval officers placed in charge of industrial work. As an illustration, the bureau found it necessary to commandeer a plant producing binoculars and other optical instruments for the navy. Under the former management this plant produced but 168 standard binoculars in two months, whereas during the first two weeks of operation under navy management it has produced 600 satisfactory binoculars for the use of lookouts and for spotters.
The committee made special inquiry as to the damage done to torpedoes at the Bliss works. It ascertained that no torpedoes or damaged parts had found their way into service, that spare parts for torpedoes, such as gyro wheels, had been tampered with, but this was promptly detected by the naval inspector of ordnance and a close watch was maintained upon these articles, with the result that the perpetrator of the damage, one Paul Charles Hennig, a native of Leipzig, Germany, who had been in this country since 1908, has been arrested and is now awaiting trial.
Slight cuts by files had been made in the glass-hardened steel bearings for gyro wheels, and in other cases emery had been placed in bearings and bearing cups. Some fifteen gyro wheels in all were damaged. Exhaustive inspections were made of naval torpedo material, with the result that none of the damaged parts is in any completed torpedoes, either in storage or on board ship.
The committee found that, despite the necessity of placing large emergency orders for material, every effort has been made to insure reasonable prices.
The committee was supplied with full information of how many attacks of submarines upon armed merchantmen had been warded off by the ships' gun crews using the battery with bravery and skill and was given the details of certain engagements of special interest.
The arming of merchantmen and the use of other devices, including sailing in convoys, while doing much to keep down our percentage of losses, are not all that can be desired as a check to the submarine menace. The committee was furnished with the names, tonnage, and armament of all vessels under the American flag engaged in transatlantic trade, together with dates and incidents of all encounters with submarines. The record of attacks on our armed merchantmen shows a comparatively small percentage were successful and that the chances of escape when a submarine is sighted, before she has time to fire a torpedo, are very high, due to the efficiency of the navy personnel.
The unseen torpedo is responsible for 80 per cent of the sinkings.
Admiral Earle referred to the estimates which the secretary had furnished the committee for certain projects that will increase the efficiency of the navy's Bureau of Ordnance, and when these needs are provided the committee had unquestioned faith in its ability, its officers, and personnel to meet the growing demands and responsibilities which the war has imposed upon them.—N. Y. Times, 4/1.
Naval Increase.—Secretary of the Navy Daniels, in testifying before the sub-committee of the Naval Affairs Committee, declares that the navy now has more than 1000 ships in commission as against 300 two years ago, and an enlisted personnel of 280,000 officers and men compared with 64,680 men and 4376 officers when America declared war.—Literary Digest, 5/1.
Naval Expansion.—Some idea of the efficiency of the Navy Department and how it has met the extraordinary demands of the present war crisis can best be gained from the utterances of the Secretary of the Navy in his annual report and before the investigating committee of Congress. From a force of 4500 officers and 68,000 men enlisted in January, 1917, the navy has expanded to 15,000 officers and 254,000 enlisted men. Further expansions are inevitable. A year ago the navy had 130 stations of all kinds; it has now 363. The number of employees at regular navy yards has increased from about 35.000 to over 60,000. On shore and afloat the naval establishment embraces more than 300,000. At the beginning of the fiscal year 1917 the monthly expenditures for all naval purposes were about $8,000,000 (£1,640,000); they are now about $60,000,000 (£12,300,000). A year ago there were 300 naval vessels of all kinds in commission; to-day there are considerably more than a thousand. These typical figures sufficiently indicate the task the navy has had to accomplish in the way of expansion.
The ability of the navy, without friction or hurrying, to bring to bear its military force rapidly and to increase it threefold in a short time, is credited by the Secretary of the Navy to the system that had been built up in peace times and to the securing before the war of a larger building program extending over a term of years, as well as to the authorization of an increased personnel. Internally the efficient organization, working together for years as a trained team, made the Navy Department's rapid expansion easy; though it taxed the strength and energy of every department head and the entire personnel on shore and in the fleets. It goes without saying that such satisfactory progress in the fighting strength of the navy could not have been accomplished without corresponding efficiency in the business affairs of the department, and it is largely due to the improved business methods and purchasing systems developed that the Navy Department has been able to meet the tremendous and sudden demands of war and embark upon such unprecedented programs of construction and equipment without breaking down the business machinery of the department.
Secretary Daniels' message to the American people that "the navy has met its duties of the present and is preparing for those of the future" will be received with confidence and no interference with the efficient work of this branch of the government will be tolerated.—Marine Engineering, January.
Restored to Service 109 Badly Damaged Interned Ships.—All the damage done to 109 German ships by their crews, prior to their seizure by the United States Government when war was declared, has been repaired and these ships are to-day in service, adding more than 500,000 gross tonnage to the transport and cargo fleets in war service for the United States.
There is evidence that a German central authority gave an order for destruction on these ships, effective on or about February 1, 1917, simultaneous with the date set for unrestricted submarine warfare and that the purpose was to inflict such vital damage to the machinery of all German ships in our ports that none could be operated for from 18 months to two years.
This purpose has been defeated in signal fashion. In less than eight months all the ships were in service.
The destructive campaign of the German crews cunningly comprehended a system of ruin which they believed would necessitate the shipping of new machinery to substitute for that which was ruthlessly battered down or painstakingly damaged by drilling or dismantlement. There is documentary proof that the enemy believed the damage irreparable.
To obtain new machinery would have entailed a prolonged process of design, manufacture, and installation. Urged by the necessity of conserving time the engineers of the Navy Department succeeded, by unique means, in patching and welding the broken parts and replacing all of the standard parts which the Germans detached from their engines and destroyed or threw overboard.
The mechanical evidence is that the campaign of destruction was operated on these ships for more than two months and that the Germans were convinced that they were making a thorough job of it. Their scheme of ruin was shrewdly devised, deliberately executed, and it ranged from the plugging of steam pipes to the utter demolition of boilers by dry firing.
When the United States Shipping Board experts first surveyed the ruin the belief was expressed that much new machinery would have to be designed, manufactured, and installed, making 18 months a fair minimum estimate of the time required. However, at the Navy Department, where the need of troop and cargo ships was an urgent issue, officers of the Bureau of Steam Engineering, having. faith that the major portion of the repairs could be accomplished by patching and welding, declared it was possible to clear the ships for service by Christmas, and the last of the fleet actually took her final sea test and was ordered into service as a Thanksgiving gift to the nation.
To accomplish this end the Navy Department secured the services of all available machinery welders and patchers, many of them having been voluntarily offered by the railroads.
Although explosives were not used in the process of destruction, the engineers of the Navy Department were always conscious of the danger of hidden charges of high explosives which might become operative and disastrous when the machinery was put to a test. Instances of artful pipe plugging, of concealing steel nuts and bolts in delicate cylinders, of depositing ground glass in oil pipes and bearings, of cunningly changing indicators, of filling fire extinguishers with gasoline and similar means of spoliation, were common enough to induce the engineers to make a rule calling for thorough overhauling. On each ship there was no boiler that was not threaded through every pipe for evidence of plugging, no mechanism of any sort that was not completely dismantled, inspected, and reassembled before it was finally passed as safe.
A memorandum written in German was picked up on one of the ships which gave a complete record of the destruction on that ship. Investigation revealed that the list, which had evidently been left through an oversight, was correct in every detail. The following is a translation of excerpts from this memorandum:
"Starboard and port high-pressure cylinder with valve chest: Upper exhaust outlet flange broken off (cannot be repaired)."
"Starboard and port second intermediate pressure valve chest: Steam inlet flange broken off (cannot be repaired)."
"First intermediate pressure starboard : Exhaust pipe of exhaust line to second intermediate pressure flange broken off (cannot be repaired)."
"Starboard and port low pressure exhaust pipe damaged (cannot be repaired)."
The parenthetical optimism of the German who was so confident of the thoroughness of his mutilation is now the source of much glee among naval engineers, inasmuch as every one of the supposedly irreparable parts was in fact speedily repaired and those engines are to-day as powerful and serviceable as when they left the hands of their makers.
The method of patching and welding broken marine engines had never before been practiced, although the art has been known in the railroad industry for 15 years. Three methods of patching were used; electric welding, oxy-acetylene welding, and ordinary mechanical patching, the latter often later being welded. Following the repairs tests of the machinery were first made at the docks, where the ships were lashed firmly to the piers while the propellers were driven at low speed and later each ship was taken to sea for vigorous trial tests. The patches and welds were reported as having given complete satisfaction.
When the Leviathan, formerly the Vaterland and the largest ship afloat, was put into commission by the United States Government and sent to sea for a trial run, her commander, a young American naval officer, was ordered to "exert every pound of pressure that she possesses, for if there is any fault we want to know it now." The Leviathan stood the test. She was one of the ships least mutilated, due to the fact that she was in bad repair and it was believed that she would not be fit to put to sea for many months. The navy engineers found it necessary to overhaul and partially redesign and reconstruct many important parts of the engines.
Every one of these ships was found to be either deliberately damaged or rendered useless through the ravages of neglect before they fell into the hands of the United States Government.
The most serious typical damage was done by breaking cylinders, valve chests, circulating pumps, steam and exhaust nozzles on main engines, and by dry firing boilers and thus melting the tubes and distorting the furnaces, in at least one instance probably using thermit to make the destruction complete.
There were many instances of minor and easily detectable destruction, such as cutting piston and connecting rods and stays with hack saws, smashing engine-room telegraph systems, and the removal and destruction of parts which the Germans evidently believed could not be replaced. The most insidious sabotage was that which was concealed. In plugging a steam-pipe the method was to disjoint the pipe and insert a solid piece of brass which would be sawed off flush with the joint. The pipe would then be reconnected, showing no evidence of having been tampered with.
Indicators were astutely reversed in many instances. Numerous fire extinguishers were found to be filled with kerosene and gasoline. Piles of shavings and refuse were strewn about where fires might be started, open cans of kerosene being found in several of these incendiary traps. There had evidently been a plan to burn the ships under certain conditions and it is believed that the German crews were seized and interned somewhat in advance of their expectations.
The case of the Vaterland was quite different from that of any other ship. Engineers of the Navy Department who examined the big liner declared that inferior engineering had been practiced in her construction. She has four turbine engines ahead and four astern on four shafts. All of the head engines were found in good condition and all of the astern engines were found damaged.
The major portion of the damage was credited more to faulty operation than to malicious intent. Cracks were found in the casing of the starboard high-pressure backing turbine of such size as to make it certain that the engine had not been used on the vessel's last run. Certain documentary evidence found on the ship corroborated this belief. It also indicated that the Vaterland on her last trip had made less than 20 knots.
There was just enough evidence of mutilation to warrant full investigation, and the vast mass of machinery, electric apparatus, and piping in the Vaterland was patiently and doggedly examined before she was sent to sea. Original defects in her engine equipment were corrected, she was overhauled and in many respects refitted, and on the whole she was declared a better ship when she entered the service of the United States than when she took her maiden voyage.—Official Bulletin, 31/12.
ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY
Inventions Which Meet the Needs of Modern Warfare.—Because of the extensive employment of machinery in the world war, the inventor has the opportunity as never before to serve his country in his own favorite way. For the struggle in which we are now engaged has long been recognized as a contest between the great minds of the Central Powers and the Allied Powers—between inventors of both camps.
Typical of the inventions which the war has developed are those shown in the illustrations herewith. The first example is a shell for cutting barbed-wire entanglements, which is designed to travel through the air with the ease of the ordinary shrapnel or high-explosive shell until it reaches the target. Most wire-cutting shells have never proved practical for the reason that their wire-cutting members are actuated when the shell leaves the cannon, with the result that the added wind resistance of these members greatly limits the range and interferes materially with the accuracy of the projectile. In the present case the two hook-shaped wire-cutting members are hinged as shown, and normally fit into slots in the shell case, where they are held by a soft metal band. The time fuse in the nose of the shell is set for any given distance, and serves to detonate a small charge just back of it. The explosive charge, in turn, pushes down a cone-shaped plunger which spreads out the wire-cutting arms. The cutting members are held in place by other members as indicated.
In order to make shrapnel more effective, especially when used against hostile aircraft, Edward Dartford Holmes of Huddersfield, England, has invented the multiple-charge shrapnel shell shown in the second illustration. Briefly, his scheme calls for a shrapnel shell containing a number of compartments which are each exploded in turn at predetermined intervals. And in order that the gunners may follow the progress of the explosion, each chamber is filled with a charge which will emit a different colored smoke. Two types are shown, one with the time fuse in the base, arranged to explode base-charge first and nose-charge last, and the other where the fuse is in the nose and connects with the separate charges by means of a long tube filled with a priming composition.
Numerous schemes have been suggested for making hand grenades safe for everyone except the enemy. A typical case is presented in the third illustration, which shows a hand grenade equipped with the usual safety pin and, in addition, safety arms. When the grenadier is ready to use the grenade, he removes the safety pin at the top. However, in this particular hand grenade the firing pin is screwed into the member which holds the safety arms in place, and it cannot disengage itself except by the rotation of the arms. In practice it appears that when the grenade is hurled, the safety arms rotate a few times and so release the firing pin, making the missile "alive." The safety arms, of course, drop to the ground. Should the grenade be dropped accidentally, or should it strike near friendly positions, the arms do not have sufficient time to rotate and release the firing pin, hence the grenade does not detonate.
For a similar purpose but employing electricity instead, the last illustration represents the scheme of Maurice Velin of Rambervillers, France, for making hand grenades safe until hurled at the enemy. In brief, the grenade in this case is round and consists of two metallic parts insulated one from the other and electrically connected by a fusible member, embedded in black powder. The black powder charge, in turn, connects with the explosive charge by a time fuse which may be regulated to suit conditions. As the grenades are required they are passed through a square wooden tube every side of which carries a contact spring that projects into the passageway. The contacts being connected to opposite poles of a battery, it follows that no matter how the spherical grenade passes through the wooden tube the circuit between any two contacts is closed and current passes through the fuse.—Scientific American, 22/12.
Wear in Big Guns.—In the current number of Arms and Explosives Major T. G. Tulloch (late R. A.) gives an article of much interest at the present time dealing with the wear of large guns. As the author points out, the wear of such guns has a most important influence on the cost of the war, not only on account of the expense of effecting repairs but because such wear leads to inaccuracy of fire and so increases the amount of ammunition expended to attain a definite objective. On this point he says, "In short, if a few thousandths of an inch of steel at the commencement of the rifling of guns, etc., could be prevented from wearing away in so short a time as at present, the reduction in the cost of the war, so far as guns, ammunition, transport, etc., are concerned, is almost incalculable." In dealing with this matter, Major Tulloch differentiates between the damage to the bore near the breech end—damage for which he retains the usual term "corrosion"—and that near the muzzle which he prefers to call "erosion" as it is a purely mechanical effect. The causes which produce the first-named class of damage are complex, and include the effects of temperature, the form and dimensions of the powder chamber, the chemical and physical qualities of the powder used, the weight of charge and rapidity of fire, the gas escape past the projectile, and the composition and physical properties of the steel used for the inner tubes of the gun. All. these matters present many points of interest and they are discussed clearly in the article with which we are dealing. Major Tulloch attaches much importance to the evolution of methods for securing the effective sealing of the gas escape immediately after the firing of the charge, and he makes some suggestions as to the lines on which such a device may be designed. As regards the physical properties of the steel used for the inner tube. Major Tulloch considers that the heat treatment should be subject to the analysis of the steel and the forging effect, and he urges the necessity of obtaining more effective forging of the portion of the tube forming the bore, and suggests certain methods of securing this result. With regard to the erosion near the muzzle due to frictional wear and metallic fouling, it is pointed out that to secure good shooting it is desirable to prevent such fouling by all practicable means, such as slightly bell-mouthing the bore, and, as indicative of the importance of this matter, he states that by electrolytic methods over 15 pounds' weight of copper have been removed from the bore of an 8-inch gun after firing just over 100 rounds. In concluding his most interesting article, Major Tulloch remarks that it was written to invite discussion and to call attention to certain matters requiring systematic investigation, and we much hope that it may have this result.—Engineering.
The New Machine-Gun Carriage of Our Marines.—Among the latest equipment of the United States Marines is a new type of machine-gun carriage which strongly suggests the little dog-drawn carts and machine guns used by the Belgians in the early days of the war, with such telling effect. But in the present instance the carriage is drawn by two men, and in this respect it more closely resembles the machine-gun carriages of the Russian troops.
Rapidity of motion is obviously the leading feature of the new carriage, for it is provided with two ball-bearing and rubber-tired wheels. A shaft, provided with a double handle, permits two men to pull the carriage, which mounts a Lewis machine gun. The ammunition drums are carried in square steel boxes, just below the gun. In order that the gun may be used to the best advantage, its mounting is such as to provide the utmost freedom of movement. In lightness and mobility this device speaks for itself.—Scientific American, 15/12.
A New French Gun.—In order to combat the German machine guns the French of late have introduced a new quick-firing cannon of such construction that it can be readily carried forward by attacking infantry, says the United Service Gazette. Thus the skirmishers are able to put enemy machine guns out of action by well-directed shots from their 37-millimeter cannon, which they can carry along with them. The French "37" is a befitting companion to the famous "75," which has figured so prominently in the French campaigns to date. The smaller weapon has every feature of its larger brother, including quick-firing breech mechanism, accurate sights and automatic recoil. Lying out on open ground, two men can fire up to 35 high-explosive shells per minute. The shells measure about 1 ½ inches in diameter, and the gun has a range well above a mile for accurate shooting.
This odd little field piece can be readily taken apart and carried by six or
eight men, and is available for use in advanced positions as well as in the
open. It is a most workmanlike piece of armament for use under the conditions
prevailing on the western front.
—
Scientific American, 29/12.
A Transformer Which Heats Shell Bands.—In most of the British
shell-making plants an ingenious type of transformer is being employed
for heating the copper shell-bands. Briefly, the transformer consists of a
closed core of laminated iron, one leg of which is hinged and counterweighted
so that it can be readily lifted to permit the copper band to be
inserted over the primary winding. The copper band when once in position
forms the secondary- of the transformer, and because of the conversion
of a small flow of standard lighting current into low tension but high amperage
current in its single turn of winding, the copper band is heated in
short order to the desired degree.
—
Scientific American, 29/12.
The Submarine Depth Bomb.—Its (the depth bomb's) destructiveness
is based upon the fundamental fact that water is incompressible, and that
the shock of detonating a mass of high explosive under water is felt immediately
in all directions—the effect diminishing, of course, with the distance
from the bomb. It will be remembered that in one of our earlier
chapters on the submarine it was stated by Hudson Maxim that 4 cubic feet
of trinitrotoluol at the moment of detonation produces 40,000 cubic feet of
gas. Now, when a mine or bomb or torpedo war head is detonated the
expanding gases seek the line of least resistance. In the case of a torpedoed
ship this line leads into the hollow interior of the ship, the incompressible
water forming an abutment in all directions ; but when a mine or
depth bomb is detonated the line of least resistance is upward, and the
gases cut their way quickly to the surface, carrying a formidable mass of
water to a great height into the air. If the explosion takes place at a considerable
depth, however, the resistance to the upper escape of the gases is
greater, and the shock transmitted through the water in all directions is
proportionately increased. Failing to blow up the surface of the ocean, the
bomb must blow up the submarine.
The destructiveness of the bomb against the submarine will depend upon two things: first, the depth at which it is detonated, and, secondly, the distance from the bomb to the submarine. Manifestly, then, it is advisable to detonate the bomb below the submarine, as the shock transmitted will lie proportionately greater than if it were above it, other things being equal. As to the distance at which an explosion would be absolutely destructive, rupturing the plating and sinking the submarine, Mr. Hudson Maxim writes us that if 500 pounds of trinitrotoluol were exploded deep under water within 125 feet of a deeply submerged submarine it would completely destroy it. Smaller charges would, of course, have to be detonated proportionately closer to the submarine to secure destructive action.—Marine Journal, 17/12.
Aircraft Bombs.—The missiles which were dropped from aircraft in the early part of the great war were, for the greater part, bombs and grenades of obsolete types which had been formerly employed in field warfare. Their action was rather uncertain and their manipulation was often fraught with considerable danger.
A short time before the war broke out, the Vickers Works of England had, however, patented two types of aircraft bombs which were provided with a safety device that prevented their premature or accidental explosion. The destructive effect of these bombs also greatly exceeded that obtained with old-type missiles.
In the first type Vickers bomb the firing charge is held remote from the explosive charge until after the launching, and means are provided to cause the bomb to explode at a previously determined distance from the ground or the target. For the latter purpose, the bomb is fitted with a "pilot," consisting of a metallic mass, which is suspended from the body of the bomb by a chain or a wire; the tension of this pilot cord is increased by a parachute, which slows down the bomb's vertical speed. The pilot cord is wound around a drum, which is connected with an aerial propeller, the latter being set in motion through the tension of the cord. When the cord is entirely unwound the spring of the percussion needle is, therefore, held in place only by the weight of the pilot, so that as soon as the latter strikes its objective the spring is released and drives the needle into the percussion cap of the firing charge, which in its turn acts on the explosive charge. The height at which the bomb is made to explode over a target is, consequently, determined by the length of the pilot cord, and can thus be adjusted at will.
In another type the mass of the pilot is composed of a cartridge with its percussion fuse and cap, and a fuse takes the place of the cord. On striking the target the cartridge sets fire to the fuse, and this, in its turn, sets fire to the detonating charge. The latter object can also be attained by passing an electric current through the pilot, the current being furnished by accumulators housed in the bomb. The pilot cord is formed of two conducting wires, the mass of the pilot closing the current on contact with the ground. The charge is set on fire either by a spark or by an electro-magnet actuating the percussion needle.
In another type of bomb, also manufactured by Vickers, the pilot consists of a rod, which is carried through the body of the bomb in the longitudinal axis; a tail piece carries in the rear the firing charge and stabilizing fins. The rod rests on a suitable guide, which is locked when the bomb is inactive, but through which it is permitted to slide when the lock is removed. The firing charge is thus kept far apart from the explosive charge, so that even an accidental discharge of the firing charge is not likely to endanger the lives of the crew.
The bomb is suspended underneath the airplane in a horizontal position. By operating the lever which releases the bomb the safety lock is automatically removed and, as the bomb gradually assumes a vertical position, the pilot rod slides forward, and carries the firing charge into the center of the explosive charge. A spring-loaded percussion needle then slides into a suitable aperture provided for in the tail piece of the bomb and is ready for action. When the pilot rod hits the ground the impact makes it slide back in its guide; the firing charge is thus brought in contact with the needle and the explosion follows. To insure the free fall of the pilot rod when the bomb is released, the progress of the bomb is retarded by a parachute, while its course is steadied by stabilizing fins provided on the tail piece. In some models the pilot rod is composed of a number of telescoping tubes, which develop their whole length under the gravitational speed. The telescoping elements are held in place, after they have reached their full development, by suitable block-devices.
In the Kunkler bomb the safety device is based on the action of the centrifugal forces developed during the fall of the bomb. For this purpose the bomb is provided, at the rear, with an aerial propeller which imparts to the bomb a rotary motion. The firing charge is lodged in the head of the bomb in a detonator, where it is held apart from the needle by means of two spring-loaded masses. As soon as the centrifugal force acquires a certain magnitude the masses will overcome the force of the .springs and move toward the periphery of the bomb, thus freeing the firing charge which is then held in place only by two clamps. On striking the ground the clamps will give way and drive the firing charge into the percussion needle.
The bomb patented by Richard Machenbach and the Carbonit Sprengstoff A. G. of Germany is a missile fitted with rotating fins, which answer the double purpose of stabilizing its path and of unlocking the firing mechanism only after the bomb has travelled a certain distance, thus insuring the safety of its manipulants. Although this is no novel principle, the patentees claim for their bomb a greater simplicity and a more efficient control than hitherto attained. The firing mechanism is provided with a further safety device in so far as the aerial propeller which unlocks the firing pin is allowed to rotate only after a given time has elapsed from the moment the bomb is released. The working of this bomb, two types of which are shown. is obvious from the accompanying diagrams.
In the Putscher bomb the firing mechanism is actuated, like in the foregoing types, by direct impact. The fuse is set on fire by means of friction firing caps and the spring of the firing pin is blocked by a safety spindle, which must be removed before the release of the bomb.
The Bergery-Dercole bomb, which has been described in Schuss and Waffe, is of the rebounding type. This bomb consists of an external casing which is closed on its lower end and houses the body of the bomb proper. On striking the ground the case, which carries the firing charge, acts like a mortar and imparts to the bomb proper a force opposite to that of its trajectory, causing it to rebound upon striking the target. The external and internal portions of the bomb are kept in their relative position, up to the moment the impact occurs, by suitable catches. When the outer case strikes the ground its motion is annulled, but the bomb proper, having a considerable inertia, will tend to continue on its path. The force thus generated unlocks the catches and drives the bomb with its firing pin against the detonating charge contained in the outer case, which then shoots out the bomb proper like a projectile is fired from a gun.—Aviation, 1/1.
Our Great Need for Toluol and a New Way to Make It.—The United States Government's needs for toluol for war purposes are just divulged as tremendous. A reliable estimate puts the figure at 22,000,000 gallons for the next 12 months. It is all to be converted into trinitrotoluol for high-explosive shells. Where this very large quantity is to come from has been a source of considerable anxiety and is so still. Up to this time practically all of that needed has come from the by-product coke plants of the country. It appears as one of the by-products in coke-making and is recovered along with benzol in the benzol recovery plants. The present available output of the country from such plants for the next year is estimated at 11,000,000 gallons or only 50 per cent of the quantity needed.
About two years ago, there was great interest manifested in the discovery of a process for making toluol from crude oil, and claims were made that while the production was not strictly a commercial one, still in a national emergency, this process was the great back-log and that when the need came, the material could be rapidly produced. The emergency has arrived, and the nation needs millions of gallons of toluol for itself and its Allies. In the meantime, there has been going on without any publicity a development in toluol manufacture which bids fair to be of the utmost importance to the nation in the supply of trinitrotoluol. Early in 1915 a large company in Pittsburgh, which at that time was building a large number of byproduct coke plants and, in connection with these, also benzol and toluol plants, started in the laboratories at the Mellon Institute, an investigation into the recovery of toluol from carbureted water gas—the gas made in all the large cities of the country by the gas companies for domestic use.
The conditions existing in water-gas plants were very different from those in by-product coke plants, and special apparatus and special methods had to be devised for the successful recovery of toluol. These were first installed in conjunction with the gaslight company at Washington, to effect the removal of toluol from 5,000,000 cubic feet of carbureted water gas per day. This plant was placed in operation on July 14, 1916, since which date there have been secured approximately 200,000 gallons of toluol. While this plant was the first to use this process, and many improvements increasing the efficiency and economy of operation have been introduced, the plant has proved to be a commercial and technical success, equaling the results promised by the laboratory methods. Since that time, a number of duplicate installations have been built as follows: two at Newark, one at Paterson, one at Jersey City, two at Trenton, two at Rochester, one at Chicago, and one at Evanston, 111.
Now that the government has found what an enormous amount of toluol is required and that the trinitrotoluol is the most efficient and most satisfactory explosive, the Ordnance Department of the army has taken hold of the situation. It finds that every by-product coke-oven plant in the country is producing or has arranged to produce toluol to its utmost capacity, and that the remaining needed toluol must be secured from city gas. Seventy-two plants are available for this recovery distributed over the entire country. The Pittsburgh company mentioned has arranged with the government to build "stripping" plants in a number of large cities, and many more are being designed and estimated upon. The plans for securing toluol from these sources involve the use of excess refining capacity in all the by-product coke plants of the country.—Scientific American, 22/12.
Trinitrotoluol Poisoning is one of the greatest dangers to which munition workers are subject, and much interest therefore attaches at the present-time to the conditions under which such poisoning occurs and the precautions that should be taken against it. A comprehensive paper on the subject, by Dr. J. W. Schereschewsky, published in Public Health Reports for November 16, deserves general distribution in the industry concerned. In loading shells with this substance there is constant opportunity for nearly everybody connected with such work to become the subject of chronic poisoning through either the fumes or the dust of the substance. The explosive is generally introduced into the empty shells in one of two ways: the powdered substance is pressed into the shells by power presses, or molten trinitrotoluol is poured into them. The latter method is the more common and the more dangerous to the health of the workers. The poison is readily absorbed through the skin or it may enter the system by way of the respiratory tract. Young people are especially susceptible to its effects; no worker under 21 years of age should be employed in processes bringing him into contact with it. A complete suit of overalls, fitting closely at the neck, wrists and ankles, gloves and a cap covering the hair, should be worn by all workers. Men should keep their hair short and be clean shaven. Overalls should be laundered weekly. The eating of lunches and keeping of food in workrooms should be strictly prohibited. Lastly, there should be rigid supervision of all workers by a competent physician, familiar with the symptoms of poisoning and the precautions for preventing it.—Scientific American, 22/12.
Steamship Mounts Powerful Mortar to Combat U-Boats.—A new type of mortar from which powerful bombs may be discharged at submerged U-boats was mounted upon the forward deck of a British steamship which arrived yesterday at an Atlantic port. It was an additional means of defence aboard the vessel and the passengers praised it highly. They had witnessed tests during the voyage from England.
The mortar is similar to those used in the trenches, but is much larger. Its muzzle points high in the air and the bomb ascends more than a thousand feet, then falls rapidly upon the spot where it is believed a U-boat is lurking. In the tests the crew experienced no difficulty in hitting any point selected, it was said by persons on board. The explosion which followed threw a mass of water high into the air.
The steamship also had mounted upon her decks her usual number of large-caliber rifles.—N. Y. Herald, 23/12.
German Armor Riddled.—The German soldier's armor will not withstand the hard-hitting American bullet, it has been shown. A heavy breastplate removed from a German prisoner for a test was literally chewed to pieces by machine-gun fire after a rifle bullet fired at a good range had torn a hole in the armor as big as a silver dollar.
Even the bullets from, an automatic pistol did the work it was expected they would in this respect.—Baltimore Sun, 20/12.
ENGINEERING
Reducing Speed Magnetically.—A very ingenious gear has recently been invented for use in turbine-driven ships to permit a high-speed turbine to drive the propeller shaft at its most efficient speed. This gear is magnetic, and it operates on an entirely new principle. It can be designed for a great range of reduction ratios, the apparent limits being about 6 to 1 and 40 to 1, and the higher limit can be obtained in a single step.
The principle of the gear can best be understood by referring to the diagram. Fig. 1, which represents a typical design. Here we have the driven or primary field element A, which is rotated by suitable clutch connection with the turbine shaft. This field element, which consists of two poles, is energized by some suitable source of current. Surrounding it are two stationary cages or stators, B and C, the stator B consisting of magnetic bars of laminated sheet iron mounted on non-magnetic supporting rods, while the stator C is built up of toothed sheets of iron. The rods and teeth are magnetically energized as they come within the field of the primary element, so that as the latter rotates it sets up a wave of magnetism that sweeps around the stators. Between the stators is the driven member D, also made up of bars of laminated iron. It will be observed that there are 64 magnetic bars or teeth on each stator, while the secondary or driven member has 66; so that at only two points are the teeth of the stators and the secondary in alinement. With the parts at rest and under no load this alinement will be formed in the field of greatest magnetic flux—in other words, directly in line with the poles of the driving member, as shown at E in the diagram.
Now, let us suppose that the driven member is held stationary while the driving member is rotated to the position F, as shown in broken hues. As at this point the teeth of the stator and the secondary will be out of alinement the magnetic force will set up a torque between the teeth which will only be satisfied when the secondary is permitted to rotate far enough to bring its teeth into coincidence with the teeth of the stator and at the point of greatest magnetic flux. In other words, while the driver is moving through the angle A O F the driven member moves through an angle G O F. In a complete rotation of the driver there will be a movement of the secondary through the space of two teeth; in other words, there will be a speed reduction of 33 to 1. Of course, the driven member will lag behind the driver by an amount depending upon the load it has to carry.
From a brief study of this diagram it will be noted that the reduction ratio is equal to the number of secondary bars divided by the number of poles in the primary, while the number of stator teeth in each cage must be smaller than the number of secondary teeth by the number of poles of the primary. On a moment's consideration, it will be evident that if the number of teeth in the secondary is greater than that in the stator, the secondary will rotate against instead of with the driver. The torque on the secondary is not exerted by the primary, as in a magnetic slipping clutch, but is obtained by the pull of stator teeth on the secondary bars, while the primary merely furnishes the magnetic force. The secondary and stationary teeth form as many alinements as there are poles, so that if the driver is provided with more than two poles the ratio between the secondary and the stator teeth must be such as to provide the same number of alinements. Then, when the field poles are magnetized, the stator teeth will assume a position of greatest magnetic reluctance—that is, they will move into alinement with the stator teeth where the magnetic flux is greatest. Thereafter, the field cannot move without a corresponding movement of the secondary at an angular velocity determined by the reduction ratio. This new magnetic gear is characteristic of a mechanical gear in that it has a fixed ratio of reduction for which it has been designed, and in this respect it is like a synchronous motor which when supplied with an alternating current of fixed frequency will rotate at a corresponding speed; in the gear it is the speed of the driver, in place of the frequency, which determines the speed of the secondary driven element. It resembles the synchronous motor also in its ability to carry a certain maximum load before falling out of step with the driver. In designing, therefore, a suitable overload margin must be allowed above the normal operating load.
In order to corroborate the working of the principle of this gear, an experimental machine was built and to save time a stator and other parts that were on hand, were used in its construction. A photograph of this machine is reproduced herewith. It has a field with six poles. The stator consists of a single cage, which surrounds the secondary. The inner stator, indicated at B in Fig. 1, was omitted from this machine. There are 33 bars or teeth in the secondary and 27 on the stator—the reduction ratio, therefore, is 5.5 to 1. The operation of this gear is indicated in the accompanying chart, Fig. 2, in which the curve I represents the maximum loads the machine will carry with corresponding ampere turns per pole. It will be noted that the first part of the curve resembles the torque characteristic of a series motor while the latter part is much like a saturation curve and indicates that by increasing the pole and stator sections, the increased force beyond the bend of the curve would be made available for increasing the flux density at the bar gap and therefore adding materially to the torque of the secondary.
Based on the tests of the experimental machine, designs have been prepared for a full-sized unit, which is shown partly in Fig. 3, while Fig. 1 represents the arrangement of poles and teeth in the primary, secondary and stators. In the two drawings the same reference numerals are used for corresponding parts. This gear is arranged for a normal horsepower of 1500 and an overload margin of normal field of 60 per cent, reducing the speed from 3600 R.P.M. to 109, a reduction ratio of 33 to 1. This machine contains an additional stationary cage inserted between the field and secondary, the purpose of which is to increase the torque on the secondary. A torque practically double in value is produced on the secondary without increasing the core length. However, the field ampere turns must be increased to supply the necessary force for the added gap. A substantial cut in weight and an increased efficiency are the result.
The field has been especially developed to fill the requirements of high speed, balance and simple machining. It is circular in section and can be practically finished on the lathe and boring mill.
The field copper, wound directly in circular grooves turned in the core, comprises a bare strip insulated from the core by substantial insulating plates and between turns by a strip of fish paper. The insulating plates are of such thickness as to wedge the strip in the groove under tension so that once wound and held by a bronze wire hand, the considerable centrifugal forces will be unable to displace it and thus cause unbalancing. The separating flanges serve to form a plurality of grooves to prevent a cumulative strain on the outer flange and to make possible a strip of reasonable width. Each groove contains two layers separated by an insulating plate and wound in opposite directions so as to bring all leads to the outside for easy connection.
Particular attention has been paid to the design of the cages. Their present arrangement combines the greatest possible section in the laminated bars with maximum strength of the non-magnetic supporting rods. A nonmagnetic ring having axial holes drilled through, into which the rods are pressed, serves as the supporting member for the laminated bars each of which is forced between adjacent rods and insulated from them by a fiber tube on the rods 1/16-inch in thickness.
The rings, in turn, are screwed to the spider of the secondary and the stationary end bracket of the stator respectively. A narrow ring, insulated from the rods, ties each of the cages on the other side and thus makes the cages thoroughly rigid. Screwed to the spider of the secondary cage is the main or driven shaft which extends through the bore in the field so that the field is partly supported by and rotates around the main shaft on bearings provided on either end. The two main bearings, one at the end of the main shaft and the other on a stub extension of the field sleeve, support the weight of the primary and secondary and thereby make the gear unit independent of the turbine and propeller-shaft bearings.
The main, and particularly the internal field bearings are oiled by pressure circulation, the oil being introduced into a circular groove in the center of the left-hand main bearing through a hole; from the groove into the center hole of the main shaft through several evenly spaced radial holes; out at the right end of the shaft and back through axial grooves in the bearing surfaces into a circular pocket of the spider and through holes back into the reservoir of the main bearing. In order to reduce the windage losses to a minimum the high velocity field member is entirely enclosed by aluminum plates on either side screwed to the field with a thin strip fastened to the plates and enclosing the outer circumference, so that externally the whole resembles a smooth drum and offers little resistance to rapid rotation.
The weight of this unit including the thrust bearing is estimated at 24,000 pounds, which, it will be noted, is less than 50 per cent the weight of a mechanical gear for a similar duty.
The losses are made up of the exciting loss, which in this design is normally 4.5 K. W. or about one-third of 1 per cent, the iron loss and the windage and friction losses and the total should not exceed 2 per cent, making the efficiency 98 per cent. The inventor and designer of this ingenious gear is A. H. Neuland of Bergenfield, N. J.—Scientific American.
German Aeroplane Engines.—The Royal Agricultural Hall at Islington will not be the scene this year of the usual Christmas show of livestock and agricultural machinery. The hall is not, however, wholly dissevered from its normal functions, as a part of the building has been devoted by the authorities to a small, but most instructive exhibition of captured German aeroplanes and engines. The object of the exhibition is educational, and for the convenience of manufacturers and others interested in aero-engine design, several engines have been dissected, and sets of the component parts, sectioned where necessary to show the construction, have been mounted on large boards, alongside specimens of the engines to which they belong. There are altogether some dozens of captured engines either officially on view, or rendered visible, by the courtesy of the attendants, to those interested. The aeroplanes, which are five in number, occupy another part of the hall.
Perhaps the most striking fact in connection with the engines is that, with a solitary exception, they are all of the vertical 6-cylinder water-cooled type. German aero-engine design seems to have settled down along the lines of a straight-forward racing-car engine, not perhaps of extraordinary lightness for the power developed, but reliable, durable and above all, easy to manufacture in quantities with ordinary labor and shop equipment. The one exception to this type is a specimen of a 100-horsepower Oberursel engine which formerly adorned a Fokker fighting monoplane. This engine is of the 9-cylinder rotary air-cooled pattern, almost indistinguishable from the Gnome rotary engine, which is largely used by the British authorities. It has the typical Gnome pistons carrying automatic inlet-valves in their heads, and in other features the resemblance is exceedingly close.
Reverting to the standard 6-cylinder engines which really constitute the exhibition, these comprise the following types and sizes, namely, Mercedes 160-horsepower and 260-horsepower; Benz 160-horsepower and 220-horsepower; and Argus 120-horsepower and 200-horsepower. The Argus engines differ from the others in the fact that the cylinders are in pairs, one sheet-iron water-jacket enclosing two cylinders, but as these engines have not yet been sectioned it is not possible to see the details of the cylinder construction. One of them is equipped with an English carbureter and English magnetos, and we believe that many captured German engines have been found thus equipped. It is said to be the German practice to design their engines to take British accessories and so to be able to utilize valuable fittings stripped from our machines which have come to grief behind their lines.
The Argus engines are also noticeable by reason of the amount of labor spent on the elaborate finish of unimportant parts. This is certainly not a typical failing of German engines, for these as a rule display a common sense in the matter of finish, and of simplicity of detail, which our own manufacturers might emulate with advantage. On the whole, in so far as it can be inspected, the Argus engine does not appear to have any extraordinary merits, while in certain details, such as the use of loose cams secured by taper pins, the design is anything but commendable. On the whole, one probably would not be far wrong if he said that an equally good, or better, engine could be made for less money. The real interest of the exhibition to designers of aero-engines lies in the remaining types, the Benz and Mercedes. These appear to represent the outcome of German experience as to what an aero-engine ought to be, at any rate for such work as long-distance bombing flights if not for more spectacular duties. The Gotha biplane carries two 260-horsepower Mercedes, the A. E. G. is similarly equipped, and the Rumpler biplane is fitted with a single engine of the same power and pattern. Benz engines of 220-horsepower are carried in the Aviatiks and the Agas. The Albatross two-seater carries a 160-horsepower Mercedes.
The Benz and Mercedes engines are, broadly speaking, of the same general pattern, each having six independent vertical water-cooled cylinders, with sheet-iron welded jackets, and both representing the final development of their racing-car prototypes. They weigh, we understand, about 3.75 pounds per normal brake horsepower at ground level, this figure comprising a complete engine, but without radiator, fuel, oil, or tanks. Of the two the Benz is slightly the lighter per brake horsepower, and from the manufacturing point of view the details of its design are generally preferable to those of the Mercedes. The 160-horsepower Mercedes aero-engine of pre-war days had cylinders in pairs, like those of the Argus, and the crankshaft was also of peculiar design, but these features have been abandoned in the modern engines.
Dealing with the points of difference, the Benz cylinders are of cast-iron with solid valve-seatings arranged vertically in the head, whereas the cylinders of the Mercedes are of steel with exhaust and induction ports screwed in at an angle. In both sizes of the Benz engine the inlet and exhaust valves are duplicated, and are operated by a crankshaft housed in the crank-casing. In the Mercedes engine a central overhead camshaft is adopted and duplicate valves are only used in the larger size. The casing of this camshaft appears a very costly piece of work, and the Benz design seems unquestionably better. The Benz pistons are of cast-iron with three rings at the top and no scraper ring. A perforated steel cone is riveted to the inside of the piston-head, the apex of the cone forming a small seating on the center of the gudgeon-pin. The function of this cone is probably to assist the lubrication of the pin, although the support it affords to the latter may be useful. The piston of the Mercedes is formed by screwing a steel head, carrying the gudgeon-pin bosses, into a cast-iron skirt. The design of the connecting-rods also shows considerable difference. The Benz rods are of parallel tubular form, involving only lathework of a simple kind, whereas the Mercedes rods are of the usual I-sections which gives greater trouble in machining.
Coming to the crankcase, in both engines the lower half of the case forms a support for the crankshaft so that the bearings and connecting rod-ends are very inaccessible when the engines are erected. This would appear to be an objectionable feature of both designs, unless it has been found that sufficient rigidity is not obtainable otherwise. There are no ball-bearings for the crankshaft of either engine, except for the thrust bearings. Oil cooling is arranged for on the Benz engine by a number of horizontal tubes passing transversely through the sump. A cowl on one side of the casing directs air into the tubes, and a similar cowl on the other side, facing backwards, assists the draft through them. In the same engine the crankshaft bearers are also cored transversely from side to side, so that the air-circulation may tend to cool the bearings, and through two of these ports the air. is drawn to the carbureters. The induction-pipe system of the Benz compares favorably with that of its rival and the water circulation system seems pronouncedly superior. On the other hand the circulating pump of the Mercedes, with its shrouded impeller and volute discharge is of much superior design to that of the Benz.
The general impression left on the mind by an inspection of the captured engines, is that the Germans have carried the standardization of type infinitely further than we have, and therefore have placed themselves in a position to- manufacture aero-engines with the maximum rapidity and cheapness. We have certainly captured many hundreds of German engines, and it is only reasonable to suppose that the collection at the Agricultural Hall is fairly representative of the bulk of those now used against our troops in Flanders and our civilian population at home. It is therefore a matter for remark that, except for the solitary Gnome engine, the Germans appear to have abandoned, or never to have used, the rotary type, the radial fixed type, the Vee type, the opposed type or the Broad Arrow type, not to speak of the numerous variants which each of these types comprises. They pin their faith, apparently, to a simple engine with the minimum number of parts, and devote their energies to increase of numbers rather than to the development of types. That "it is lawful to learn from the enemy" is a maxim as old as the art of war, and though our designers might gather some useful lessons from the engines exhibited, and notably from the Benz engine, we think that the most important lesson of all is to be learnt by reflecting upon the contrast between the present exhibition, and one which would be equally representative of current British practice.—Engineering, London, 14/12.
Navy Ship Repairs.—During the past year a greater volume of work has been performed under the Navy Department bureaus of steam engineering and construction and repair than ever before. Every navy yard is working to the extent of its capacity and employing the force overtime. In addition to that a large part of the repair work has been assigned to private plants under contract.
It has been found that the merchant ships, and especially the interned enemy vessels, taken over by the Navy Department, have required, almost without exception, a great deal of repair work, showing that in most cases the vessels were badly run down.
The destroyers and other craft that have been sent to foreign waters have given an admirable account of themselves in the freedom from disability. Much repair work of a minor nature is done by the ships' forces, and more extensive repair work now is possible abroad by the presence on the European station of the repair ships Dixie and Melville, the operations of which are in charge of Commander Albert T. Church, who, while on duty at the Navy Department in the bureau of steam engineering, had a great deal to do with the equipment of those vessels.—Washington Post, 10/1.
Five-Thousand-Ton Reinforced Concrete Ship Building in California.—One of the most daring experiments in concrete ship-building is the project now under way at Redwood City, Cal., where the San Francisco Ship-Building Company is building a reinforced concrete freight steamship of 5000 tons' deadweight carrying capacity on a draft of 24 feet. The vessel is 320 feet long, 45 feet beam and 31 feet depth molded. She will be fitted with Scotch boilers and a triple expansion reciprocating engine of 1750 horsepower designed to give the vessel a speed of 10 knots at sea. Tank storage space for fuel oil will be provided sufficient for 30 days' steaming at her designed speed.
Some idea of the size and details of construction of the vessel can be gained from the photographs reproduced herewith, which show the progress of construction about December 1. The officers of the San Francisco Ship-Building Company, which is building the vessel, are: President, W. Leslie Comyn; vice-president, John Lawson, of Balfour, Guthrie and Co.; secretary, Kenneth MacDonald, of MacDonald and Kahn, and treasurer, George U. Hind. Messrs. Leslie Comyn and John Lawson, acting as an executive committee, exercise active management of the affairs of the company.—Marine Engineering, January.
AERONAUTICS
The Naval Academy Aircraft Factory in a Pennsylvania city is, according to The Army and Navy Journal, completed and in operation. This plant, which covers three acres, the main building being 400 by 400 feet, was begun in August last. The structure was completed in November, the machinery installed, and the keel of the first flying boat laid within 90 days after construction started. The plant and its equipment cost the work necessary in the manufacture of seaplanes. Machinists are needed to operate the plant to its full capacity.
Almost every type of craftsman can help in some of the many kinds of work necessary in the manufacture of seaplanes. Machinists are needed to make and assemble the parts. Sheet-metal workers, acetylene welders, braziers, bicycle tube benders, coppersmiths, and wireworkers are all needed, and there is a demand for cabinet-makers, pattern-makers, boat builders and joiners. Women are needed to sew covers on the wings of the planes, and also to do some of the lighter woodwork.
The League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia, is the place to apply for employment in the new naval aircraft factory.—N. Y. Times, 13/1.
Hurrying Plans for Establishment between France and England. Plans for the establishment of an aerial postal service between France and England are rapidly approaching realization, and it is now believed that such a service, on a limited scale, will be put into effect without waiting for the end of the war. It will be used only for carrying official correspondence, especially that of the inter-allied committee sitting at Versailles. Reports and communications from the American representatives thus will catch the mail boats from England in about two days' better time than by the old methods.—Evening Star, 9/1.
U. S. No Air Power in Spring.—Germany will have nothing to fear from the United States air-fighting forces during the coming spring, because the American aircraft program is "far behind" its schedule, according to Major William A. Bishop, winner of a Victoria cross, who addressed the Canadian Club at Montreal on Friday.
Major Bishop characterized as "unfortunate" the advertising which has been given the United States Government's aircraft program. He said that while France would find it impossible further to enlarge her airplane fighting forces during the coming half-year, Germany, knowing America's intentions, has greatly expanded her flying corps in an effort to gain supremacy in air warfare. Consequently, he declared, during the next few months Great Britain will have "to face the most terrible time she has yet faced, and especially from the point of view of war in the air."
America's assistance in maintaining allied air-fighting superiority "may be felt" by summer, but during the spring months Major Bishop said "the United States will not be a factor for the Germans to reckon with in the air."—Washington Post, 13/1.
Report of the U. S. Naval Observatory.—In his annual report to the Bureau of Navigation, Rear Admiral Howard, U. S. N., retired, superintendent of the Naval Observatory, refers to aviation instruments as follows:
"In conjunction with the station at Pensacola and other commands engaged in flying, the observatory has practically accepted as standard an altimeter (altitude aneroid barometer) and a clock. A compass for aircraft has been adopted and issued but is not proving entirely satisfactory, and further experiments are under way.
"One form of statoscope for dirigibles has been found satisfactory for certain purposes and will be issued to each dirigible when delivered. This is the Custer type. This instrument is non-luminous and does not indicate speed or amount of change of height. The observatory is assisting various inventors and makers of instruments to devise a statoscope that will answer all requirements.
"The observatory has on hand a small number of airplane cameras of acceptable design. These are not fixed in the car and their value will have to be determined in service. Other forms of cameras are under trial.—Aviation, January.
Wherein German Constructors Show Great Sagacity.—Time and again it has been admitted in this column that the Teuton is a formidable aerial enemy. And somehow or another he has always been able to keep up with the combined production of Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia, not forgetting such aid as the Allies have received from the American constructors prior to our entering the world war. Just why this Teuton efficiency should remain manifest in the face of what appears to be an overwhelming handicap, is now beginning to be understood. The cardinal fact is that the Teuton, from the beginning, has considered the aeroplane in the light of a big motor fitted with a pair of wings. When the Allies built machines with 80-horsepower rotary engines at the beginning of the war, they found themselves competing with German planes fitted with 120-horsepower Mercedes engines. Needless to say, the allied machines were hopelessly outclassed; and on the side of the Germans the lack of numbers was made up by the superiority of the unit. Then the Allies went to the 100- and 120-horsepower plane, only to find that the Teuton had already gone to 160, 200 and 220 horsepower. Always have the allied planes been underpowered; and in order to increase climbing and speed characteristics the British and French constructors have had to shave off every ounce of cloth and wood possible to a point where the factor of safety is little more than a name. On the other hand, the Germans, working with a solidly-built machine, meet climbing and speed requirements merely by piling on more horsepower. We Americans have done well in developing the Liberty motor first, before our aeroplanes: for after all the Teuton is quite right: an aeroplane is nothing more than a powerful, reliable motor—with a pair of wings—Scientific American, 24/11.
Materials Necessary for Single Airplane Exclusive of Engine.—The following figures have been received from the Signal Corps, Aviation Section, of the materials necessary for a single airplane of the more simple type, and exclusive of all the materials necessary for the engine:
Nails 4326
Screws 2,2,77
Steel stampings 921
Forgings 798
Turnbuckles 276
Veneer square feet 57
Wire feet 3262
Varnish gallons 11
Dope gallons 59
Aluminum pounds 65
Rubber feet 34
Linen square yards 201
Spruce feet 244
Pine feet 58
Ash feet 31
Hickory feet 1 ½—Official Bulletin, 29/12.
The Lanzius Speed Scout.—The Lanzius speed scout is, unlike most present-day airplanes, a machine in which the incidence of the wings may be altered in flight at the will of the pilot.
Such an idea is not wholly new. Aeronautical investigators have predicted for years such a possibility. Indeed, Captain Duchene in his celebrated work, "The Mechanics of the Airplane," dwelt with considerable force on this subject, and prophesied the adoption of the principle of variable incidence in future machines, to reduce or augment the drag which would give the pilot opportunity to check or increase his speed. He pointed out that existing difficulties "may be eventually overcome by the invention of the variable surface machine, which would permit a high speed to be maintained in normal flight while starting and landing could be accomplished at slow speed."
A machine based on this principle was produced in 1912 by Paul Schmitt, a Russian engineer living in France, and fully proved the correctness of the theory of variable incidence. This machine broke at the time several world's records for flights with five and more passengers. (A description of the Paul Schmitt airplane appeared in the October 1, 1917, issue of Aviation and Aeronautical Engineering.)
George Lanzius, a Hollander, who was working on this very theory at that time and built models of the same as early as 1911, continually improved his design until during the early part of 1917 he constructed a machine incorporating these features, which was successfully demonstrated in flight.
The outstanding features of this machine are:
- A cantilever frame, rigidly constructed to support the planes.
- Planes pivoted in frame capable of being operated by pilot from to 15 degrees.
- Ailerons pivoted on plane tips under the angle of about 15 degrees, movable in opposite directions transverse to the planes.
- A distinctive system of lateral control.
The machine is entirely built of steel, except for the wing frames. No wiring is used in the construction of the body, all members being joined by riveting. The cantilever frame is built up of stream-lined tubing and the wings are pivoted on this frame at the will of the pilot by means of a fixed worm-gear.
The wings are built up in the usual way of wooden frames and are covered with fabric. The drift wires do not run to the radiator frame but are fastened to the upper longerons of the body. The skeleton of the machine weighs complete 380 pounds.
The under carriage is built up of stream-lined V-struts and is equipped with resilient Ackerman wheels, which obviate the necessity for special shock absorbers. The control is of the stick type.
The characteristics of the Lanzius Speed Scout, as furnished by the manufacturer, are the following:
Span, upper plane 29 ft.
Span, lower plane 24 ft.
Chord, upper plane 4 ft.
Chord, lower plane 3 ft. 6 in.
Overall length 24 ft.
Overall height 8 ft. 6 in.
Weight, empty 1200 lb.
Weight, loaded 1800 lb.
Engine, Sturtevant 210 h. p.
High speed 140 m. p. h.
Low speed 40 m. p. h.
Fuel capacity 4 hrs. —Aviation, January.
United States Aircraft Production.—Howard E. Coffin, chairman of the Aircraft Production Board, has issued the following statement:
July 24, 1917, the date of the President's approval of the aircraft act. providing for the creation of the United States Military Air Service and providing $640,000,000 for its maintenance, marks the real beginning of aircraft history in this country.
About half of this amount appropriated was provided for the purchase of aircraft, of aircraft armament and equipment, and the remainder for the building up and maintenance of an air-service personnel greater than that of our entire standing army of a few months before.
At about this same time also our close contact with the allied air services was established through a strong military, technical, and industrial mission of more than 100 men sent to Europe. As a result of conference the policy of aircraft development mapped out for this country at that time was sevenfold.
This policy remains practically unchanged, and is as follows:
1. The United States to establish and maintain a great system of training stations, adequate both in ground schools and flying schools, to provide preliminary training for the personnel schedule.
Twenty-four great training stations were authorized under the bill to be built in accordance with the requirements scheduled in the air-service program. Nine grounds for the preliminary training of the flying personnel in technical matters were planned at nationally known universities. Both lines of work have been completed in accordance with schedule almost to a day. More than half of these training stations are already in full operation, and the others under construction in strict accordance with the general plan.
2. To accomplish an international standardization in aircraft materials, in detail of design and types, and to achieve such coordination of effort as would concentrate the manufacturing facilities of the various allied countries upon the minimum number of types of those machines for which the producing equipment was best fitted.
International specifications for aircraft materials have been prepared under the direction of the board by a committee representing the allied countries. A complete coordination of manufacturing facilities and policies has been agreed upon between the allied powers. Standardization in types, designs, and materials will continue to be carried forward under international agreement already in effect.
3. To construct primary training machines of quality and quantity approved by the Joint Army and Navy Technical Committee.
The production of standardized training machines approved by the Joint Army and Navy Committee will be in excess of the needs of the program by January 20. The production of these machines has been behind schedule because of the necessity for supplying training engines from this country to meet Canada's considerable requirements and because of the difficulties of a sudden increase of a manufacturing industry inadequate to the task.
4. To provide, equip, and train personnel for flyers and mechanics in accordance with schedule recommended by the Joint Army and Navy Technical Committee.
This program is progressing exactly on schedule. The training of both flyers and mechanics is provided for in this and in allied countries. Thousands of mechanics are being put into actual service with the allied forces. Trained men will be released as needed in the United States Air Service and their places kept filled with fresh material. Four of the northern flying schools near manufacturing centers have, in accordance with the training plans, been turned into mechanics' schools during the winter months. American flyers are in training in the United States and abroad and it is probable that the original program for pilots will be increased. The personnel for such increase is already available.
5. To provide raw and semi-finished materials and finished parts, including motors, to insure the consummation of the augmented allied aircraft-building programs.
This has been and is being done. All of the allied nations are in considerable degree dependent upon materials and parts shipped from the United States. It is vitally important that the American aircraft program be not permitted to interrupt this flow of materials to the Allies.
6. To provide for the equipment of the American forces in France for the period of January to June, 1918, in large part by purchase of fighting machines manufactured in allied countries, and to supply the machine tools and raw and semi-finished materials necessary to insure their production.
One of the first acts of the Aircraft Board after the passage of the appropriation bill in July was to authorize the placing by General Pershing of orders for several thousand fighting machines in allied. countries. This action was taken to insure adequate equipment of the American forces prior to June, 1918, in case of expected delays in manufacture and shipment of American-made service planes. Many millions of dollars' worth of materials and machine tools have been shipped from this country to aid this production.
7. To provide completed service machines, including combat and bombing types, for American need after July 1, 1918, and for such shipment of the finished product overseas as tonnage might permit.
In accordance with the plans originally agreed upon with allied governments, it was deemed advisable to provide for advanced training overseas adjacent to the actual theater of military operations, but so energetic has been the work of the personnel division of the Signal Corps that the training facilities thus provided have been soon overcrowded, with resultant request that early arrangement for advanced training be made in America. To meet this change in program, delivery of advanced training planes will begin this month and within go days will have met requirements. The engines of foreign design for this advanced training schedule are already in quantity production in this country.
In discussing the accomplishments of the air service in the consummation of the army program, it will be well to point out the impossibility of certain proposals enthusiastically and persistently put forward by word of mouth and in the press. We have seen and heard much of the proposal of "100,000 airplanes" to be provided by the United States within the next year. In a country where one great industry produces a million and a half motor cars per year the fabrication of a hundred thousand planes might seem easy, but actual figures based upon three years of practical experience in the war show that there are now between 40 and 50 men of the auxiliary services required for each active machine at the front. If this same ratio should be adhered to in our service it would mean that some four million men would be required in our aeronautical department on foreign soil between our ports of debarkation and the fighting front.
Even though this number of men could be reduced by 50 per cent by increased efficiency and standardization, the number required is still staggering. Consider, also, the overseas transportation problem as related to material only and without reference to personnel and its maintenance. The transportation of finished planes, properly crated, with the necessary spares, accessories, and equipment is in itself a serious problem, in view of the situation in ship tonnage.
Again, the problem of proper housing behind the battle Hues in Europe of such great numbers of planes as are carelessly discussed may well be left to sober thought.
Every policy in the development of the American Air Service has been decided upon recommendation of our technical advisers in daily consultation in allied countries, and under advice of an inter-allied staff of half a hundred experts assigned to our air service in the United States.
Every decision of the Aircraft Board has been based upon the military policies of the front. Daily cable communications with allied countries are maintained. The freest possible exchange of information, machine designs, and aircraft experts with foreign countries is in effect. Airplanes and engines of the very latest European development are going into production in the United States as quickly as, and perhaps more quickly and in greater quantities, than in allied countries. The feat of getting the 12-cylinder U. S. A. or so-called Liberty engine from the first scratch on paper in June to the beginning of production of quantity manufacturing tools in November is one never equaled even among the spectacular performances of the American motor-car business.
In June, from one to three weeks were required to deliver a properly authorized contract to a manufacturer after all details of the negotiation had been settled. To-day, a few hours only are needed. The slowness of the government departments in paying for the goods delivered has been a contractor's complaint of long standing. For 60 days past, in the disbursement of millions, no Signal Corps account properly presented has remained unpaid longer than one day after the delivery of the material.
Wherever facilities for manufacture have been offered which have seemed to promise reliable sources of supply in considerable quantity, investigation has been made by industrial experts to determine the value of these concerns in connection with the production program. Obviously, dependence for deliveries of the types of machines standardized by the War Department could only be placed upon large concerns amply financed and controlled by organizations familiar with the processes of duplicate quantity production.
Since the passage of the aircraft bill in July, hundreds of concerns have asked for contracts to manufacture planes. Inasmuch as an organization of government accountants, inspectors, and production men must be maintained in each plant engaged upon the aircraft program, the complication, expense, and general impossibility of splitting up the work among a multitude of small contractors, each capable of producing but a few machines, should be clear. The government's best interests lay in safeguarding delivery in the most efficient way and at the lowest price, and required the building up of a nucleus of strong concerns to serve as the backbone of the aircraft program. Should the allied governments contemplate, as the war progresses, a further extension of American producing resources, there will be no difficulty in building up new sources of supply in every line of the work.
The policy pursued by the War and Navy departments, under direction of the board, has of necessity brought criticism from many quarters upon the part of small concerns or upon the part of those institutions unfitted because of location or of labor or other unsatisfactory conditions. Contracts have been requested upon the part of many concerns minus experience in the manufacture of such highly specialized goods and having not the slightest comprehension of the intricate ramifications involved in airplane and airplane-motor construction.
New sources of supply, flying fields, the experimental laboratory, and other activities under the direction of the board have been purposely located west of the Allegheny Mountains, in accordance with the stated policy of the military departments, to remove sources of war supply "200 miles from the seacoast," and to avoid the labor congestion which exists in all eastern industrial centers. The reasons for such a policy are too obvious to require comment.
Established plants of the motor car industry are being largely utilized in the program of aircraft-motor production, but automobile concerns are not being employed in airplane construction. In general, the statement may be made that not a single automobile factory is in any way involved in the plane-building industry. The reasons for utilizing the motor-building talent of the third largest of the world's industries permit no argument.
There has been established in Paris under the direction of the Aircraft Board a joint army and navy aircraft committee to coordinate the activities of army and navy in foreign territory and to form a direct channel of contact between the inter-allied aviation committee and the Aircraft Board in Washington.
The board has arranged with foreign governments for a free interchange of manufacturing rights and patents governing aircraft for the duration of the war. Endless business negotiations with foreign private interests have thus been avoided and delays have been eliminated and the expenditure of many millions of dollars prevented.—Official Bulletin, 11/1.
MERCHANT MARINE
Skinner and Eddy Launch First Ship for United States Shipping Board.—Before 15,000 spectators the steamship Seattle, the first ship to take the water under the United States Shipping Board's contracts, was launched at the plant of the Skinner and Eddy Ship-Building Corporation, Seattle, Wash., on Saturday, November 24, at 12.30 p. m. To commemorate the event the Shipping Board permitted this ship to be christened with the name of the city which had turned out their first product.
Under the Shipping Board contracts the Seattle received the official number 83, that many contracts having been awarded before the Skinner and Eddy Corporation received their six. As the Seattle is patterned after the same design as the other 8800-ton cargo carriers turned out by that plant, everything was ripe for a speedy delivery of this ship, and within 72 working days after the keel was laid, Dave Rogers, the works manager, and his band of loyal workers had this ship in the water.
The sponsor for the Seattle was Mrs. Ernest Lister, wife of Governor Lister of Washington.
The Seattle is the eleventh ship turned out by the Skinner and Eddy yard in less than 20 months, number 10 being the War Flame, which was launched in 64 working days from the day the keel was laid, thus establishing a world's record for the construction of ships of the 8800-ton deadweight class.
At the same moment the Seattle was launched the Ames Ship-Building and Dry Dock Company, of Seattle, launched their first product, which is called the War Brigade.
Two more launchings are scheduled at the Skiner and Eddy plant before December 31, and during the next year it is expected that more than 14 ships will be sent down the ways at this plant.—Marine Engineering, January, 1918.
Vessel Launched at Yard Begun Seven Months Ago.—A telegram to the Shipping Board told of the launching at Los Angeles of the first steel merchant ship contracted for by the Emergency Fleet Corporation. The vessel was one of eight of 8800 tons' capacity each ordered May 12 from S. L. Napthaly.
Turning out the vessel within seven months, when the yard in which it was built had to be constructed after the contract was awarded, was hailed by Shipping Board officials as demonstrating what American industry can do in an emergency.
One vessel contracted for by the Emergency Fleet Corporation already has been launched, but it came from the yard at Seattle, which has been in operation for many years.—N. Y. Herald, 17/12.
Our Shipbuilding Program.—Writing recently in Sea Power Walter R. Alexander, attorney of the United States Shipping Board, states in part that the following table is a summary of the complete ship-building program of the board.
All of the vessels represented in the above program will be suitable for overseas commerce. As a basis for comparison it may be stated that at the commencement of the present world war the United States had less than 1,000,000 tons deadweight of ships registered for foreign trade, and has at the present time about 4,571,000 tons deadweight registered therefore.—Scientific American, 29/12.
May Take Sailing Ships.—Requisitioning of all American sailing vessels was forecast to-day when the Shipping Board requested the Department of Commerce to report the location of such vessels. Secretary Redfield replied that 175 sailing vessels, with a cargo-carrying capacity of 425,000 tons, now are within or adjacent to American territorial waters.
There are nearly 500 sailing vessels of 1000 tons or larger flying the American flag, and it is being urged that in this time of stress, when the liberty of the world depends on shipment of food and supplies to Europe, the vessels should be taken from private business and put into the public service. Of the 175 vessels which could be made immediately available, 76 are in ballast, 90 are loaded and 9 are undergoing repairs which will be finished soon. The other vessels are scattered.—N. Y. Times, 4/1.
Naval Crews for Merchant Vessels.—If it were some new theory advanced in favor of a special interest the question of manning merchant vessels with naval crews or with a definite proportion of naval crews might be open to further inquiry and discussion. But behind this proposition is a solid body of practice established during eight months' experience of war and demonstrating that the conditions on board chartered commercial vessels have been detrimental to the efficiency so vitally demanded.
No reflection on the skill and patriotism of merchant officers enters, nor does any proof exist that naval officers and crews embarked have in such circumstances assumed to exercise any undue authority, but clashes have been frequent between the two elements and transportation has suffered. War is war, and the organization of merchant vessels, however well suited to ordinary voyages in peace, does not lend itself either in kind or degree to the new and strange requirements of hostilities. Then, too, naval discipline varies in many essentials from that enforced in the mercantile marine, and this alone must result, and has resulted, in the friction and danger created.
Relief is promised for these anomalous conditions. The sub-committee of the House Naval Committee inquiring into the navy's conduct of the war will, it is reported, recommend legislation for manning merchant vessels with enlisted men of the navy. The scope of this intended measure has not been revealed, but it is a departure in a right direction and it is hoped that Congress will accept it, a proper recognition of the rights of merchant officers and a due regard for their susceptibilities being observed.—N. Y. Herald, 11/1.
Forty-one Ships by End of February.—Forty-one ships of approximately 300,000 tonnage will be delivered to the Emergency Fleet Corporation from their ways by the end of February. This announcement was made to-night by E. N. Hurley, chairman of the United States Shipping Board.
These ships were requisitioned from private owners by the government for war purposes. Eighteen of them will be completed during January, with a total deadweight tonnage of 145,091. Twenty-three will be finished by the end of February, with total deadweight tonnage of 182,061.
These ships for the most part are cargo vessels and tankers.
Their place of delivery, builders and type follow:
Seattle—Seattle Ship-Building Company, three cargo ships; Skinner and Eddy, one tanker, one cargo; Ames, two cargo.
Portland, Ore.—Williamette, three cargo; Albina, two cargo.
Oakland, Cal.—Moore and Scott, three cargo.
Newport News—Newport News Ship-Building and Drydock Company, one cargo, one tanker.
Quincy, Mass.—Bethlehem—Fore River plant, two cargoes.
San Francisco—Bethlehem, one cargo, three tankers.
Columbia River or Puget Sound—Duthie, four cargoes; Columbia, one cargo.
Baltimore—Baltimore, two cargoes.
Philadelphia—Cramps, one passenger and cargo.
Port of New York—Cramps, two cargoes and passenger.
Gloucester, N. J.—Pennsylvania, two tankers.
Delaware River—Chester, one cargo, one tanker.
Port Richmond, N. Y.—Staten Island, one cargo.
Camden, N. J.—New York, one collier.
Long Beach, California—Craig, one cargo.
Wilmington, Del.—Bethlehem-Harlan plant, one cargo. —Baltimore American, 14/1.
Puts Ship Output at 5,000,000 Tons.—To the statement of H. L. Ferguson before the Senate Commerce Committee that only 3,000,000 tons of shipping would be constructed in American yards this year, Edward N. Hurley, chairman of the Shipping Board, replied to-day with the assertion that the total output would be approximately 5.000,000 tons. In support of this a Lloyd's report was quoted, which put the capacity of American yards at from 4.500,000 tons to the 5,000.000 estimate of Mr. Hurley. Lloyd's, it was stated, did not take into consideration the plans for speeding up work in the yards.
Facts concerning the activities in shipyards, where government contracts are being handled, were presented. There are now 118 yards, which are 95 per cent completed, and in them are 716 ways, 416 for steel ships, and 300 for wooden ships. On December 22 there were 171,274 men employed in shipyards, as compared with 105,497 hi October. It has been estimated that at least two wooden ships will be constructed on each way during the year and three to four steel ships. Plans are making to provide sufficient ways for all new construction possible with the materials obtainable.
Ship-builders are being urged to put on three shifts a day, and in some this program has been adopted. A campaign has been started to obtain sufficient men for the three shifts. At least 382,000 more workers will be required.
Charges that "Steel Trust" officials blocked a plan by which the government was to get steel for ship plates at one-third less than it is paying were made before the Senate committee to-day by L. P. Featherstone, president of the Texas Steel Company.
Featherstone proposed to sell to the government ore lands in Texas and coal properties in Alabama and erect a steel plant at Beaumont to make steel ship plates at about $45 a ton, as against $65 that other steel companies are charging the government. This plan, he said, was referred by the Shipping Board to the Council of National Defence and thence to a sub-committee on which were C. M. Schwab and other officials of large companies.
"They turned me down on the excuse that the government was not prepared to go into business for itself," said Featherstone. "I might not have expected anything different from the crowd of dollar-a-year men who were beneficiaries of high prices. There has not been an independent concern in the United States large enough to permit the government to be free from the men who control the steel output since Roosevelt surrendered to Frick and Gary and allowed them to take over the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company."—N. Y. Times, 11/1.
Merchant Captains Warned.—Complaints that American merchant ship captains have not cooperated with commanders of convoys and with naval gun-crew commanders caused the Department of Commerce to issue instructions to-day to merchant officers to follow the directions of their naval associates in every instance where they are prompted by military necessity. Disobedience of the instructions, it is pointed out, will cause the withdrawal of merchant officers' licenses.
The instructions make clear, however, that in matters relating solely to navigation and to the discipline of crews the authority of merchant captains will lie upheld.—Baltimore Sun, 20/12.
U. S. Merchant-Marine Personnel.—The great work for which the Shipping Board's recruiting service was created, the building up of an all-American personnel of officers and men for the new ships, has been going on since last June. It began with the training of officers at free schools in navigation and marine engineering at various ports on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and the Great Lakes. At these schools about 600 men a term are being trained, the engineering term being one month, and the navigation term about six weeks. On graduating, these students are sent to sea as reserve officers of the merchant marine, for further training, preliminary to their being licensed as mates or engineers.
By this method enough American officers have been trained in the past six months to keep pace with the demand arising from our increased merchant tonnage, not less than 3000 licenses having been issued in that time by the Steamboat-Inspection Service, which examines all candidates for licenses, under exacting requirements as to their experience and fitness. No man without proper sea experience can be licensed.
The supply of man-power from which these officers were drawn has by no means been exhausted. Our training schools for officers to-day are going on with their work with well-filled classes. We have navigation schools at Rockland and Portland, Me., at Cambridge, Mass., New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Newport News, and Norfolk, Jacksonville, Mobile, New Orleans and Galveston, San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, Ore., and Tacoma and Bellingham, Wash.
We have free engineering schools at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, the Stevens Institute, Hoboken, at Philadelphia, at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, at the Case School of Applied Science Cleveland, at Washington University, Seattle, and at Tulane University, New Orleans.
I submit that these facts are significant of our strength as a seagoing nation and of the virility of our new merchant marine.
The recruiting service of the Shipping Board is now engaged in an extension of its work to embrace the training of crews for our new ships, including seamen, firemen, oilers, water-tenders, cooks and stewards, in accordance with authority received from the board on December 7. On December 12 announcement of the board's training plan was made at Washington.
American seamen came forward at once to enter the new training service, not less than 500 applying at my office in the Boston Custom House in the first five days after the plan was announced, for service in what I may term the rank and file of the new merchant crews. The applications came from all parts of the country and from Americans in all walks of life. A considerable number of applicants gave evidence of education, and some stated they were college graduates. All counted it an honor to serve their country in its commercial fleets.
Our plan for preparing these men for service at sea is based on the best experience of our own and other maritime nations. It calls for the use of a squadron of training ships to take men to sea for intensive drilling in the duties of the mercantile mariner.
One ship already is in commission, another is being prepared for service, and steps are being taken to secure a third, for service in this squadron, which will have a home station at Boston. It is planned to extend this training service, if circumstances permit, to the Gulf and the Pacific Coast, with a training ship to be based on a port in each of these sections.
It is expected that six weeks of intensive drill at sea will fit a man of ordinary intelligence for duties as seaman, and a month for those of fireman. These are the two arms of the service in which there is the greatest need of capable men.
Careful thought was given to employing the most effective method of training, and it was decided that assigning a trained man of long experience to a squad of 10 men, and making him responsible for their satisfactory advancement, was the best method to pursue.
Students of the subject will recognize in this system a principle long advocated by friends of a strong national merchant marine, and successfully employed in the work of various states in training boys for the merchant service by the use of school ships, notably Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania. These school ships necessarily have had a limited output of graduates, and their system of training, though thorough, has been slow. The Shipping Board's training ships expand the workable idea they represent, to meet a war emergency, and to lay the foundation of a greater merchant marine when peace returns.
None but citizens may enter the Shipping Board's training service, and the enthusiasm with which the actual work of training is being carried out seems to me to assure ail-American crews for our new ships, such as have so long been the dream of all true friends of our merchant marine.—Shipping, 5/1.
Suggestions for Safety.—The Shipping Board has issued a booklet giving practical suggestions for traversing the war zone. The regulations cover the berthing of passengers, plugging shell holes, fastening bulkheads, tunnels, doors and other vital parts, and also the distributing of seamen's discharge books upon entering the danger zone. Passengers and seamen are warned to keep themselves warmly clothed and ready for any emergency. Copies of this publication can be had from the Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.—Marine Journal, 29/12.
Shipyard Efficiency.—In order to increase the shipyard worker's efficiency, men from the various steel ship-building plants are to undergo special training. They will be selected from different yards and undergo a period of six weeks' training. At the end of that time they will return to their respective yards and impart their knowledge to those engaged in construction work. The first class to undergo training will number about 200. The school will be held at the plant of the Newport News Ship-Building and Dry Dock Company, at Newport News, Va., which affords special facilities for training of this character. A reference to the Nautical Gazette of September 28, 1916, reveals the following interest displayed by that company for its operatives:
"Co-operating with the public schools and the Y. M. C. A., the company (Newport News Ship-Building and Dry Dock Company) has caused to be instituted in those buildings extensive evening school courses. All boys employed by this company are urged to attend one or more of these classes, due credit being given on the employment record for such attendance, and liberal rewards made for excellence of record. The courses embrace arithmetic, commercial arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, shop-sketching, plan-reading, mechanical drawing and a graded course in English. Work is also offered in English for foreigners and in elementary branches for colored boys and men."
With the foregoing as a basis one may expect good results from the new system of training.—Nautical Gazette, 15/11.
PERSONNEL
Retired Navy Officers Recalled to Service.—The war has called back into active service nearly 500 retired officers of the navy, and 138 former officers who resigned in past years to enter civil life are now serving in the Fleet Naval Reserve.
There are 22 retired rear admirals, 18 commodores, and 34 captains on active duty, including many who have held important commands in the Spanish-American War, on service in Mexican waters, and in other operations of the navy. Seventy-nine retired commanders are in active service, 36 lieutenant commanders, 30 lieutenants, 25 lieutenants (junior grade), 28 ensigns, and many others in various other grades. One retired surgeon general, 3 medical inspectors, 6 medical directors, 8 surgeons, 5 passed assistant surgeons, and 4 assistant surgeons are on active service.
Former Secretary of the Navy Truman H. Newberry has been commissioned lieutenant commander, the highest temporary rank that could be given him under the law, and is now in command of the Naval Reserve Force of the Third District, New York.—Official Bulletin, 17/12.
Men for Flying Corps.—Eight thousand men with special technical training are needed by the navy for the ground personnel of the Naval Flying Corps. Secretary Daniels has authorized the enlistment of this number, and recruiting officers have been directed to begin a drive to get the men.
There is an immediate need for mechanicians for naval aviation for the ratings of machinists' mates, carpenters' mates, quartermasters, coppersmiths and blacksmiths. These men will not be enlisted for pilot's duties, but will receive special training in the building, handling, repairing and overhauling of the navy's aircraft.—N. Y. Herald, 12/1.
Thirty Appointed as Assistant Civil Engineers in the Navy.—Thirty candidates who passed a recent examination have been appointed to fill 10 vacancies and 20 temporary positions in the grade of assistant civil engineer, United States Navy. The strength of the Corps of Civil Engineers, formerly composed of 30 civil engineers and 36 assistant civil engineers, is now increased to 96.
The 233 candidates who took the preliminary examination represented 65 colleges, universities, and technical schools, coming from 37 states and from England, Canada, Russia, France, Switzerland, and the territory of Hawaii. Of this number, 80 passed the preliminary examination and were authorized to appear at Washington, D. C, for the final. Out of the 73 reporting, 23 failed to qualify physically, leaving 50 to compete in the written examination. Thirty of these, representing 19 colleges and coming from 12 states, qualified in this final test, and have been appointed assistant civil engineers with the rank of lieutenant (junior grade).—Official Bulletin, 14/1.
Sixty New Officers of Engineering Corp.—Some 60 new officers of the naval engineering corps arrived at the Naval Academy, January 8, for a month's intensive training along that and other military lines.
Admiral Eberle, Superintendent of the Naval Academy, who is their chief during the stay of these young officers there, made a short address to them upon their arrival.
Admiral Eberle outlined the best methods of acquiring instruction while the corps is in training at the Naval Academy, where they have come to receive this instruction, and gave the young officers some good, wholesome advice.
The new engineer corps, numbering 60 officers, is quartered in Section B, Temporary Quarters at the Naval Academy.—Evening Gazette, 11/1.
New Naval Officers.—After not quite 15 weeks' intensive training in the practical side of naval officering, between 100 and 130 young junior lieutenants, who a few months ago left their civil vocations at the call of the government, were detached from the Naval Academy. The young officers, who come from all walks of life and almost all professions and trades, were sent immediately to ships and shore stations for immediate duty.—Baltimore American, 10/1.
War Speeds Graduation of Midshipmen.—The present "first" class of midshipmen is to be graduated on June 6, 1918, from the Naval Academy, according to information received at Annapolis. December 29.
Ordinarily this class would not have completed its course until June, 1919, but it was advanced a year in the "speeding-up" program to provide officers for the service made necessary by expansion due to the war.
A class was graduated June 18 last and another last February.—Washington Star, 30/12.
Navy Officers Warned.—In order that domestic affairs may not interfere with the attention of naval officers to their official duties. Secretary Daniels has forbidden officers establishing their families in the immediate vicinity of the ships on which they are serving. The prohibition is carried in a general order which says:
" The attention of all officers of the navy and marine corps is directed to the fact that, due to the very large number of vessels to be commissioned in the near future, and to the limited number of officers available, it becomes absolutely necessary for every officer to devote his entire time and attention to the preparation of every element of the fleet for meeting the enemy.
"In order that there may be no distraction from this duty, neither officers nor men should attempt to have their families in the immediate vicinity of the vessels upon which they are serving, particularly in the vicinity of fleet bases, and the department looks with decided disapproval upon such procedure."—N.Y. Times, 17/1.
Increase in Number of Midshipmen at Annapolis is Urged.—Mr. Daniels, Secretary of the Navy, recommended to-day that Congress increase the number of midshipmen which each senator and representative may appoint to the Naval Academy from three to live. Special emphasis was placed on the need for more naval officers in a letter sent by Secretary Daniels to Speaker Clark. He said that these officers ought to be trained in Annapolis, "the school which Congress has provided and employed for training line officers."
In addition to allowing five appointments to each senator, representative and delegate in Congress, the bill submitted by Secretary Daniels provides for the appointment of 100 enlisted men to the Academy.—N. Y. Herald, 12/1.
Marine Corps Increase.—The latest unofficial estimates are that a marine corps of 75,000 men will be required within the next year to meet all naval needs and to maintain a division of marines in France. Naturally, the corps is waiting anxiously for Major General George Barnett to appear before the naval committees of Congress and explain just how many men are needed to meet the demands on the corps in all directions.
If the navy is given the increase of 78,000 men recommended by the Bureau of Navigation and if the marine corps is increased from its present 30,000 by only one-fifth of the navy increase, that would give a total marine corps of 45,600.
The marines aspire to increase their representation in France from a brigade to a complete division, including artillery and auxiliary troops. A corps of 45,600 would not be large enough to enable them to do this, if the needs of the navy for the services of marines also are to be met.
In view of the necessity of providing replacement troops for the marine forces that may be sent to and kept in France, it is a conservative estimate that a corps of some 75,000 men would l)e required to maintain a division in France and for the various organizations and detachments to meet the demands of the navy for advance-base service, yards, stations, ships, etc.
In view of the high opinion of the marine corps held in Congress, it will not be surprising if authority is given at this session for increase of the corps to 75,000 men. An increase especially is necessary, aside from the immediate needs, in order that the excellent training facilities of the corps, which have practically completed the work of bringing the present force to a high state of efficiency and are not now being used to capacity, may be further utilized.—Washington Post, 6/1.
Navy Likely to Man all Trade Vessels.—The manning by the navy of all vessels belonging to the merchant marine of the United States, whether such vessels are used as transports, supply ships or cargo carriers, seems likely as a result of a conference held to-day at the Navy Department between Mr. Daniels, Secretary of the Navy, Edward N. Hurley, Chairman of the Shipping Board, and Andrew Furuseth, representing the Seamen's Union.
Little has been written, although much is known of conditions prevailing on virtually all of the ships manned by members of the Seamen's Union, conditions which not only have retarded the operation of such vessels and delayed them in transit, but conduct by men of the crews which has seriously jeopardized the property of the United States and the lives of all on board such vessels.
The Navy Department has refused positively to operate vessels which are not manned exclusively by enlisted men. The Shipping Board is known to favor the manning of all vessels which are not under the control of the Navy Department with members of the Naval Reserve, but it is prevented from carrying this arrangement into effect by an agreement made several months ago with the Seamen's Union, which does not expire until next August.—N Y. Herald, 28/12.
LESSONS OF THE WAR
The Apotheosis of the Destroyer.—Only a few months before the war naval opinion was disposed to anticipate the early disappearance of the torpedo-boat destroyer. It was already looked upon as a nondescript type, which had outlived its usefulness, and was fated soon to be superseded by the swift submarine, just as the destroyer itself had superseded the torpedo-gunboat 20 years before. But this view has not been borne out by the experience of the war. On the contrary, for all-round utility the destroyer to-day probably holds the palm, and it is no secret that every one of the belligerent sea powers is turning out vessels of this type as rapidly as possible. Among the German boats reported as having been in action during the present year were several bearing numbers which, in the normal course of events, would have belonged to destroyers built under the 1919-1920 program, and there is other evidence to show that between 80 and 100 new boats have been added to the German fleet since 1914. So far as this country is concerned, statements made in Parliament by Admiralty representatives leave no doubt that destroyer construction has occupied, and still occupies, a leading place in our naval shipbuilding policy, and it will not have escaped attention that many new destroyer names, such as the Mary Rose and Stronghow—lost in the recent convoy attack in the North Sea—have been mentioned in the official communiqués. The Jutland battle dispatches also specified several destroyers which did not appear in the pre-war navy lists. The truth is that the destroyer bridges an important gap in the modern naval organization. It comes between the submarine and the light cruiser, and it has certain qualities which neither of these possess at present, nor are likely to possess in the near future. Compared with the submarine, it has the advantage of superior mobility, and, in certain circumstances, of greater offensive power. From the last-named quality arises, we believe, the fact that the number of submarines sunk by destroyer attack is considerably in excess of the number of destroyers lost through submarine attack. To heavier surface ships, such as battleships and cruisers, the submarine may be a more formidable menace than the destroyer, but that it is remains yet to be proved. Even so, however, the submarine menace itself has given the destroyer a new lease of life, for the heavy ships now rely mainly on the destroyer to defend them from underwater attack.
Taking the characteristics of the destroyers built by the principal naval powers immediately before the war, we find a certain similarity in the main features, which suggests the evolution of a universal design. There were notable exceptions, it is true, but the tendency on the whole was towards a uniform standard. The displacement averaged 1000 tons, the speed ranged from 29 ½ to 35 knots, and the armament generally included several guns of at least 4-inch caliber, besides torpedo tubes. In the minor details there was more divergence, especially in armament. The British practice was to strengthen artillery power, while the Germans appear to have laid more stress on the torpedo, and their latest pre-war boats carried six tubes, but only a couple of low-velocity guns. In the United States an effort was made to combine both offensive elements in the highest degree, and the 1914 destroyers carry no less than 12 torpedo tubes, in addition to four 4-inch guns. The French boats of the Boucher class, launched in 1910 and onward, represented something of a compromise both in displacement and armament, for the units of this class vary from 690 to 900 tons, and are equipped with two 4-inch and four 9-pounder guns, and four tubes. Some of them attained what were then regarded as extremely high speeds, the name ship of the class having made 35.4 knots on the measured mile. Italian constructors, following, as usual, a line of their own, built several remarkable vessels, which seemed to foreshadow the fusion of the destroyer with the light cruiser. From the Indomito class of 1911 they proceeded to the Carlo Mirabello group, jumping from 700 tons to 1500, but reducing the speed from 35 to 32 knots. All the later Italian boats were heavily armed, mounting at least one 4.7- inch gun, though the number of tubes rarely exceeded three. Russia had adopted the Novik as the model for all her new destroyers, and had 36 boats of this class under construction on the outbreak of war. The Novik was 338 feet in length, displaced 1260 tons, and with engines of 40,200 horsepower had developed the remarkable speed of 37.3 knots. Her armament consisted of four 4.1-inch Q. F., several lighter guns, and six torpedo tubes mounted in pairs. Judging by these details she was one of the most formidable destroyers in existence, and her large capacity for oil fuel gave her a very wide radius of action. Among the lesser powers Chili was foremost in developing the destroyer. In 1910 she ordered from British yards a group of boats which, although classified as destroyers, were in many respects more akin to light cruisers. They displaced 1430 tons, and had machinery intended to realize 32 knots. The armament consisted of six 4-inch guns, with three torpedo tubes. Both the exceptionally high freeboard and the roomy accommodation for the crew made them very seaworthy and habitable vessels, while the fuel capacity of 500 tons was sufficient for a cruise of several thousand miles. Thus in armament, sea-keeping qualities, and radius they were equal, if not superior, to the average third-class cruiser, and had the additional advantage of extremely high speed. Turbine machinery and oil fuel are the factors mainly responsible for the striking development of the destroyer type in recent years. Great displacement is no longer essential to the attainment of high velocity, nor does the maintenance of maximum speed entail any particular hardship on the firemen or engineers. The fact that displacement has increased is principally due to the desire to mount a more powerful armament and to obtain better nautical qualities. But it has been shown that all these desiderata may be comprised in a vessel of not more than 1000 tons, and when the records of the war become available, we shall probably find that a vast amount of useful work was performed by the destroyer of moderate tonnage. Vessels of this type have been largely used for patrol and convoy duty, in place of the more costly but equally vulnerable light cruiser, and they are simply invaluable for anti-submarine work. According to the American Naval Secretary, "they are the one thing that a submarine fears."
Without a detailed knowledge of all that has occurred at sea during the war, it is impossible to forecast with any certainty the lines of future naval development. But, with this reservation, we venture to assert that the destroyer is assured of a prominent place in the category of naval weapons for a good many years yet. more especially as, for the time being at least, it is the most effective antidote to the submarine. That underwater craft will steadily grow in efficiency is not to be doubted, but years must elapse before they can compete with the destroyer in speed and handiness, and until that happens the latter will retain its high tactical value both for ordinary patrol duty and as a means of protection against the submarine. The battle of Jutland showed, moreover, that the destroyer is still to be reckoned with as a potent weapon against the capital ship. Throughout that engagement no ship on either side fell a victim to attack by submarines, but several German ships were sunk by destroyers. As the satellite of a battle squadron the destroyer is able to perform a variety of useful services. It can blind and confuse the enemy's gunners by throwing a pall of smoke over the target, it is ready at all times to beat off torpedo attack either from below or on the surface, or itself to dash in against the enemy's swiftly-moving line and assail him with torpedoes. The submarine as yet can do none of these things. Although exact figures are not available, we believe the modern destroyer costs no more than the modern submarine, but whereas the military value of the latter is very restricted, that of the destroyer is almost unlimited. As we have observed, therefore, the destroyer, so far from having outlived its usefulness, has established itself more firmly than ever as an indispensable unit of the naval organization, and seems certain to be perpetuated as a distinct type for a long time to come.—Engineer, 7/12.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Three Lost on Navy Tug.—Three men were fatally and a fourth seriously injured in the fuel-oil fire on a navy tug at an Atlantic port yesterday, the Navy Department announced tonight.—Baltimore Sun, 16/12.
Customs on Parcels to Naval Force in England.—The British Board of Customs announces that gift parcels containing dutiable goods may be delivered free of duty when intended for officers and men of the United States Navy in the United Kingdom, provided they are for delivery on board ship in which addressee is serving. When intended for members of the United States Army in the United Kingdom, parcels should be addressed to regimental address of recipient; when intended for soldiers of American nationality in British or Canadian armies or for American medical officers serving in British military or base hospitals, parcels should be addressed in care of Committee for American Soldiers and Sailors of the American Red Cross, 154 New Bond Street, London, which committee will verify right of addressee to duty-free concession and arrange for delivery of parcels. Dutiable goods must be specifically described as tobacco, cigarettes, chocolate, etc. The foregoing relates solely to dutiable goods imported by parcels post.—Shipping, 22/12.
The Dreadnought "Texas" Wins Gunnery Laurels.—The dreadnought Texas established the highest record for gunnery practice last year, the Navy Department announced to-day, and will receive the Knox trophy, which is awarded annually to battleships scoring the highest number of points.
Captain Victor Blue, who commanded the Texas during the practice maneuvers, has been ordered to Boston to receive the trophy from the Sons of the American Revolution.—N. Y. Herald, 15/1.
United States to Control Manila Hemp.—The government has announced its intention to take action looking to the control of the purchase and distribution of manila hemp. It is expected in the next few days details of the plan will be announced.—Official Bulletin, 10/1.
Six Seamen Killed; Three Hurt.—Six men were killed and three injured on the U. S. S. Michigan when the ship was caught in a heavy gale at sea, it was officially announced to-day.
The men were killed and injured by the falling of a cage mast, the first accident of its kind in the navy.—Evening Star, 7/1.
Winter Clothes.—Paymaster General McGowan furnished to the committee samples of winter clothing and boots and gave positive assurance that there was an ample supply of these articles on hand. Surgeon General Braisted told the committee that the average health conditions in the navy were better than the average health of men in civil life.—Official Bulletin, 12/1.
Medals of Honor.—Urge your member of Congress to vote favorably upon a resolution permitting American soldiers and sailors to receive from the allied governments medals of honor awarded them for their brave and splendid work in this war.
At least a dozen such medals awarded by the British Government to officers and seamen of the naval forces operating under Vice Admiral Sims are now being held by the State Department. But the Constitution of the United States forbids their accepting any medal or other recognition of service from a foreign government, except upon the express consent of Congress.
Obviously this is a time when Congress should grant such a permission. It does not, as a matter of international courtesy, harmonize with the relationship now existing between this government and the allied governments to refuse them the right to make appropriate acknowledgment of American services in the common cause.
The Navy League believes also that the government should make known the names and the deeds of these men cited for bravery by our Allies. As history is but the shadow of great men, patriotism is largely a reflection from the deeds of brave men. We need this inspiration of the acts of these men to give us the will to win.—Sea Power, January, 1918.
Navy Oil Bill in.—A bill prepared by the Navy Department to authorize the government to take possession either by contract, lease or otherwise, upon the issuance of an executive order, of all oil land set aside as naval reserves in California or Wyoming, was to-day introduced by Senator Swanson, of the Naval Committee.—Baltimore American, 12/1.
Americans Finish Work on Hayti Military Road.—The military road between Port au Prince and Cape Haitien, built by the gendarmerie under the direction of the American army of occupation, has been finished.
Lieutenant Colonel Butler, commanding the United States Marine Corps, in charge of the work, made the first journey over the highway in an automobile at the head of a gay procession to-day.
The occasion was a holiday, the people highly appreciating the work undertaken by the Americans and thus successfully completed.—N. Y. Herald, 21/12.
Passes Bill to Protect Mysterious Invention.—The House bill for patent protection of "Garabed," a mysterious invention, said to be a source of limitless energy, was passed to-day by the Senate. It now goes to President Wilson. At the close of the last session the President gave the bill a docket veto. Garabed T. K. Giragossian, a Boston Armenian, is the inventor. He declined to reveal his secret fully until Congress protected it, and made such satisfactory explanations to the Patents Committee that they recommended passage of the bill.—N. Y. Herald, 17/1.