PROFESSIONAL NOTES
Prepared by Lieutenant C. C. Gill, U. S. Navy
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
Naval Powers:
* Argentine ......................................... 564
* Austria .............................................. 564
* Brazil ................................................. 564
* France .............................................. 565
* Germany .......................................... 565
* Great Britain ..................................... 567
* Holland ............................................. 572
* Italy .................................................. 573
* Japan ................................................ 573
* Portugal ............................................ 574
* Russia................................................ 575
* Spain................................................. 575
* United States ................................... 576
Order of sub-topics under the powers
.................................................................... vessels building,
.................................................................... battleships,
.................................................................... cruisers,
.................................................................... destroyers,
.................................................................... submarines,
.................................................................... auxiliaries,
.................................................................... personnel,
.................................................................... naval policy.
Navigation ..................................................... 600
Ordnance and Gunnery:
Guns ............................................. •............ 602
Explosives ................................................... 603
Projectiles ...................................................... 605
Engineering ................................................... 609
Submarines .................................................... 610
Aeronautics ................................................... 615
Radio ............................................................ 617
Canals .......................................................... 618
Miscellaneous ................................................ 619
Current Naval and Professional Papers.............. 624
NAVAL POWERS
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
A notable evidence of the splendid work accomplished by American shipbuilders is seen in the final acceptance of the superdreadnoughts Moreno and Rivadavia by the Argentine Republic, announced in the following cable received February 21 by President Powell, of the Fore River Shipbuilding Company, of Quincy, Mass.: “ Guarantee of one year in full active service, superdreadnoughts Rivadavia and Moreno, now expired, and both warships are accepted by Argentine Republic as thoroughly conforming to all specifications. Turbines have worked without hitch, each vessel having covered over 15,000 knots.” Under the terms of the contract as originally taken by the Fore River Company the superdreadnoughts were not unconditionally accepted by the South American republic. They must first show by a year of actual use that they conformed in every way to the specifications required. This year’s test was in the nature of a guarantee by the Fore River firm. After the vessels completed their trial trips in the north they sailed for home waters in' charge of the Argentine crews. A guarantee engineer went with them, however, to report on the success of the superdreadnoughts during their year in commission. Senor Valiente, Argentine Minister of Marine, praised them as “a remarkable work of naval architecture, honoring American industry.” The time period for the Rivadavia expired December 18, 1915, and that for the Moreno February 21, 1916. The company’s representative at Bahid Blanca then sent the cablegram announcing the complete success of the American-built warships. In the past year the Rivadavia and Moreno have visited every important port of Argentina and have been accorded ovations wherever they have gone. H. E. D. Gould, the guarantee engineer, estimates that the Rivadavia was visited by more than 750,000 people at these ports.—Army and Navy Journal, 3/4.
AUSTRIA VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
Ersatz Mon’ch | 24,500 | 22 ½ | 10 14-in | Trieste | Laid down, 1914 |
Ersatz Budapest | 24,500 | 22 ½ | Same | Trieste | Laid down, 1914 |
Ersatz Wien | 24,500 | 22 ½ | Same | Fiume | Laid down, 1914 |
Ersatz Hapsburg | 24,500 | 22 ½ | Same | Trieste | Laid down, 1915 |
Vessels Building in July, 1914, and Now Completed | |||||
1 Battleship |
| ||||
Szent Istvan | 20,010 | 20 | 12 12-inch | … | Completed in 1914 |
5 Light Cr’sers |
| ||||
Saida Class | 3,454 | 27 | 9 4.1-in., 2 6-pdrs. | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
Official information regarding naval matters being unobtainable since the outbreak of war, it may be assumed that ship yards have been kept busy to their utmost capacity, and that new vessels have been laid down as fast as those building have been completed.
BRAZIL
The submarine mother ship Ceara, building in Italy for Brazil, is 326 feet long, 51 feet in beam, and displaces 3735 tons, her armament consisting of four 3.9-inch and four 2.2-inch guns. She has been designed with the object of discharging the duties of parent ship to a flotilla of six 250-ton submarines, and in addition to her storage, repair and hospital facilities, is fitted for docking a submarine up to 180 feet in length and 23 feet beam. She is also fitted with salvage apparatus, and is theoretically able to lift a 250-ton submarine from a depth of 132 feet in thirty minutes.—Army and Navy Journal, 3/4.
France
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleship |
| ||||
Languedoc | 24,828 | 21.5 | 12 13.4-in., 24 5.5-in. | La Seyne | Laid down April 28, 1913 |
Normandie | 24,828 | 21.5 | same | St. Nazaire | Laid down July 5, 1913 |
Flandres | 24,828 | 21.5 | same | Brest | Laid down Oct. 10, 1913 |
Gascogne | 24,828 | 21.5 | same | Lorient | Laid down Oct. 1, 1913 |
Bearn | 24,828 | 21.5 | same | La Seyne | Contract Jan. 7, 1914 |
| |||||
3 Battleships |
| ||||
Bretagne class | 23,172 | 21.5 | 10 13.4-inch | … | Completed in 1915 |
Note.—There are approximately six destroyers and 23 submarines under construction. (Lack of information since outbreak of war has made it impossible to correct table to date.) In July, 1914, France had building approximately 3 destroyers and 22 submarines. Since the outbreak of war it is probable that France has increased her construction program to the extent permitted by the building facilities.
GERMANY
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
Ersatz Worth | 29,000 | … | 8 15-in., 16 5.9-in. | Kiel | Laid down Sept., 1913 |
“T” 1913 | 29,000 | … | Same | Kiel | Laid down May, 1913 |
Ersatz Friedrich III | 30,000 | … | 8 15-in., 18 5.9-in. | … | Laid down summer 1914 |
Cruisers of the Line |
| ||||
Ersatz Hertha | 28,000 | 28.5 | 8 12-in. | Wilhelmshaven | Laid down July, 1913 |
Ersatz Victoria Louise | … | … | … | … | Laid down summer 1914 |
Vessels Building in July, 1914, and Now Completed | |||||
4 Battleships |
| ||||
Grosser Kurfurst class | 25,388 | 22 | 10 12-inch | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
2 Battle Cr’s’rs |
| ||||
Derfflinger class | 28,000 | 27 | 8 12-inch | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
5 Light Cr’sers |
| ||||
Ersatz Hela class | 5,500 | 27.5 | 10 6-inch | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
No accurate information regarding naval matters has been obtained since the outbreak of the war, but it is reported that ship construction has been pushed to the full extent of building facilities.
Submarine Monitors.—While the British Navy has built and commissioned a new type of big-gun surface monitor and also a new type of ship for mine and anti-airship work, the Germans, according to Mr. Archibald Hurd, of the London Daily Telegraph, have launched new large submarine monitors, each equipped with a powerful battery and protected by armor which can be made completely watertight. These vessels, Mr. Hurd says, are of great speed and can utilize their armored battery just above the water. If a British warship appears the monitors quickly are submerged.—Army and Navy Journal, 19/2.
The Heligoland.—The late Marquis of Salisbury, strong and dominant British Minister as he was, suffered from the defects of his qualities, in that he was human and made mistakes, not many possibly, but a notable one was the cession in 1890 of the island of Heligoland to the German Empire in exchange for some, more or less, shadowy advantages in Africa. Originally of considerable size, the sea in 1784 tore the island asunder into what are known as the “Island” and the “Dune,” and made other considerable inroads, but practically speaking Heligoland had no history of interest to the outer world until it was acquired by Germany in 1890. The intervening quarter of a century has been a period of ceaseless activity, and wonders have been achieved. Enormous sums of money have been spent to prevent further encroachments of the sea, and by means of well devised breakwaters the stretch of sea between the two islands has been converted into a large harbor, skillfully protected, which serves as a base for the submarines and light cruisers of the German Navy. The entire cliffs have been faced with a particularly durable form of granite, and in parts armor-plated wall, the masonry being yards in depth. All inequalities in the cliff face, caverns, etc., have been filled in with tremendously strong concrete.
In addition to forming a naval base the island is equipped with hangars and appliances for the storage of Zeppelins and other air craft, the cliffs are surmounted with the most modern disappearing forts, armed with Krupp guns with a range of some 20 miles, while the whole rock, like Gibraltar, is pierced in every direction with galleries and underground works to admit of the handling of the concealed guns, which literally bristle from every point of the island. Ever since their acquisition of Heligoland the Germans have discouraged all visitors and manifold difficulties have always been placed in the way of the foreign visitor, for what are now obvious reasons. As illustrating the thoroughness of the preparations of the enemy for the present struggle, it is interesting to note that for a long time past a stretch of land on the banks of the Elbe some 40 miles from Heligoland, had been prepared and was in readiness to receive the civil population of the island in certain eventualities, and that the entire population of natives and civilian residents were removed from Heligoland to their prepared quarters on the Elbe 36 hours before the outbreak of war.— United Service Gazette, 30/12.
The German Naval Command.—It is officially announced in the German newspapers that the Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle with oak leaves and swords has been conferred upon “ Admiral von Pohl, hitherto Chief of the High Sea Battle Forces.”
Although no official announcement was made, it has been understood that Admiral von Pohl was made commander of the high sea fleet about a year ago, in succession to Admiral von Ingenohl. The form of the present announcement is presumably intended to indicate that Admiral von Pohl also has been removed from this post.—London Times, 5/2.
The German Commander-in-Chief.—The death of Admiral Hugo von Pohl in Berlin explains the change which was made in the command of the German high sea fleet, of which he had been commander- in-chief for less than a year. He went afloat in succession to Admiral von Ingenohl, who had assumed the command in January, 1913, and continued to hold it after war broke out. The selection of von Pohl to succeed him may have been made in order that this officer might superintend the carrying into effect afloat of the submarine “blockade,” for which as Chief of the Admiralty Staff he had been largely responsible. He it was who signed the German declaration of the waters around the British Isles as a “war zone.” There is no definite information at present as to the identity of his successor. An Amsterdam report last Saturday stated that Vice Admiral Scheer had issued in the name of the fleet a message of deep regret at the death of Admiral von Pohl, but whether he is the new commander-in-chief, or only second-in-command, is not clear. It has been suggested that Prince Henry of Prussia, who earlier in the war was reported to be in command in the Baltic, has taken charge of the entire high sea fleet. This is a very possible thing, for apart from his exalted situation as the Kaiser’s brother and his experience as commander-in-chief from September, 1906, to September, 1909, he has a high professional reputation, and although he has been so long an admiral he is still comparatively young, being only 53 years old. He is, therefore, junior in age to Sir John Jellicoe, who is 56, and to Admiral d’Artige du Fournet, the French Admiralissimo, who is 59. but not to the youthful Italian commander-in-chief, Admiral the Duke of the Abruzzi, who is 43- Another rumor is that Admiral von Holtzendorff has left the post of Chief of the Admiralty Staff to go afloat in his former position in command of the high sea fleet.-—Army and Navy Gazette, 4/3.
GREAT BRITAIN
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
1 Ship | 27,500 | 25 | 8 15-inch | … | To be completed in 1917 |
Renown | 25,750 | 22 | Same | … | To be completed in 1917 |
Repulse | 25,750 | 22 | Same | … | To be completed in 1917 |
Resistance | 25,750 | 22 | Same | … | To be completed in 1917 |
Revenge | 25,750 | 22 | Same | Vickers | To be completed in 1916 |
Resolution | 25,750 | 22 | Same | Palmer | To be completed in 1916 |
Ramillies | 25,750 | 22 | same | Beardmore | To be completed in 1916 |
Vessels Building in July, 1914, and now Completed | |||||
Battleships |
| ||||
2 Rev’nge class | 25,750 | 22 | 8 15-inch | ... | Completed 1015 |
5 Queen Elizabeth class | 27,500 | 25 | Same | … | Completed 3 in ’15; 2 in ‘14 |
1 Battle Cr’ser |
| ||||
Tiger | 30,000 | 30 | 8 13.5-inch | … | Completed in 1914 |
Light Cruisers |
| ||||
8 Cl’p’tra class | 4,400 | 30 | … | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
6 Arethusa class | 3,600 | 30 | … | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
3 Birmingham class | 5,440 | 25.5 | … | … | Completed in 1914 |
Since the war no official information regarding naval matters has been available, but it has been reported that the number of vessels building has been increased to the full capacity of the ship yards and that new vessels have been laid down as fast as those building have been completed. Also it has been reported that five large battle cruisers of 32 knots speed are nearing completion and that a number of monitors carrying 14 inch guns are either built or building.
Men for the Navy.—When war started there were about 120,000 officers and men in the regular navy. Reserves and recruits enrolled since then have increased the navy proper to about 340,000. If the men at work in dockyards and naval establishments are added to this we have a total of about 1.000,000 men in the naval service.
In fulfilment of a promise made to him in the House of Commons on January 28, Dr. Macnamara has sent to Sir Gilbert Parker the following- details of the numbers employed directly or indirectly on the navy:
“As regards the navy proper, we are now authorized to work up to a maximum of 350,000 officers, men, and boys by March 31, 1916, if necessary. Of that number we already bear something like 320,000.
“The question of the men engaged in ship construction, repairing, and in auxiliary work, upon which the maintenance and fighting efficiency of the fleet depend, is very much more difficult to arrive at. In the first place, we have somewhere about 85,000 men engaged in the Royal Dockyards and other naval establishments. As regards the number of men engaged on admiralty work under contract and subcontract, I am afraid it is quite impossible for me, in the time at my disposal, to give even the most speculative estimate, except to say that the number is certainly several times that of the figure which represents our own employees in the Royal Dockyards and other naval establishments .... If I were asked to put the matter in a sentence I should say that for every man in the navy, of whom there are, as you see, something like 300,000, there are certainly two persons, and possibly even three, at work on ship construction and repairing and contributing to the general maintenance and fighting efficiency of the fleet.”—London Times. 21/2.
Value of Trained Naval Reserve.—The great value of a properly trained and efficient naval reserve has been shown in the present war as never before, in not only the British Navy, but the German Navy also.
The new issue of the Navy List bears eloquent testimony to the part which the auxiliary services are playing in the general work of the fleet. In the month of August last the losses among the rank and file totalled 446 killed; and of these only 141 were active service men of the Royal Navy. In September the number was 14 in a total of 188; in October, five out of no; and in November and December, five out of 73. Of the 10 active service naval ratings shown as killed from the beginning of October to the 18th of December, four were petty officer mechanics of the R. N. Air Service. A good proportion of the total losses, which are, happily, extraordinarily light in comparison with those for the corresponding period of 1914, has fallen upon the R. N. R. and the specially-entered mercantile ratings taken over with their ships for naval service, while practically the whole of the remainder have to be set down to the operations in Gallipoli.—Naval and Military Record, 2/2.
Safeguarding Naval Manning Needs.—An interesting amendment to the military service bill was moved in the House of Commons last week by Mr. George Lambert, formerly Civil Lord of the Admiralty, and agreed to. It provided that the Admiralty should have the first call on the men who were brought in. In a word, therefore, recruiting for the navy is amply safeguarded, and it is a very satisfactory sign of the importance with which the sea forces of the Empire are regarded that the military efforts we are now making have not been allowed to prejudice the supply of seamen. We could wish that there was a similar assurance that, just as the government give first place to the manning of the fleet, they should accord similar treatment to the views, experience, and advice of those officers who have made the navy what it is, or who are called upon to use it.—Army and Navy Gazette, 1/29.
The Need for Experts.—The new naval peer, Lord Charles Beresford, in the last speech he delivered as a commoner, spoke some home truths. He pointed out that we had been governed hitherto by 22 men, and he added, “only one out of the whole lot had the shade of an idea what conducting a war meant.” They were, the late member for Portsmouth added, “mostly amateurs and, what was worse, mostly lawyers. There will be a large body of agreement with the declaration that the duty of the government is to formulate its policy and “entrust the carrying of it out to an expert body of the three best soldiers and the three best sailors they could find.” Weakness in the war administration unquestionably arises from the subordination of the expert. Seamen, in particular, have little or no influence on the policy of a maritime country, with consequences which are becoming increasingly apparent. There was never a time in our history when it was more necessary that naval opinion should have full weight, and there was never a time of war, probably, when naval opinion counted for so little. We trust that Lord Charles Beresford will develop his ideas in the freer atmosphere of the House of Lords. We look forward to a declaration by him of defence policy, free from consideration of parties or persons. In the Upper Chamber will be assured of a sympathetic hearing. As the history of the war has already shown, the country looks to the House of Lords for guidance, and Lord Charles Beresford could signalize his elevation in no fitter manner than by pointing out in a carefully prepared speech, without exaggeration and rhetoric, the defects in our administration from which we are suffering. The politician has had his chance as the director of war, and it is surely time that the expert was called in and given authority in those matters which he knows best.—Naval and Military Record, 19/1.
Admiralty’s Demand for Ships.—Mr. Macnamara, replying to a question by Mr. Hogge, on the 27th inst., furnished the following details of the ships requisitioned by his department:
Owner | Vessels in Fleet | Vessels on Admiralty Service | Percentage of (2) on (1) per cent |
Evan Thomas Radcliffe & Company, Cardiff | 25 | 12 | 48 |
Tatem & Company, Cardiff | 14 | 6 | 43 |
Maclay & McIntyre, Glasgow | 29 | 16 | 55 |
Prince Line, Newcastle and London | 39 | 8 | 21 |
Constantine & Pickering, Middlesbrough | 17 | 10 | 59 |
Glover Brothers, London | 13 | 3 | 23 |
Farrar, Groves & Company, London | 9 | 4 | 44 |
Ropner & Company, West Hartlepool | 43 | 16 | 37 |
W. and C.T. Jones, Cardiff | 13 | 6 | 46 |
W. Runciman & Company, Limited, Newcastle and London | 30 | 14 | 47 |
Sutherland Steamship Company, Newcastle | 11 | 4 | 36 |
Admiralty’s Demand for Ships.—Mr. Macnamara, replying to a question by Mr. Hogge, on the 27th inst., furnished the following details of the ships requisitioned by his department:
Shipbuilding Resources being Used to the Utmost.—The First Lord of the Admiralty has declared that “successive Boards of Admiralty have most anxiously considered the mode in which the building resources of the country can best be employed,” adding that “these resources are now being used to their utmost.” Evidently Mr. Balfour intended to be even more specific on this matter, for he continued to state that, “speaking broadly, it may be asserted that every dockyard, public or private, here or in the Mediterranean, is being used to its utmost capacity either for new construction or for repairs required by ourselves or by our Allies.” He finally asserted that it was “impossible to add to the magnitude of our preparations.” He admitted, on the other hand, that their character could be altered, but concluded by stating that “nothing has as yet occurred which would justify the Admiralty in thinking that any serious error of judgment had so far been made in connection with the various vessels which are under construction.” The First Lord’s statement leaves room for speculation. The resources of this country for building and arming men-of-war are immense. They were illustrated in 1909, when eight battleships of the largest size, six protected cruisers, 20 destroyers, a number of submarines, and some auxiliary ships were put in hand. That program did not exhaust the capacity of the country. We had in hand a number of vessels building for foreign powers, including the Sao Paulo at Barrow, the Rio de Janeiro at Elswick, besides two scout cruisers, ten destroyers, and three submarines, all to the order of Brazil. Work was also in hand for Chile, China, and Portugal. We trust that the Admiralty has an adequate conception of the work which can be done by the public and private establishments under the pressure of war. The resources to-day are infinitely greater than they were in 1909, and the nation will confidently anticipate that the Admiralty will take the fullest possible advantage of them.—Naval and Military Record, 2/2.
Extracts from Mr. Balfour’s Speech in the House of Commons.— Mr. Balfour, First Lord of the Admiralty, in his speech stated that the tonnage of the British Navy had been increased by 1,000,000 since the outbreak of the war, while the strength of the air division of the navy has grown tenfold.
INCREASE 1,000,000 TONS
Mr. Balfour told the house that never before in Great Britain’s history had there been so much naval construction as in the last nineteen months. He asserted the fleet was far stronger than at the outbreak of the war, except in regard to armored cruisers. Many of the cruisers which had been lost has not been replaced.
Mr. Balfour emphasized the magnitude of the task Great Britain had taken upon herself, since the operations in the Mediterranean began in transporting, feeding and supplying the forces there. Moreover, the appearance of German submarines not only in home waters but in the Mediterranean had added to the responsibilities already undertaken.
He said about 1,000,000 combatants, 1,000,000 horses, 2,500,000 tons of stores and 27,000,000 gallons of oil for the British and their allies had been transported. This task, in the presence of hostile submarines, had thrown an enormous amount of work upon the Admiralty which could not have been foreseen at the outbreak of the war. The dangers experienced were new dangers, and he felt the nation could look with satisfaction at the manner in which the Admiralty had carried out its vast work.
The navy had expanded enormously since the outbreak of the war, Mr. Balfour said. A fair measure of its growth was the fact that its personnel had more than doubled within that period and its tonnage, including auxiliary cruisers and ships under the white ensign had increased by 1,000,000.
Warm praise was given by the speaker to Colonel Churchill in connection with the establishment of the naval air service. The growth of this branch of the service, he asserted, was even more remarkable than the increase in ships, the aerial service having expanded tenfold during the war.
Mr. Balfour said the admiralty had procured a large and especially suitable tract of land for the purpose of training aerial pilots for the navy. This work was to be under command of Commodore Payne, who had rendered invaluable service. He said the navy always must have an aerial service of its own.
Dealing with the relative values of heavier and lighter than air machines, Mr. Balfour said it was extremely desirable from a naval point of view to have lighter than air machines to supplement the efforts of the fleet in scouting. The greatest difficulty has been—he was speaking not of Zeppelins, but of non-rigid air ships—to erect suitable accommodations.
With regard to ship building, he said: “At no time in our history has there been so much shipbuilding for war purposes as during the last 19 months. The fleet is now far stronger than at the outbreak of the war, except with regard to armored cruisers. We lost some of these and did not replace them. But in armored cruisers our superiority is enormous, and it is incontestable that the process of building warships has never been at greater speed. But we are still not satisfied. A real limit is imposed upon us by labor difficulties. In dreadnoughts, battleships, dreadnought cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers, submarines and patrol boats there has been a great augmentation, which has not suffered any check.”
The same held good, the First Lord declared, with respect to guns, stores and munitions.
Navy League’s Coming-of-Age.—The Navy League this week celebrates its 21st birthday. No organization deserves more thoroughly the gratitude of the nation. A few energetic patriots, dissatisfied with the way in which naval matters were neglected by the public except when scares were started, founded a league to preach the importance of sea power. They looked forward to a time when England would have to fight for her very existence against a great Continental neighbor or combination of powers. How accurate was their prevision is shown when the coming-of-age festivities have to be celebrated in the midst of a world-war in which Germany has consecrated all her energies to bringing Britain to the dust. Fortunate in attracting influential support from naval men, the league has had as its presidents Admiral-of-the-Fleet Sir G. Phipps Hornby, the Earl of Drogheda, and Mr. Robert Yerburgh. Men of all shades of politics became members, one of the first being Mr. George Meredith. Branches of the league were opened in the provinces and in the dominions, Bristol being the first provincial center to have a branch, and Cape Town had the first Imperial offshoot. The league now has a membership of 150,000, and has established training homes for boys in various parts of the country. Trafalgar-day was made the pivot of its celebrations, but all hostility to our great ally was carefully avoided from the outset. The war has confirmed its teaching that only by maintaining an ample margin of ships can we sustain such losses as the King Edward VII without uneasiness.—Naval and Military Record, 12/1.
Australia to Build Submarines.—Australia is to undertake, as soon as possible, the building of submarines in its own shipyards.—London Times, 31/1.
Merchantmen Required to Carry Signaling Apparatus.—The British Board of Trade has issued instructions that on and after March 1, 1916, every British ship of 500 tons gross or upwards going to sea from a port in the United Kingdom will be required to be provided with suitable hand flags for signaling by the semaphore code and with an efficient Morse flashing lamp. In the case of a ship which is fitted with a fixed semaphore the provision of hand flags will not be required.—Shipping Illustrated, 26/2.
Admiralty System of Indexing Ships.—The first detailed description of the system on which the Admiralty Transport Department works in fulfilling its requirements from the mercantile marine is given by Mr. T. Paterson Purdie, president of the Clyde Steamship Owners’ Association and member of the Ship Licensing Committee. Mr. Purdie describes the system as follows:
A card index is maintained with a card for every ship in the mercantile marine. These cards are distinguished into 28 classes by colors and “tabs”; and movable colored signals which are changed day by day, follow the movements of the ships and show at a glance in what area of the world each ship is at any moment. This card index enables the transport department, when new requirements have to be met, to obtain at short notice a complete list of all the possible suitable vessels.
Full information is registered and brought up to date by monthly returns from each owner, and also by reports each day as actual charters are made, showing on what employment their vessels are engaged; so that the transport department has full information in a readily accessible form of just what each of the 6000 or so possible vessels are doing.
An elaborate system is also maintained to show at a glance what previous service under requisition each owner has done in the period during which market rates have risen considerably above requisition rates. This system takes into account the number of ships in the owner’s fleet, the time each of them has been engaged, the size of the ships, and also the number on service at the moment.
COMPARISON OF OWNERS’ SERVICES
Before new requirements are met, a special list is made out from the above records showing all the possible vessels which are of the right type and in the right position for the services in question. On such a list is shown (a) the service on which the vessel is engaged; (b) what cargo she would be carrying if left free from requisition; (r) her size, type, etc.; (d) her exact position; and lastly (r) a figure showing just how the owner’s previous service compares with other owner’s service. This list is then examined with great care, so that the transport department may choose— first of all—the ships that are most suitable for the service and the proper position; secondly, those whose requisitioning involves the least possible disturbance of other important service and least dislocation of industry; and thirdly, so far as these primary considerations allow, those which belong to owners who have done less than the average amount of previous service for the government.
A vessel is never requisitioned except on the expert advice that she is entirely suitable for the service or the most suitable of those available, and after the most careful consideration of the effect the requisition will have upon the industry of the country and its ordinary overseas trades.
Around the walls of the statistical department are full lists with the ships’ names and positions corrected and kept up to date as telegrams come in daily and nightly advising the movements of each ship.
“In short,” Mr. Purdie continues, “I consider that the system is such as to give fair play to each and every owner, however upset and disappointed one may feel when his boat (or boats) are requisitioned and brought under 'Blue-book’ rates to meet the country’s insistent and emergent demands, instead of being free to trade on established lines as usual, or carry out an ordinary charter on time or voyage entered into in the open market . . . .
“Vessels that are requisitioned for civil work such as the carriage of food stuffs, wheat, grain, sugar, etc., or for nitrates and materials for the munitions departments are operated on commercial lines, as the transport department has appointed as agents shipping firms of the highest standing, and full local knowledge and experience, at all the principal ports at home and abroad, who attend to the loading, discharging, and other work incidental to ship management with the view of operating each ship on strictly business lines to ensure its most economical use.
“To control 1800 ships of all types and classes is a stupendous undertaking. even when that control is paramount throughout every operation of the ships; but when this gigantic fleet is split up and passes in groups and sections from the transport department to local commanders in charge of naval and military affairs—whose special requirements dominate their working— then one realizes how very unfair and uncalled for all the acrid criticism of the Admiralty Transport Department is, and the misconception of the actual state of affairs by the critics.”-—London Times, 22/2.
HOLLAND
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Cruisers |
|
|
|
|
|
… | 7,000 | 30 | 10 6-in. | Amsterdam | Authorized |
… | 7,000 | 30 | 10 6-in. | Flushing | Authorized |
ITALY
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
Carraciolo | 30,000 | 25 | 8 15-in., 16 6-in. | … | To be completed 1917 |
Marcantonio-Colonna | 30,000 | 25 | Same | … | To be completed 1917 |
Cristofaro-Colombo | 30,000 | 25 | Same | … | To be completed 1917 |
Francesco-Marosini | 30,000 | 25 | Same | … | To be completed 1917 |
Vessels Building in Jluy, 1914, and now Completed | |||||
Battleships |
| ||||
Conte-di-Cavour | 22,022 | 22.5 | 13 12-inch | … | Completed in 1914 |
2 Duilio Class | 22,564 | 22.5 | 13 12-inch | … | Completed in 1915 |
Light Cruisers |
| ||||
2 Campania class | 2,500 | 16.5 | 6 6-inch | … | Completed in 1915 |
.
It is probable that the building program has been accelerated and increased since the outbreak of the war.
JAPAN
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
Yamashiro | 31,300 | 22.5 | … | Kawasaki | To be completed in 1916 |
Ise | 31,300 | 22.5 | … | Mitsubishi | To be completed in 1916 |
Hinga | 31,300 | 22.5 | … | Yokosuka | To be completed in 1917 |
Vessels Building in July, 1914, and now Completed | |||||
1 Battleship |
| ||||
Fuso | 30,600 | 22 | 12 14-inch | … | Completed in 1915 |
2 Battle Cr’s’rs |
| ||||
Haruna class | 27,500 | 28 | 8 14-inch | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
Captain Josiah S. McKean, U. S. Navy, aid for material, told the House Naval Affairs Committee last week that japan was believed to have adopted a program of four battle cruisers, four dreadnoughts, 64 destroyers, 53 submarines and a number of scouts and auxiliaries, fie stated that our navy was only one-half as strong as the combined navies of Germany and Austria, while the French Navy he held to be 20 per cent more efficient than ours.—Army and Navy Journal, 26/2.
Kato Warns Japan of Navy’s Defects.—Admiral Tomosaburo Kato, the Japanese Naval Minister, discusses in the January issue of the Japan Magazine of Tokio the naval expansion of Japan. In this article the Japanese minister asserts that a decade ago the Japanese Navy was ready to meet any power that might have appeared in eastern waters, but adds that owing to what he calls “straightened circumstances” the Japanese Navy does not enjoy the standing it once had. Japan’s only desire in a naval way, he adds, is a navy adequate to defend the empire.
“Japan’s navy has not at all expanded proportionately to her wealth; and no nation should permit its defences to fall below the position to which destiny brings it.
“It is to fill up this fatal defect in the defences of our great empire that the naval authorities ask for repletion. For this Japan must have at least 12 battleships of the Fuso class; and even then her fleet will still be inferior to some others. Left as it is now, the Japanese Navy will be worthless in case of war. Should emergency arise the nation has no right to expect the present navy to meet and defeat any enemy of importance. Ships are as necessary as personnel to insure victory.
Japan’s Naval Plan
“If the plan now under contemplation is completed Japan will have but four ships of the Fuso (31,500 tons) type and four new battle-cruisers of the Kongo class (27,000 tons), while Germany will have 41 battleships and 20 battle cruisers; and the American Navy is expanding at a corresponding rate. Russia, too, is building up a great navy of three squadrons of 12 units each, compared with which the navy of Japan will be quite insignificant. Consequently, Japan can never afford to be satisfied with her present naval plans if she expects to maintain the position she has won. She will then be obliged to take her place beside China, Greece, and Spain. Japan must replace her present obsolete units by units of modern efficiency. Our plans are not sufficiently ambitious, but we cannot go beyond our finances. We are attempting the maximum that our funds will allow. This makes the defects in our defences all the more serious, especially at a time when world-war is raging and one cannot tell what a day may bring forth. Should unforeseen emergency arise our first action would inevitably be at sea, and the navy would have to face the responsibility. For a nation like Japan the efficiency of naval defence is paramount.
“The safety of the empire cannot be left to the fluctuations of the Treasury. Every day the plan of naval repletion is delayed means one day more of danger to the empire. When the time comes that a nation is unable to meet the outlay necessary to adequate naval defence that nation is bankrupt. To abandon the navy is tantamount to abandoning the state.”—N. Y. Times, 27/2.
PORTUGAL
EFFECTIVE VESSELS IN PORTUGAL’S NAVY
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Complement | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
Vasco Da Gama | 3,000 | 15 | 2 8-inch, 4 4.7-inch | 220 | Completed in 1877; refitted in 1903 |
Cruisers |
| ||||
Republica | 1,640 | 17.5 | 4 5.9-in., 2- 3.9-in. | 273 | Completed in 1901 |
Sao Gabriel | 1,772 | 17 | 2 5.9-in., 4 4.7 | 242 | Completed in 1899 |
Alnurarite Reis | 4,100 | 22 | 4 5.9-in., 8 4.7-in. | 473 | Completed in 1899 |
Adamaster | 1,962 | 18 | 2 5.9-in., 4 4.7-in. | 232 | Completed in 1897 |
Two destroyers under construction at the Naval Arsenal, Lisbon, will be launched within a short time. Keels will be laid-at once for two more destroyers, the first of a new series of larger tonnage planned for the Portuguese Navy. The new boats will have liquid combustion, four torpedo tubes, a speed of 35 to 38 miles, and will be armed with 3.9-inch guns. Three submarines of wide radius action will be constructed at the arsenal on the ways now occupied by two gunboats being built for patrol purposes.—Shipping Illustrated, 19/2.
RUSSIA
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
Emperor Alexander III | 22,435 | 21 | 12 12-in., 20 4.7-in | Nikolaieff | Commissioned 1915 |
Empress Marie | 22,435 | 21 | Same | Ivan Bunge Cc. | Commissioned 1914 |
Catherine II | 22,435 | 21 | Same | Ivan Bunge Cc. | Commissioned 1915 |
Battle Cruisers |
| ||||
Ismail | 32,200 | 25 | 12 14-in., 21 5.1-in. | Galerni | To be completed in 1916 |
Kinburn | 32,200 | 25 | Same | Baltic Works | To be completed in 1916 |
Borodino | 32,200 | 25 | Same | Galerni | To be completed in 1916 |
Navarin | 32,200 | 25 | Same | Baltic Works | To be completed in 1916 |
Vessels Building in July, 1914, and now Completed | |||||
Battleships |
| ||||
4 Sevastopol class | 23,026 | 23 | 12 12-inch | … | Completed in 1914 |
Light Cruisers |
| ||||
6 Adm’l Greig class | 7,500 | 32 | … | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
2 Ad. Nevelskoi class | 4,500 | … | … | … | Completed in 1914-15 |
Official information regarding naval matters being unobtainable since* the outbreak of war, it may be assumed that the ship yards have been kept busy to their utmost capacity and new vessels have been laid as fast as those building have been completed.
SPAIN
VESSELS BUILDING
Name | Displacement | Speed | Armament | Builders | Remarks |
Battleships |
| ||||
Alfonso XIII | 15,450 | 19.5 | 8 12-in., 20 4-in. | Ferrol | Launched May 7, 1913 |
Jaime I | 15,450 | 19.5 | Same | Ferrol | Laid down Feb. 5, 1912 |
The shipbuilding yards of Nervion, Spain, are being enlarged to permit of the construction of vessels of 1500 to 5000 tons. The Peruvian Government is considering the construction of a cruiser of 2850 tons displacement, by the Sociedad Espanola at Ferrol, to displace 2850 tons, at a cost of 1,260,000 pesos. It is not improbable that orders for other vessels will be placed at Peru. The new shipbuilding yards of the Sociedad Espanola de Construcciones Navales, of Bilbao, are shortly to begin on the building of vessels for the Compania Transatlantica, of Barcelona.—Shipping Illustrated, 3/4.
minute. The cruising turbines are designed to develop 1750 shaft horsepower each at 3200 revolutions per minute and are geared down to the ratio of 23.85 to I. The cruising units may be used at all speeds ahead below 15H knots but are disconnected for higher speeds and when reversing.
Each high-pressure turbine consists of five wheel stages, a forward and an after drum. The first stage consists of four moving rows and the other wheel stages have two moving rows each. The five stage wheel is secured to the forward end of the forward drum, which has nine single row stages, while the after drum has 16 single row stages. The two drums are so designed as to practically balance the steam thrust in the high-pressure turbine at all speeds.
The low pressure turbines consist of a drum with 38 single row stages. The reversing turbines, incorporated in the same casings as the low-pressure turbines, consist of one stage with four moving rows of blades, one stage with three moving rows of blades and a drum with eight single row stages. The second stage wheel is integral with the drum.
Steam is supplied to the high-pressure turbine through two 9-inch throttle valves and 9-inch pipes, one leading to each of the full-power steam chests. Steam to the cruising chest is supplied through a 5-inch throttle and a 5-inch pipe. For reversing steam is supplied through a 13-inch throttle and a 13-inch pipe to the after-engine room, where the pipe is divided into two 9-inch pipes, leading to the steam chests on the after end of the low-pressure turbines.
For going ahead with the main turbines only in use steam is supplied to the forward-engine rooms through either one or both of the 9-inch pipes or the 5-inch cruising connections to the ahead steam chests, thence through the first, second, third, fourth and fifth wheel stages and the forward drum; thence out through four 11-inch receiver pipes to the steam belt on the after end of the high-pressure turbine and forward through the after drum to the exhaust belt of the high-pressure turbine. From there it exhausts through two 20-inch pipes which combine into one 28-inch pipe and exhaust to the low-pressure turbines. In the after-engine room this pipe divides into two 20-inch pipes which lead to the steam belts on the ahead end of the low- pressure turbines. The steam then passes through the low-pressure turbines to the exhaust belt, thence through the exhaust trunk to the condenser.
When the cruising turbines are in use steam is supplied from the main steam pipe to the cruising turbines, thence to the first stage of the high- pressure turbines, thence through the second, third, fourth and fifth stages, as is the case when operating under the main turbines only. The exhaust from the cruising turbine leads to the first stage of the high-pressure turbine and therefore does no work in this stage. A cruising connection of the high-pressure steam chest is provided, however, so that speeds slightly in excess of those given by the steam that passes through the cruising turbine can be obtained.
The turbine wheels are built up of two steel plate disks riveted to a cast- steel spider. The wheel rims are of forged steel except for the first stage ahead and astern, which are cast steel. The drums consist of cast-steel spiders, forced on and keyed to the rotor shafts, with heads of steel plate and rims of forged steel. The diaphragms are of dished steel plate with cast-steel rims and hubs. Leakage of steam and air around the shaft where it passes through the casings, is prevented by steam-sealed carbon packing stuffing boxes.
The turbine blades and the distance pieces which separate them are of rolled brass, dovetailed into grooves in the periphery of the wheels and rims. The shrouding for the blades is also of rolled brass. In the high-pressure turbine the length of the blades ranges from 1.46 inches in the first row of the first stage to 1 7/8 inches in the third row on the fifth stage, and from 1 5/8 inches to 1 7/8 inches on the forward drum, and from 2½ inches to 3 7/8 inches on the after drum. In the low-pressure turbine the length of the blades ranges from 4 5/8 inches in the first stage to 13½ inches in the last stages. In the reverse turbines the blades range from 1.76 inches in length in the first high-pressure stage to 8 inches in the last stage.
Nozzles for the first stage ahead and the first stage astern are of composition, the openings being accurately machined and filed to template. Nozzles for the second to the fifth stages ahead and the second stage astern are of composition with Monel metal division plates. The nozzles for the first stage ahead and first stage astern are expanding, while all others are parallel wall nozzles.
The cruising turbines and reduction gears were manufactured by the General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York. The turbines are of the three-stage Curtis type, designed to develop 1750 shaft horse-power at
3200 revolutions per minute, with steam at 250 pounds gage and exhausting against a back pressure of about 5 pounds gage. All stages in the turbines are wheel stages. The turbines and gears for each of the two shafts are identical and turn in the same direction, but in order to turn the port shaft outboard when going ahead the port unit is turned around and a section of line shafting placed between the main gear shaft and the high-pressure thrust shaft.
The gears are of the double-reduction type, the main pinion of the turbine shaft driving the gears on the two intermediate shafts, while the pinions on the latter drive the main gear wheel. The faces of all pinions and gears are divided into two parts with the teeth cut at opposite angles in order to balance the thrust. The teeth are cut at an angle of 27 degrees with the axis; both the main and intermediate pinions are forged solid on the sleeve, which fits around the shaft. The intermediate gears are built up, each section consisting of five steel disks securely bolted together. The main gear is of cast iron, with a forged-steel rim in which the teeth are cut.
The propellers are three-bladed of manganese bronze, cast solid with a diameter of 14 feet 3 inches, a pitch of 12 feet, a projected area of 71.5 square feet, a helicoidal area of 81.5 square feet, a disk area of 159.48 square feet, with a ratio of projected area to disk area of .4483 and of helicoidal area to disk area of .51.
As previously mentioned, steam is furnished at 295 pounds gage pressure by 12 Yarrow watertube boilers, arranged in three watertight compartments. Each boiler has a heating surface of 4000 square feet with a furnace volume of 625 cubic feet. Oil fuel is used exclusively in firing the boilers, seven Fore River burners being fitted to each boiler. Forced draft is provided by twelve Sturtevant multivane fans in each fireroom. Each fan has a rated capacity of 16,000 cubic feet of air per minute when discharging against a back pressure equal to 5 inches of water and each fan is driven by a direct connected General Electric motor of 32 horse-power.
There is one main condenser in each after-engine room, having a cooling surface of 9900 square feet, provided with a Blake vertical twin plex singleacting air pump 18½ by 40 by 21 inches. The circulating pumps are of the centrifugal type, with a capacity of about 22,500 gallons per minute, driven by vertical compound reciprocating engines.
Auxiliary condensers of 405 square feet cooling surface each are provided in each forward-engine room with Blake vertical double-acting air pumps, 6 x 10 x 8 inches, and centrifugal circulating pumps driven by a single vertical reciprocating engine. In each forward room there is also a Reilly vertical multicoil feed water heater of 319.8 square feet heating surface for use with the main feed pumps. The main feed pumps are of the Blake vertical double-acting type, while in the after-engine rooms are Blake vertical double-acting single fire and bilge pumps.
The electric plant consists of four 300-kilowatt General Electric generators connected to 2-stage horizontal Curtis turbines. Two of the generators are located in a forward dynamo room and the other two in an after dynamo room. The condensing apparatus for each dynamo room is located directly under the dynamo rooms and a separate distribution room is located directly overhead each dynamo room. Each generator is capable of delivering one-third overload for two hours without injury.
The evaporating and distilling apparatus consists of four Reilly horizontal multicoil evaporators, two Reilly vertical multicoil distillers, two Reilly U-type Bureau standard feed water heaters, two distiller circulating pumps, two evaporator feed pumps and two fresh water pumps together with the necessary accessories. The plant has a rated capacity of 25,000 gallons of water in 24 hours and is arranged to operate in double effect.
Ventilation throughout the ship is provided by 48 Sturtevant ventilating fans driven by General Electric motors. Air is supplied on the plenum system and heater boxes are fitted in the ventilating ducts to all quarters below the upper deck, crew’s spaces, etc., for heating the incoming air.
The refrigerating plant consists of two horizontal steam-driven Allen condensed air machines, manufactured by H. B. Roelker of New York. Each machine is capable of producing the cooling effect of three tons of ice per day.
The deck machinery includes three motor-driven deck winches, electrical-driven anchor gear and motor-driven capstan, and both steam and electric steering gear, all of which is supplied by the American Engineering Company of Philadelphia.—Marine Engineering, March, 1916.
“Pennsylvania” Trials.—The new U. S. battleship Pennsylvania finished her builders’ trials off the Maine course this week and returned to Newport News, Va. The fastest mile of her standardization test February 27 was made at the rate of 21.75 knots. For five high speed runs the Pennsylvania developed an average of 21.38 knots an hour and three of the runs were made at 13 and 21 knots. I11 her record spurt her propellers made 216.4 revolutions a minute. In making her contract speed of 21 knots 210 revolutions a minute were necessary. There were 560 picked men on board furnished by her builders, together with 60 government officials. The Navy Board of Inspection, it is understood, were much pleased at the performance of the ship during her trials, some of which were made in rough weather. She proved a fine sea boat, it is said. The Pennsylvania will be turned over to the government, it is expected, the latter part of April.—Army and Navy Journal, 4/3.
Oklahoma Trials.—After completing her successful trial trip, the superdreadnought Oklahoma steamed up the Delaware to the New York Shipbuilding yards, Camden, January 30.
During her trials off the coast of Maine the ship averaged 20.58 knots on the 24 hour run, while her contract called for 20.05. She covered 2250 miles on the trip and her consumption of fuel oil was considerably below the estimate. She Will be formally turned over to the government in a few weeks.—Nautical Gazette, 2/10.
New U. S. Naval Scout Boat.—The 50-foot torpedo boat which is to be built by the Greenport Basin and Construction Co. for the U. S. Navy and which is to make 43 miles an hour and carry quick-firing guns and have a 16- inch torpedo tube, is to be driven by two 6-cylinder Harbeck motors of 300 horse-power each. This craft is something entirely new and somewhat of an experiment. It is to be used as a patrol and scout boat and will be different from those used by the Allies in that it will be powerful enough to resist enemy vessels.—Shipping Illustrated, 19/2.
Motorboat Submarine Destroyers for U. S. Navy.—Plans for two types of motorboat submarine destroyers designed to have a speed of at least 41 miles an hour, have been submitted to the Navy Department. Models will be constructed at once at the Washington Navy Yard and tested to determine whether the engines the designers propose to install will develop power for the required high speed.
The department recently obtained bids from several boat builders on craft of this type, but there was such a wide variation in the power proposed for boats of approximately the same size and lines that a test was decided on to determine just how much power would be required.
The boats are primarily intended to be carried aboard capital ships, two to a battle cruiser, and to form an inner protective screen against submarines when a fleet or squadron is at anchor or cruising slowly on station at sea. From the experiments with these craft, however, a standard type of motorboat for submarine patrol duty along the coasts and off harbor entrances in time of war probably will be developed.—Scientific American, 26/2.
Bids for Battleships.—In reply to a request from Mr. Padgett, chairman of the House Committee on Naval Affairs, for information concerning the bids for battleships 43 and 44, Secretary of the Navy Daniels, on February 8, sent him data concerning the bids from private contractors, giving the following figures:
New York Shipbuilding Company.—One vessel in accordance with the department’s design, subject to certain exceptions enumerated, $7,700,000. The exceptions amounted to $368,100.
Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company.—One vessel in accordance with the department’s design, subject to certain exceptions, $7,775,000: The exceptions were $465,500.
Fore River Shipbuilding Corporation.—Four bids, each for one vessel in accordance with the department's design. Bid 1, $7,638,000; bid 2, $7,684,000; bid 3, $7,750,5000; bid 4, $7,229,500. The estimated value of the omissions of the four bids were as follows: No. 1, $521,000; No. 2, $407,000; No. 3. $340,500; No. 4, $861,500.
The Department s circular to prospective bidders on these vessels stated that no bids would be considered which proposed a period of construction in excess of 34 months. Prior to the opening several of the prospective bidders protested against this provision, stating that under the prevailing condition of the labor and material markets it would be impracticable to guarantee completion in that period. The contractors were then informed that a bid containing a time guarantee in excess of 34 months would not be thrown out on that account, but preference in consideration would be given to bids proposing the shortest time for construction. Mr. Daniels in commenting on the bids submitted, said in his letter:
“In view of the fact that the amount authorized by Congress for the construction of these ships was $7,800,000 each, and the lowest cost of construction by private contractors was $8,068,100, or $268,100 in 'excess of the sum the Secretary of the Navy was authorized to expend, no recourse was open but to decline to make an award at a figure above the legal authorization. Added to this insuperable reason why the contract could not be awarded to either of the private shipbuilding concerns upon their bid, was the additional fact that neither company guaranteed to complete the ship at any fixed date within a reasonable time. The Newport News company frankly placed forty months as the shortest time for delivery, and the other bidders were equally frank in pointing out that delay must be expected, so that they could give no assurance of early completion. On the contrary, as will be seen, the companies pointed out the reason why, if awarded the contract, the government must expect delay in the completion of the ships.
“The New York Navy Yard estimated that it could build a ship within 36 months at a cost of $7,069,923. It is estimated that $100,000 will be needed for plant improvements. The Mare Island Navy Yard estimated that it could build a ship for $7,413,156, including certain necessary preparations for construction, estimated at $244,748. It also stipulated that other money would be needed to further equip the yard during construction. Their estimates showed a saving of $654,944 over the lowest bid of the private shipbuilding companies, and a time of construction of 31 months after receipt of structural material. Even with a necessary delay to extend the ship and provide other equipment at Mare Island, it is believed that the government can complete the ships at as early a date as any of the private shipbuilding yards, all of which are crowded with private contracts.
“Before awarding the building of these ships to the navy yards, I took the precaution of making contracts for steel and armor plate, with guarantees of prompt delivery for all material needed, so there will be no unnecessary delays. The machinery is now under advertisement. The price quoted for the steel needed in construction was slightly lower than the estimate previously made by the two yards awarded the contract
“The prompt action by the House of Representatives in authorizing the expenditure of $600,000 of the $1,920,769 between the lowest bids of the private shipbuilders and the navy yard estimates will enable the Navy Department to lose no time in making every preparation so that the work can be pushed to the utmost as soon as the ways are clear.”—Army and Navy Journal, 12/2.
Report on U. S. Shipbuilding Facilities.—A complete report on the capacity of private yards for building purposes and the possibilities of developing government yards to take care of contemplated construction of battleships, has been made to the Secretary of the Navy and will be presented to the House. This information was conveyed to the House Committee on Naval Affairs last week by Civil Engineer Homer R. Stanford, U. S. Navy, who was testifying before the committee. Engineer Stanford indicated that the Navy Department had been carefully investigating the possibilities of developing the navy yards so as to correlate their activities and bring them to a high state of efficiency. He indicated that k might be wise to construct an additional dry dock at the New York Navy Yard.— Shipping Illustrated, 22/1.
Speedy Patrol Boats for the U. S. Navy.—The novel motor boats known as “sea-sleds,” originated by a designer in Nova Scotia, have been found so speedy, and also so dry and steady in rough water, that they have been adopted by the United States Navy for various purposes, and recently a specimen of this type has been tried out for duty as a fast patrol or picket boat, for which work it is expected that it will be particularly efficient. Armed with a couple of light rapid-fire guns a boat of this kind could easily run down the most powerful submarine, and its great speed should enable it to avoid the shots fired by craft of any kind.
As will be seen from the illustrations the sea-sled is not a handsome craft, but greatly resembles a scow, with flat, vertical sides and square bow and stern. Its special feature is the underside arrangement, for the member that answers as a keel starts at the middle of the deck, at the bow, and extends, by quite a flat curve, to a point near the stern, where the bottom of the boat is flat. This construction forms a gradually diminishing V-shaped trough extending longitudinally through the hull, and the outline of the boat in the side view shows the chine at the lower edge of the vertical side, and not the keel line.
As the sides are flat and vertical, and as the width of the boat is somewhat greater at the bow than the stern, there is no tendency to throw water above the deck line, but on the contrary all spray is collected in the V-shaped opening at the bow and carried under the bottom, thus making a very dry boat in rough water. It is claimed that considerable quantities of air are also collected by the V-bow, and forced under the boat, so that it rides on a cushion of mixed air and water. It might be expected that a boat of this description would pound badly in rough water, but it is claimed that this is overcome by the air cushion, above mentioned; and the great proportional beam makes a steady boat, as far as rolling is concerned.
Besides being unique in design the method of propelling these boats is unusual, as what is known as surface propulsion is employed. In this system the shaft of the wheel is set at about the water-line, at the stern, and the propeller wheel revolves half in the water and half out. Special advantages are claimed for the system, and it has been successful with the sea-sleds. Some of these advantages are the slight draft of water required, the absence of any strut or exposed shaft, and the rigid support that can be given the wheels, by well lubricated stuffing boxes located in the stern framing of the boat.
In the particular boat shown in the illustrations, which is the largest that has been built, four propellers are fitted, each driven by its own individual gasoline engine; and these screws work in pairs, one pair turning to the right, and the other pair to the left. This is distinctly shown in one of the illustrations.
The other two pictures show the boat running. In one of these the boat is just starting, and it will be noticed that the wheels are throwing up a great cloud of spray, high above the stern; but as the craft gathers speed the disturbance of the water at the stern is much less, and the boat begins to “plane,” in the same manner as the ordinary hydroplane. This is shown in the second picture, and it will be noticed that when running at high speed practically no spray is thrown up forward, and the boat slides over the water very smoothly.
Owing to the light draft of the boat, and the arrangement of the wheels, the steering presented a problem. This was solved by hanging a rudder on each side of the boat at its stern, each one projecting slightly below and behind the hull. Only one of these rudders operates at a time, and they are hung on a hinge at their forward end which is set at an angle, so that they cut under when swung out, and this tends to pull the inward side of the craft down on the turn, thus counteracting the heeling effect.
Unusually high speeds are attained by these peculiar boats, and it is anticipated that they will prove useful in the navy for a number of purposes.—Scientific American, 29/1.
General Board’s Report of July 30, 1915
Department of the Navy
General Board
Washington, July 30, 1915.
From President, General Board.
To Secretary of the Navy: Subject, naval policy with present requirements:
In compliance with the oral order of the Secretary of the Navy to express its opinion at the earliest practical date as to a policy which should govern the development of the navy and a building program, the General Board reports as follows:
POLICY
The navy of the United States ultimately should be equal to the most powerful maintained by any other nation of the world. It should be gradually increased to this point by such a rate of development year by year as may be permitted by the facilities of the country, but the limits above defined should be attained not later than 1925.
In pursuance of this policy, and having in mind the present facilities of this country, the board is of the opinion that the following addition to the naval establishment should be authorized this year, and recommends the same for your consideration; this addition is believed by the board to be within, and practically at the limit of, the facilities at present existing.
Four battle cruisers, four dreadnoughts, six scouts, 30 coast submarines, seven fleet submarines, 28 destroyers and six gunboats.
Auxiliaries—One destroyer tender, two fleet submarine tenders, four fuel oil ships, one supply ship, one transport, one hospital ship, one repair ship and one ammunition ship.
Air craft service (lump appropriation), $5,000,000.
Personnel:
Eleven thousand men. This number will provide for the needs of the present ships of the navy, including those nearing completion, but it must be borne in mind that the personnel, commissioned, warrant and enlisted, will have to be further increased as the new construction progresses.
Increased facilities for the navy yards and shore establishments generally, such as dry docks, berthing spaces, building slips, structural shops, cranes for handling heavy weights, shop machinery, ammunition and other storage facilities, civil personnel, etc.
George Dewey.
—Flying, January.
Functions of Office of Naval Operations.—The Office of Naval Operations is really performing the functions of a general staff, according to Rear Admiral Benson, Chief of Naval Operations. Although it has been in existence only a year, much has been accomplished toward placing the navy on a war basis. Without additional legislation the office has taken steps towards the organization of the industrial resources of the country behind the navy, but the work of the office is hardly under way. Admiral Benson tells us that “although the Office of Naval Operations has been in existence only since May, 1915, definite plans for the mobilization of the entire naval forte of the United States have been approved and put into operation which brings into active cooperation all the various bureaus and elements of the Navy Department, together with the part each naval station is to play in case of war. The industrial resources of the country have been largely listed and their possibilities and capabilities in case of need tabulated. All vessels of the merchant marine have been inspected and their particular duties in case of war assigned, and everything which is necessary to fit them for war duty has been carefully thought out. An immense amount of detail has been worked out and is on file for ready reference. A definite division of mining and mine sweeping has been put in operation. The naval districts and the part they are to play have been definitely organized and all details are being carefully worked out. The radio service has been thoroughly and completely organized, and the system of communications is now so effective that messages to every part of the world can be sent at any time of the day or night, and this division has been put under the supervision of a thoroughly trained naval officer within fifty feet of the desk of the Secretary of the Navy, and is in immediate touch with the officer and .officials of every department. Many detail plans are being worked out which in a short time will accomplish all that by human foresight it is possible to do by any system that could be designed, call it a general staff or not.”—Army and Navy Journal, 4/3.
Completion of Submarines “L-1, 2, 3 and 4."—With reference to a statement in the January-February number, reprinted from Shipping Illustrated, as to the status of the submarines L-1, 2, 3, and 4, the Fall River Company makes the following statement:
“The engine troubles that developed on L-1 to 4 were primarily due to salt water leaks in the lubricating oil, in spite of which one boat completed her engine trials, and after these were corrected another boat passed all trial requirements. However, it has not been considered that there was sufficient margin of safety against successive heating of the wrist-pin bearings, to rectify which a large sum of money was expended and many experiments were carried out to insure engine performances on these boats that will be satisfactory under all conditions. L-1 and 3 have now completed their official trials and they will be delivered to the government as soon as new separators which are now being fitted to their batteries at the government's request and as a change under the contract, are installed and the L-2 and 4 with the same modifications in the engines completed, will run their trials within the next couple of weeks. These engines operated perfectly and are very highly recommended by those who witnessed the trials.”
Note.—These vessels were on February 28 undergoing additional trials, and it is expected that they will shortly be accepted.
Naval Intelligence Office Reorganized and Enlarged.—The Bureau of Naval Intelligence is now being reorganized and enlarged, by Admiral Benson, upon orders from the Secretary of the Navy. The European war has developed the fact that the facilities of this bureau for securing information are totally inadequate, in what respect is not divulged, nor is it stated what is to be done to enlarge its facilities and how it is to be reorganized. All that is admitted is that there is to be a change in its organization and methods. There is an impression throughout the navy that other countries have ways of securing information relative to our sea defences much in excess of that obtained by our Navy Department concerning foreign powers. The hearing before the House Committee on Naval Affairs developed the fact that the department has no definite information as to the size and the number of submarines that are in the fleets of the belligerents. The Allies have sunk more German submarines than that country had at the beginning of the war if the information collected by the Navy Department is correct. It is said that there is a dearth of reliable statistics on the caliber of the guns of the larger navies. The War Department has a well- organized division of information in the War College and this has been invaluable in securing data upon which reports to Congress have been based. Other than the reports made public, it is stated that the War College has submitted confidential information to the Senate Military Committee which has guided the committee in formulating its bill. The Secretary of the Navy is anxious that the Naval Intelligence Bureau be similarly equipped and organized for the same purpose. He insists that a well-organized intelligence bureau is more important to the navy than to the army, as there are more features of a sea force that can be kept secret. Not the least of these is the character of the armor plate that is being used in foreign navies.—Army and Navy Journal, 1/3.
Investigating Industrial Preparedness.—Out of the 48 state squares branch 240 sub-squares, each representing the individual field of investigation of that number of committeemen selected by the five leading scientific bodies of the country—the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Chemical Society, and the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Now, these five men in each state will go forth to learn and to list everything in their commonwealth that will be available for the use of Uncle Sam in an emergency. They will locate and classify all our coal, iron, and other mineral resources, so that they may be protected at their source. They will gain a knowledge of the capacity of the mines and mills of the country, and the extent to which they will be able to respond when called upon. They will gather information as to the capacity of every industry which may be capable of supplying things that are needed for the sinews of war.
Industrial preparedness means something- more than mere capacity to make shells. The field covers food, clothing, hospital equipment, motors, animals, and telephone, telegraph, and railway accommodations. It also means that the government should not only know where these industries are and what they can do, but those in control of the industries should know what is expected of them – that is, the exact nature as well as the volume of the requirements.
Diagram showing the machinery of investigation that has been set in motion by President Wilson to ascertain just to what extent the industries of the United States can aid the policy of preparedness to which the President is committed.
Germany reveals how high a plane of effectiveness may be reached when there is scientific cooperation between government and national industries. Government inspectors go about among the plants and manufactories of the country and ascertain exactly just to what extent the plant or the factory can aid in government work.—N. Y. Times Magazine, 6/2.
Naval Militia Developments.—Referring to his belief in the need of the naval militia in addressing the Naval Militia Association at the new Willard Hotel, Washington, January 29, Mr. Daniels spoke of its further growth, and said: “Texas and Hawaii added organizations to the naval militia during the past year, bringing the number of states represented up to 24 and making the total strength of officers 606 and of enlisted men 7706. During the past summer the entire naval militia cruised either on vessels loaned to it or on battleships and torpedo-boat destroyers detailed by the Navy Department for that purpose. The loaning of three older battleships to the states of California, Massachusetts and New York, giving the officers and men battleship training, is having a good effect, and is believed will largely increase enlistments. While examinations were not obligatory, 200 officers of the naval militia took the first examinations under the Naval Militia Act, and of these 41 officers were found fully qualified to be called forth by the President in time of war without further professional examination and certificates of qualification will be issued to them.”—Army and Navy Journal. 5/2.
Naval Militia Cruise.—The naval militia this year will have an opportunity to serve in a fleet of battleships. Eight or nine vessels from the Atlantic reserve fleet will be mobilized in the latter part of August and manned by the regular officers and men on the Atlantic reserve fleet and officers and men from the naval militia. It is planned to have about 40 per cent regulars and 60 per cent naval militia in the organization of the crews. This arrangement will dispense with the fleet maneuvers on the Great Lakes and other waters by the Naval Militia. About 50 per cent of the strength of the naval militia, or 4500, can he taken care of by the vessels that will be available for this service. An appropriation of $77,000 has been asked for by the Secretary of the Navy to cover the traveling expenses of the militia from the Great Lakes and interior section. Four years ago the naval militia of the Great Lakes was mobilized and assigned to ships at the naval review in New York. Aside from a trip from Philadelphia to New York the naval militia was given no real service on the battleships. Next summer it is proposed to keep the militia aboard the fleet tor at least eleven days when it is taking part in a battle problem. The program has not yet been arranged, but it is possible that the Naval Militia may have an opportunity to participate in the target practice.—Army and Navy Journal, 19/2.
British Criticism of our Lack of Scouts.—The mightiest battleship unattended by numerous swift satellites is a blind behemoth, and a squadron of battleships without its proper complement of ancillary craft is constantly exposed to sudden disaster.
This was a self-evident truth long before the present war, yet it would seem to have been ignored by the American naval administration until very recently. The American shortage in ships of the scouting type is notorious. Out of a total cruiser establishment of 32 units, only three are able to steam at 24 knots or upwards. The majority of the ships, armored and protected, are good for no more that 22 knots. The dearth of fast seagoing destroyers is almost equally marked. Even now, however, very little of the discussion in progress on the defence bills has any relation to an adequate supply of the scouts, big destroyers, and other auxiliaries which expert opinion has declared to be more urgently needed at the present moment than additional capital ships.—Naval and Military Record, 12/1.
British Navy’s Increase During War..—According to the New York World of December 16, the naval attache reports that “every available yard in the British Islands is working right round the clock in turning out ships at an unprecedented rate. Great Britain has laid down or completed more vessels since the war began than the entire tonnage in the American Navy. This means that within a year the British Navy will be about 300 per cent stronger than America’s, unless Germany destroys a section of the fleet. It is dear from the newspapers that this unparalleled effort by Great Britain to maintain her unassailable naval supremacy, despite the vicissitudes of war, has profoundly impressed American opinion.—Naval and Military Record, 12/1.
The Navy Personnel Bill—H. R. 12540, Mr. Padgett—To-increase the efficiency of the personnel of the navy and marine corps.
Section 1 provides for the appointment of three midshipmen by each senator, representative and delegate in Congress; two for Porto Rico; three for the District of Columbia; 20 each year at large, 10 of these to be selected by the Secretary from sons of officers and enlisted men of 20 or more years service, sons of former officers and enlisted men. These 10 are to be chosen by competitive examination. Candidates must be between 16 and 20 years of age. .
Sec 2—That the authorized strength of the commissioned line of the active list of the navy, exclusive of the admiral of the navy and officers borne on the navy list as additional numbers, shall be 30 rear admirals, such number of commodores as may qualify under the provisions of this act, 100 captains, 200 commanders, 400 lieutenant commanders, and such number of lieutenants, lieutenants (junior grade) and ensigns as may qualify under the provisions of this act.
The increase of rear admirals is to be such as will provide for 7 annual promotions in that grade; that of captains, commanders and lieutenant commanders by annual increments of one-fifth. The grade of commodore is re-established with pay of captain, except when commanding squadrons, divisions or flotillas, when their pay is to be that of rear admiral of the lower half. An annual report is to be made to Congress of the number of officers and men required.
Sec. 3 provides for the detail to permanent duty in engineering, ordnance, law or aviation of officers applying not above lieutenant in the navy and captain in marine corps, and who have successfully completed special courses or passed special examinations. Such officers shall be additional numbers and shall be advanced without regard to sea service by examinations in their specialty. ,
Sec. 4.—The medical corps is to be increased by five annual increments, not including additionals, reserves or dentists to 25 medical directors (captains), 50 medical inspectors (commanders), 100 surgeons (lieutenant commanders), and 325 surgeons (lieutenants and lieutenants, junior grade).
Sec. 5.—The pay corps, exclusive of additionals and admirals, shall be 17 pay directors (captains), 34 pay inspectors (commanders), 68 paymasters (lieutenant commanders), 206 paymasters (lieutenants, junior grade, and ensigns). Paymasters are to be recommissioned without examination. Grades of assistant paymaster and passed assistant paymaster are abolished, those in these grades to be recommissioned without re-examination. Increase is to be in annual increments for five years and decrease in lieutenant commanders to be two for each year.
Sec. 6 amends Sec. 1383, Rev. Stat., concerning paymasters’ bonds.
Sec. 7 abolishes corps of professors of mathematics.
Sec. 8 provides for 10 naval constructors, captains; 20 commanders; 40 lieutenant commanders; 80 lieutenants, lieutenants, junior grade, and ensigns. The increase to be distributed over five years. The grade of assistant naval constructor is abolished, those holding it being recommissioned as naval constructors without further examination.
Sec. 9 provides for three civil engineers, captains; six-commanders; 31 lieutenant commanders, lieutenants, junior grade, and ensigns. The grade of assistant civil engineer is abolished, those holding it to be recommissioned as civil engineers without re-examination. The number of captains is to be increased immediately, and that of commanders one in each year.
Sec. 10 provides for 25 master boatswains; 25 master gunners; 50 master machinists; 20 master carpenters; 5 master pharmacists, and 25 master pay clerks; one-fifth of the increase in each five years. They shall rank after ensigns and ahead of officers of chief warrant rank and have the pay, etc., of lieutenants, junior grade. After three years’ service and subject to examination, they may be commissioned lieutenants, junior grade, in the several corps to which they belong.
Sec. 11 abolishes the act limiting the appointment of machinists to 20 annually and authorizes the increase of chief pharmacists and pharmacists to 2 for each of 5 years.
RESERVE LIST
Sec. 12 establishes a war reserve of commissioned officers who shall be required to perform active duty for two months annually to insure their proficiency, receiving active pay, etc. Otherwise they shall receive retired pay, and may be transferred to the retired list on the same conditions as officers of the active list. They shall retain on the retired list the rank they held at the time of transfer. Sec. 1440, R. S., shall hereafter apply only to officers of the active list.
Sec. 13.—On and after June 30, 1920, captains aged 57 or over shall be placed on the reserve list; and on and after June 30, 1921, captains of 57 years, commanders of 52 years, lieutenant commanders of 48 years, and lieutenants of 45.
Sec. 14.—Line officers of the navy whose employment is restricted by law to shore duty only, officers who have been specially detailed for permanent duty in engineering, ordnance, law and aviation, and officers of the medical, pay and construction corps of the navy, shall be placed on the reserve list, on and after June 30, 1921, as follows: Commanders of 57, lieutenant commanders of 52, and lieutenants of 48.
Sec. 15.—Officers of the marine corps shall be placed on the reserve list as follows: Colonels at 60, lieutenant colonels at 65, majors at 50, captains at 45.
Sec. 16.—Officers retired shall receive pay as follows: With less than 11 years’ service, 75 per cent; with 11 years’ service, 27½ per cent; and for each additional year’s service thereafter, 2½ per cent additional retired pay. The total retired pay not to exceed 75 per cent. This is not to apply to officers retired for total disability, or disease incident to service; and no officer retired shall receive increase of pay from this act. Officers shall be credited with service from the dates which they now take precedence. Sec. 1445, R. S., is repealed.
Sec. 17 repeals Sec. 1454, R. S. Officers retired for incapacity not the result of service shall have not to exceed one-half pay or be wholly retired with one year’s pay.
Secs. 18-27 provide for examinations for appointments to the navy and marine corps; substitute a medical examination for promotion in lieu of the physical examination now required. Officers found morally unfit are to be discharged. Examinations are not required for appointment carrying temporary advance in rank. Prescribe the character of examining boards; repeal Sec. 1505, R. S., as amended. Officers below the rank of commander, or of lieutenant colonel, marine corps, found not professionally qualified, are suspended for six months, or in some cases for one year, with a corresponding loss of numbers. Provision is made for boards of examination.
PROMOTION DY SELECTION
Secs. 28-33 provide for the recommendation for the advancement of officers by their superiors in rank. The Secretary of the Navy shall send annually to such officers (superiors in rank) the names of candidates in their respective corps, showing the duties performed by, and the names of the immediate commanding officers of, each such candidate during his service with the rank he then holds together with the marks assigned, his reports on fitness by a board. In the case of candidates with the rank of lieutenant in the navy or captain in the marine corps, the list shall cover service in the navy with the rank of lieutenant and lieutenant (junior grade), or in the marine corps with the rank of captain and first lieutenant. The superior officer having particularly in view the duties of officers of the rank to which advancements are to be made shall thereupon recommend in writing to the Secretary of the Navy the names of the candidates he deems the most deserving of advancement. With the name of a candidate for advancement will be furnished his professional records, made during his service with the rank he then holds, together with copies of all letters attached to said records: Provided, that in the case of candidates with the rank of commodore, said summary shall cover service with the rank of commodore and captain. In addition to being subject to recommendations by officers similarly employed, such officers shall be subject to recommendation by line officers whose employment is not so restricted. When candidates for advancement, such officers shall be promoted in not less than the same percentage as those officers of the line whose employment is not so restricted and who are then candidates for advancement to the same grade. Additional number following the regular number receiving the number of recommendations, or when the regular number stands immediately ahead of him in recommendations, becomes eligible for advancement. In case of ties the senior shall be preferred.
Sec. 34.—Midshipmen upon graduation should be commissioned in order of seniority.
Sec. 35.—Ensigns after three years’ service shall be subjected to a competitive professional examination according to which they shall be graded or wholly retired if unfit with one year’s sea pay.
Sec. 36.—Seniority of ensigns shall be determined first, by their marks at the competitive examinations; second, by average marks in general professional fitness; third, by their final marks upon graduation, or in the case of non-graduates by the average marks obtained in competitive examinations prior to their commission.
Sec. 37.—-Ensigns shall hereafter take rank in the corps to which they may be assigned according to their seniority as above determined. This shall not apply to ensigns due for promotion prior to August 1, 1916, nor to those undergoing instruction preliminary to appointment in some corps of the navy.
Sec. 38.—Lieutenants (J. G.) to be promoted to lieutenants after 8 years’ service, the date of a non-graduate to be determined by the date of the graduate immediately preceding him. An officer gaining or losing service shall be considered as having gained or lost, in total service, and in service in his grade or rank, length of service accordingly for the purposes of advancement and precedence.
Secs. 39-40.—Promotion from the grade of lieutenant commander to that of rear admiral shall be as heretofore. Lieutenants, lieutenant commanders and commanders shall be eligible to promotion after five years’ service, three of which shall be at sea.
Sec. 41.—On June 30, 1916, captains who have completed 34 years’ service since graduation shall be entitled to promotion; on June 30, 1917, those of 33 years’ service; on June 30, 1918, and on June 30, 1919, those having 32 years’ service; and on June 30, 1920, and thereafter, those who have then served not less than two years at sea in the grade of captain and whose total service in that grade is not less than six years.
Sec. 42.—Commodores and captains who, on June 30, 1916, have completed 33 years’ service shall be eligible for promotion to rear admiral; on June 30, 1917, those of 32 years’ service; on June 30, 1918, those having not less than 32 nor more than 38 years; and on June 30, 1919, those having not less than 32 nor more than 37 years’ service. On January 1, 1920, and on each following first day of January, those commodores of not more than 57 years of age who have then served at sea in the grades of commodore and captain a total of not less than two years and those captains who have then served not less than two years at sea in the grade of captain and whose total service in that grade at the close of that fiscal year will be not less than five years, shall constitute the candidates for promotion to fill vacancies occurring in the grade of rear admiral during the following fiscal year.
Secs. 43-46.—Provide for the advancement of surgeons, paymasters, naval constructors, and civil engineers after service of three years in case of surgeons with the rank of junior grade, five years in the case of others, with the exception of eight years in the case of civil engineers. Naval constructors and civil engineers up to and including the rank of lieutenant shall be advanced with the officers of the line immediately preceding them in precedence.
Sec. 47.—Boatswains after service of six years shall undergo a competitive professional examination for advancement to master boatswain, being graded according to the order of merit established by such examination. Chief gunners, chief machinists, chief carpenters, chief pharmacists and chief pay clerks, respectively, may be advanced to master gunner, master machinist, master carpenter, master pharmacist and master pay clerk, respectively, subject in all respects to the conditions governing the advancement of chief boatswains to master boatswain.
MARINE CORPS
Sec. 48.—The total enlisted strength of the marine corps shall be 20 per cent of that of the navy.
Sec. 49.—The officers shall be 4 per cent of the enlisted strength, distributed in the proportion of four colonels to five lieutenant colonels, 14 majors, 37 captains, and 62 first or second lieutenants. The grade of brigadier general is established, the promotion of an additional number to this grade to be held to fill the vacancy. The promotion to major general shall be from officers not below the rank of colonel.
Sec. 50.—The staff department shall number 8 per cent of the enlisted strength, one-fifth to be adjutants and inspectors general, one-fifth paymasters, and three-fifths quartermasters.
Sec. 51.—No further permanent appointments shall be made in the staff department. The lower grades are to be filled by details of four years from the line, and the upper grades by appointment of officers of the staff department having a vacancy with the rank of colonel, an officer of the line to be detailed in case there is no officer with the rank of colonel in a given staff department. Appointments of higher officers shall be for a term of four years and the officers so appointed shall be recommissioned in the grade to which appointed.
Sec. 52.—That at any time prior to July I, 1921, any officer holding a permanent appointment in any staff department, may, upon his own application, be reappointed in the line of the marine corps in the grade and with the rank he would hold on the date of his reappointment if he had remained continuously in the line.
Sec. 53.-—-That vacancies in the grade of second lieutenant shall be filled, first, by the appointment of midshipmen; second, by the appointment of warrant or non-commissioned officers of the marine corps who have served therein not less than one year and who are not over 30 years of age; and third, by the appointment of graduates of colleges and military or technical institutes between the ages of 20 and 24 years.
Sec. 54.—Second Lieutenants shall be promoted after three years subject to a professional examination, failing in which they shall be wholly retired. Seniority shall be determined on promotion by the order obtained in this examination.
Sec. 55.—For the purposes of advancement in rank to captain, major, lieutenant colonel and colonel made prior to July 1, 1921, all commissioned officers of the line and staff of the marine corps shall be placed on a common list in the order of seniority each would hold had he remained continuously in the line. All advancements in rank to .captain, major, lieutenant colonel and colonel prior to July 1, 1921, shall, subject to the usual examinations, be made from officers with the next junior respective ranks, whether of said line or staff, in the order in which their names appear on said list.
Sec., 56.—After June 30, 1921, advancement in rank to captain shall, subject to the usual examination, be made as heretofore provided by law.
Sec. 57.—Captain, majors and lieutenant colonels of line and staff shall be eligible for promotion after five years’ service, subject to the usual examination.
Sec. 58.—That original vacancies created in the grade of brigadier general within one year of the date of approval of this act shall be filled by the President by selection from officers senior in rank to lieutenant colonel. Other vacancies in the grade of brigadier general shall be filled under the provisions of the following section:
Sec. 59.—On January 1 of each year all officers with the rank of colonel shall constitute the candidates for advancement to brigadier general, subject to the usual physical examination. They shall rank in the order of the number of recommendations thus received.
Sec. 60 establishes the warrant grades of marine gunner, quartermaster clerk and pay clerk and provides for the appointment of 20 marine gunners, one quartermaster clerk for each commissioned officer serving in the quartermaster department, and one pay clerk for each commissioned officer serving in the paymaster’s department, is hereby authorized. Officers in those grades shall have the rank, etc., of warrant officers and be appointed from a non-commissioned officer. Clerks now serving as quartermasters’ and paymasters’ clerks with field service shall be eligible for appointment as such and credited with their previous service in the field, army, navy or marine corps. Clerks now serving as clerks for assistant paymasters shall be warranted pay clerks and after one year the position of field clerk in the quartermaster department and clerk for assistant paymaster shall be abolished. Nothing contained in this act shall be held to reduce the active duty pay or allowances of any person in the naval service.
Sec. 61.—That officers of the marine corps with the rank of colonel who shall have served faithfully for 45 years on the active and reserve lists shall, when retired, have the rank of brigadier general; and all such officers who shall hereafter be retired at the age of 64 years before having served for 45 years, but who shall have served faithfully on the active and reserve lists until retired shall, on the completion of 40 years from their entry in the naval service, have the rank of brigadier general.
Promotion by Selection. Admiral Fletcher’s Strong Argument Against it. —I have listened to arguments for and against selection during my whole naval career, and am convinced that promotion by selection would be determined to the best interests of the naval service. This conviction is shared by the majority of the higher ranking officers.
The arguments used in favor of selection are based upon incorrect assumptions and incorrect comparisons. They do not present the actual conditions of the commissioned personnel of the navy.
The principal argument in favor of promotion by selection is that such a system is in use in every walk of industrial life. The inference is drawn that selection would be best for the navy.
This comparison fails to take into account the radical difference which exists between the widely varied abilities of the personnel in a large commercial organization, and the more nearly equal abilities of a body of educated officers.
In a business organization, all classes of people are employed representing every degree of intelligence from those who have the rudiments of an education to those who have the highest technical training. Here selection is a necessity. It is manifest that no other method can be pursued. From the common laborer to the manager each man is selected for his special class of work, for each is a specialist in his particular line.
Naval officers, after a strict weeding process, have all been graduated at the same school. They are all given the same training and are all required to meet the same standard of efficiency. No officer can be promoted before his ability to perform the duties in the new grade has been thoroughly established. They are all so nearly of the same ability that it is an extremely difficult matter out of 90 per cent of them in any one grade to tell who will be the best man in the future. The past performance of over 90 per cent of any one grade has been of a high and satisfactory standard, and there has been relatively little difference in the ability of any of them.
How then shall we pick this one or that one and say that in the future, in the next grade, this man will be superior to the large majority of his equally endowed fellows who are practically as able as he?
In the grades of lieutenant and lieutenant commander, where there is employed the more strictly technical knowledge of gunnery and engineering, a high reputation has often been made by officers who, upon arriving at command rank, are never heard of professionally.
The naval profession requires expert knowledge in nearly every phase of human activity ; it requires knowledge of engineering, electricity, navigation, seamanship, law, ordnance, gunnery, tactics, strategy, military organization, and command. Many officers have specialized in one or another of these technical subjects, and have become widely known, through their work in that specialty. Others are known as good organizers and handlers of men. All are needed to make an efficient service, and one not more than another. What qualifications are to be given preference in selection for promotion ? Are we to select the best ordnance officer, or the best engineer, or the best tactician, or the plodding man whose even balance and sound judgment enable him to give a correct decision where a brilliant specialist may fail; or are we to select through some intricate mathematical process of voting? These officers are a body of experts; the selection of who are the best is only a fancied discrimination.
The next argument advanced in favor of selection is that it stimulates officers to make greater exertion in the performance of duty, and is an incentive for a more strenuous striving toward excellence. The theory of itself sounds true, but does not apply where there already exists an extraordinary amount of incentive to excel.
Among uaval officers the highest incentive to duty is the commendation of fellow officers. A keen rivalry in gunnery, engineering and tactics exists among the.ships of the fleet and officers labor to be stamped by their fellows as efficient'and successful men. In addition to the praise of their fellows there is official recognition by letters of commendation from the President and from the Secretary of the Navy. There is still a further incentive from the certainty that the efficient officer will be chosen for the responsible positions. All of these far surpass the incentive given by the money compensation which comes with increase of rank.
Anyone who is familiar with the spirit of officers in the fleet, and who knows how much every captain and his officers are wrapped up in the work of making his ship attain the highest efficiency; and who knows how keen is the disappointment when his efforts fail; well knows that additional stimulus is unnecessary.
Too much incentive among men equally qualified may be more detrimental than beneficial. When efficient officers labor under the constant strain that their promotion may be in doubt, and that some more fortunate and probably less efficient officer may be passed over their heads, there is bound to be produced an unhealthy condition. Minds will be bent more towards ways and means of securing promotion than toward the prosecution of the tasks of gunnery and engineering.
The form of selection that exists in our service today is the proper and logical one. It is selection to the responsible positions and selection to positions for which officers are particularly fitted. For example, an officer is selected to be a gunnery officer of a dreadnought or of a cruiser, to be an engineer of a fast turbine ship or one of the older type, to command a submarine or a destroyer, to command a dreadnought, to perform the duties of Chief of Bureau, Chief of Operations, General Board, War College, etc. Flag officers, too, are selected in accordance with their ability to handle the responsible situations in command of divisions, squadrons and fleets.
This form of selection answers every argument, and fulfills all the requirements of any form of selection needed in the naval service. It gets the right man in the right place; it gives a just regard for merit; and it furnishes every incentive and spur to excel.
All of these worthy things are accomplished now without introducing the evils that come with “selection for rank,” or promotion by selection, as it is popularly styled.
Flow of Promotion.—The reason that promotion by selection receives any following at all; even among the younger officers and in spite of its evil effects upon a military service, is because it has invariably been linked with some scheme for providing a more rapid flow of promotion.
The method usually proposed for creating vacancies, so that selection can then be used to fill them, is to retire or place in reserve officers who have obtained a certain age in the various grades. This has met in Congress the same opposition that was encountered by the Plucking Board; namely, that Congress is reluctant to retire or place in reserve an able-bodied and able-minded man who receives pay but renders no service to the government.
If a means can be devised by which men are not kept in idleness while enjoying a government salary, it is believed that Congress would enact any reasonable legislation.
There is a slight flow of promotion due to deaths and retirements in the upper ranks. There is, in addition, a certain deterioration in men which may be placed at about three or four out of every hundred. With these few removed the efficiency of the men left is of a high standard. The efforts of an able flag officer may be of no avail if his captains are not of a high average. As you look down the battle line and feel that every captain is of good sound judgment and can be depended upon you feel that the strength of your line is assured.
How futile and what turmoil is caused by trying to select for rank from this majority of equally able men. The few in the higher grades who are not of the high average of the majority are men ably qualified for many positions in the government service. They can be assigned to those positions which are already of considerable expense to the government and can render excellent service for many years.
This will solve not only the question of flow of promotion, but will at the same time settle the question of officers receiving remuneration without rendering service to the government. I would suggest that this problem be solved by the following act:
“The President of the United States is authorized to transfer annually not exceeding 4 per cent of the captains, commanders and lieutenant commanders from the active navy list to other duty in the government service, and such officers will not thereafter be in the regular line of promotion.”
By the passage of this act the naval service will, as a whole, be made more efficient and will be spared the evils of promotion by selection. The government is at the same time saved money by reason of officers transferred being placed to work.
There are many positions in the government service which naval officers are well qualified to fill, and many which they formerly filled. These may be found in the lighthouse service, coast survey service, consular service, diplomatic service, and in the naval service itself, as inspectors of machinery, and as officers in certain offices of the Navy Department and at navy yards. There would be no difficulty in finding two or three hundred positions of this character that would amply take care of the overflow from the line.—Army and Navy Journal, 11/3.
NAVIGATION
Bellini-Tosi Direction Finder.—Notice has been given by the U. S. Hydrographic Office of the installation at the U. S. Naval Radio Station, North Truro, Mass., of a Bellini-Tosi direction finder, fitted for the purpose of ascertaining the true bearing by radio waves of a ship from the radio station, North Truro, as well as the true direction of the radio station from the ship, thus affording a new aid to vessels navigating the waters of Cape Cod in determining their position by radio. From tests already conducted, the direction finder has been found to be correct within about 2 degrees and request is made of merchant vessels fitted with radio to cooperate with the department in these experiments whenever they are within range of North Truro by asking their bearings from that station and informing it how such bearing checks with the ship’s observation. The direction finder, although it has been on the market for some four years, is so little known to the average navigator that an explanation of its method of operation will be of interest. It is the invention of two Italian naval officers, Bellini and Tosi, and its operation depends on the use of a directive aerial, i. c., one in which the strength of the signals received depends on the direction from which they come. The direction finder can be used either to enable a vessel to locate its own position, or that of an approaching vessel from a vessel or shore station. It does not give magnetic bearings, but is azimuthal and positions are given with regard to the ship’s axis; the position of the axis being determined from the magnetic compass. The direction finder does not give one absolute direction for position, but gives two possible directions, one exactly opposite to the other. Thus a wireless station on the port bow may be the starboard quarter at exactly 180 degrees from the port position. The port or starboard position of a land station is generally known, and in any case can be accurately determined by two successive readings. The range of the direction finder varies with the strength of the sending station and size of aerials fitted; when used with a standard ship wireless set it is from 25 to 60 miles. It is completed independent of weather conditions and the two main aids which it affords to navigation are: (1) Determining the ship’s position with regard to any coast station; (2) finding the direction of an approaching or overtaking ship. The direction finder is formed of three main parts—the receiving aerials, the radio-geniometer and the detector.—Shipping Illustrated, 4/3.
The North Magnetic Pole.—The late Dr. Aksel Steen, director of the Norwegian meterological service, had charge of working up the magnetic observations made by Amundsen on his Northwest passage of some years ago. Terrestrial Magnetism publishes a letter written by Dr. Steen, shortly before his death last May, stating that two or three years more would be required to complete the work. The writer declares that it will be impossible to give a definite position for the north magnetic pole, because, in his opinion, this pole “is not a fixed point attached to a certain geographical latitude and longitude, but must be defined as that point on the surface of the earth where the horizontal intensity at the moment is zero.” The discussion of Amundsen’s observations will probably show that the pole has a mean daily and yearly periodic motion, together with more or less irregular displacements. A mean position for the pole can perhaps be determined, or else it may be possible to define a closed curve within which the pole will always be found.—Scientific American, 12/2.
Signalling at Sea.—A method of estimating distances at sea in fog or thick weather, which is partly electrical in character, was described before a recent meeting of the Royal Society, London, by Professor J. Joly. The system depends for its successful operation upon the different velocities of disturbances in different media. If aerial and submarine signals are simultaneously emitted at a lighthouse station or lightship, the lag of the aerial compared with the submarine sound is about 4.3 seconds to the nautical mile. An approaching ship picking up the signals and measuring the lag to an error even of one second, becomes aware of her distance to less than one-quarter of a mile. Similarly, wireless signals and submarine signals, or wireless and aerial signals, may be used. If the faster moving signals be sent out in groups, the individual signals being spaced to regular intervals, say of one second, and the slower moving signal be always emitted simultaneously with the first signal of a group, the navigator has only to count the faster signals till the slower signal reaches him in order to estimate his distance from the signal station. In this base the signals themselves tell him his distance, and no actual time measurements are required on board ship. It is shown that this system enables the mariner to determine his position completely under all circumstances which may arise. Prof. Joly showed how an extension of this method could be applied to the problem of avoiding collision in fog. It was pointed out that if vessels possess the means of emitting a loud and crisp sound signal which can be sent out simultaneously with a wireless or a submarine signal, the determination of distance rendered possible thereby, along with wireless information as to course and speed, will enable the navigator on each ship to determine with certainty (1) whether there is risk of collision or whether there is no risk, and (2) the point upon his own course, and the moment at which collision is threatened.
The solution of the problem is based upon the fact that at each instant the rate of mutual approach is the maximum if the ships are advancing so as to collide. A simple geometrical construction, which, by its character, is unlikely to involve error, enables the mariner to solve the problem immediately the signals are received.—Shipping Illustrated, 4/3.
ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY
16-Inch Guns for Battleships
Washington, February 26.
Experimental. long-range firing by the Atlantic fleet and information about naval battles in the European war virtually have convinced the Navy Department that battleships to be authorized this year should carry ten 16-inch guns each, instead of twelve 14-inch weapons. Ships of the Pennsylvania and California class, now built or building, carry the 14-inch guns.
Details of gunnery are confidential, but it became known to-night that the next target practice of the fleet will be held at ranges up to 18,000 yards because of the lessons taught by the battle between German and British battle cruisers in the North Sea, where 17,000-yard shots scored hits.
The Navy General Board recommended some time ago that new battleships be designed for the 16-inch rifles, and proposed other military characteristics that made it necessary to increase the tonnage from 32,000 for the California class to 36,000. Officials of the board have urged their views upon the House Naval Committee in connection with the pending appropriation bill, although the 1917 building program is not yet before the committee. Many officers of high rank, however, have considered it unwise to mount the bigger guns or build the bigger ships. Secretary Daniels has not as yet announced what his recommendation to the committee will be, but confidential reports from the fleet are said to have about convinced him of the desirability of the bigger ship project.
An order for the first kite balloon to be added to the navy’s aerial fleet has been placed, it was learned to-day, and this latest device to increase the accuracy of gun fire may be tested out during the Spring target practice. It is proposed that each battleship be equipped with a captive kite balloon which will rise 1000 feet above her decks. The officers observing the fall of shots, now stationed in the fighting tops 150 feet above decks, will be stationed in the balloon basket, communicating with the gunners by telephone. From their great elevation they will be able, it is thought, to direct salvo fire with deadly accuracy at targets invisible from the ship itself.
The navy’s biggest guns now have a range of 12 sea miles or more, and this will be increased materially with the new 16-inch guns. Before the House Naval Committee recently Admiral Winslow said he had seen weather conditions in which ships were plainly visible at 30,000 yards, or fifteen miles. It probably was due, he said, to a mirage, but if he had guns of sufficient range he thought he could have gauged his shots so as to make a bombardment effective.
Another new feature probably will be added to the fleet this spring when the armored cruiser North Carolina, carrying six aeroplanes and their crews and a device for launching the aircraft in any weather, joins Admiral Fletcher’s command. The aerial scouts for the first time will play an important part in the maneuvers and possibly in target practice.— N. Y. Tunes, 27/2.
Preparations for Installing 16-Inch Guns.—A model 16-inch gun has been built at the Washington Navy Gun Factory and tried out at Indian Head. The Bureau of Ordnance has all the plans prepared and can begin to turn out 16-inch guns as soon as the department decides to equip its dreadnoughts with them. Plans have also been prepared in the Bureau of Construction and Repair for 16-inch-gun ships, and it is only a matter for the department to decide. Not only will the new ships have greater gun power, but it is stated that they will have higher speed. With the electric drive the speed of the new ships has been increased about a knot an hour.— Army and Navy Journal, 4/3.
An 18-Inch Model Reported in Hand.—The Bethlehem Company is reported to have an improved 18-inch model in hand. It is by no means improbable, therefore, that monster weapons of this type will shortly be adopted as the standard armament of American dreadnoughts. They are especially recommended for mounting in the battle cruisers which, after years of agitation, are shortly to be laid down. Unofficial information gives these vessels a designed speed of 30 knots and a battery of eight of the heaviest guns consistent with displacement.—Naval and Military Record, 12/1.
Rumors of 17-INCH and 17.5-INCH Guns.—It has been rumored in the British press that England’s new battle cruisers mount 17-inch guns and have a displacement of 42,000 tons. (Some rumors say 52,000 tons.) It has also been rumored that Germany has 17.5-inch guns afloat.
Little credence is given to these reports in naval circles.
17-Inch Naval Guns an Old Story.—Reports current from abroad that the German Admiralty is mounting 17-inch guns in the Kaiser’s latest superdreadnoughts recall the fact that guns of 17 inches on warships are by no means new, for the British and Italians had guns of this caliber back in the seventies. They weighed 100 tons each. The Italians later provided the 100-ton 17-inch gun with arrangements for both breech and muzzle loading appliances. Eight 100-ton guns with a diameter of 17.72 inches were ordered from the works of the Armstrongs at Elswick, England, by the Italian Government in the seventies for the turret armament of the Duilio and Dandolo, and eight more of the same size guns were ordered in 1897 by the Italians. The latter guns were breech loaders. They used a battering charge of 551 pounds of powder and a projectile of 2000 pounds. Drawings were made at Woolwich arsenal, England, for a gun to weigh 160 tons in the seventies to be capable of sending a projectile through 36 inches of iron at a range of 1000 yards. The Messrs. Krupp had a design for a 122-ton gun in the seventies, slightly exceeding eighteen inches, to throw a steel shell of 2205 pounds or a chilled iron shell of 2271 pounds. It will be no problem for present naval architects to provide for the mounting of 17-inch guns on new ships. Some of the new German dreadnoughts were designed to carry 15-inch guns, and it is perfectly possible that they have arranged for batteries of increased caliber. It would not be surprising if the British were also providing for guns of 17-inch.— Army and Navy Journal, 5/2.
Aircraft Bombs Mentioned in Ordnance Report.—Among the interesting items mentioned in the annual report of Rear Admiral Strauss, chief of the Bureau of Ordnance of the Navy Department, is the manufacture of bombs for use by aircraft. It is stated in the report that these have proved satisfactory in tests and that more will be manufactured. Another interesting item is that relating to a 1-pounder gun which has been developed by the bureau for use on aeroplanes. Plans are under way for increasing the caliber of this gun. There is now being manufactured a large number of 3-inch anti-aircraft guns for use on all battleships, while designs have been made for a similar type of 4-inch caliber.—Scientific American, 23/1.
Germany’s Substitute for Cotton.—Germany’s supply of cotton, so necessary for the manufacture of modern high explosives, is low enough that a diligent search is being made for adequate substitutes. England has cut off the foreign supply and thousands of tons are demanded for comparatively short campaigns.
So far the hope has been that cellulose from some special wood might be nitrated successfully into gun-cotton, but that success has not yet been reported. A measure of success in getting a substitute has been obtained, however, in using certain forms of paper pulp, lignin, etc., as a dressing for wounds, thus saving some of their precious cotton for explosives. One firm in Berlin is selling “Lignin” as an absorbent for blood at a price of about eight cents per pound in hundred pound lots. It is put up in sheets about 14 by 24 inches and in packages of eight pounds or rolls of two pounds.
One of the most effective wound dressings among these substitutes is sphagnum moss which to some extent had been used in both England and Germany before the war. The moss is so full of minute tubes that in its ordinary state it holds nine times its own weight of water and is therefore a powerful absorbent when dry. It is very soft and light. Gathered from swamps, it is dried on rocks or bushes until bleached white, then cleaned and sterilized.—N. Y. Times, 2/3.
Floating Mines with Periscopes.—Floating mines, equipped with what at first appear to be periscopes, are said to be the latest device used by the Germans in bringing about the destruction of enemy ships. Captain B. J. Keelty, of the British steamship Hartficld, which arrived here from London to load grain, to-day told of having sighted one of the new destructive agents in the English Channel.
According to Captain Keelty, what he thought was the periscope of a German submarine was sighted about half a mile from his ship. What was most singular about it was that it apparently remained in the same spot. There is a $2500 reward offered by the British Admiralty for ramming a submarine and visions of it flashed across the mind of Captain Keelty.
On second thought Captain Keelty concluded to waive the possibility of getting the $2500 and proceeded on his voyage. Shortly afterward a British patrol boat was sighted and spoken to and the commander was told of the sighting of the supposed periscope. An investigation immediately followed, which developed that the “periscope ” was attached to the mine. —N. Y. Times, 2/3.
Mobile Coast Defence.—The exponents of the Luellen-Dawson mobile armament installation are advocating the adoption of this means of coast defence by heavy guns and mortars mounted upon specially built railway carriages, which can be transported, readily and rapidly, over the railroads from point to point, rather than upon the present system of fixed fortifications, detection of which by aeroplane scouts and spies is practically assured in modern warfare. The believers in this new system, who have obtained the advice and criticism of ordnance experts, base their plan upon two lessons taught by the war abroad: (1) That concealment from the enemy of artillery material is of paramount importance, and (2) that the combatant possessing artillery of superior weight and range has a very pronounced advantage over an antagonist. They also say that wagon roads and bridges in the United States are scarcely adequate for the safe transportation of artillery material above 4.7-inch or 6-inch calibers, whereas the railways are equipped for the efficient transportation of much greater weights. From these facts they argue that the expansion in the power of artillery should be associated with railway transportation, in so far as mobile artillery is concerned, particularly in view of the immense strategic advantage involved in the ability thus secured to move batteries from one point to another and thus baffle the enemy’s attempts at striking them. Moreover, the length of our coastlines and the number of our seaports requiring defence are held to prohibit the protection by permanent fortifications of every point which might be threatened from the sea. But the mobile railway batteries devised by L. W. Luellen and his associate could be sent as easily to defend the shores of Georgia as the coast of Maine.
The idea is to install at fixed and predetermined points along existing railway lines or at desirable strategic points where railroad facilities may be installed suitable concrete foundations on either side of the rails to which gun cars may be locked to secure stability. It is estimated that these bases would cost approximately $3000 to $4000 each, and that a total of 140 bases, costing only $500,000, would suffice to guard the coasts of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New York, including Long Island and New Jersey. To cover this range of shore line the projectors of the plan estimate that there would be required 100 16-inch mortars, mounted two on a car, and 10 long range 14-inch rifles, mounted one on a car. .This would mean sixty cars, and the entire expense of equipment of cars and guns is given as $9,000,000. In other words, they say, you could defend the shores of these five states for less than the price of a dreadnought, and the rest of the coast in proportion.—Army and Navy Journal, 4/3.
Battleship Guns to Test Mobile 10-Inch Battery.—The battleships New York and Arkansas have been ordered to Fort Morgan, Ala., at the entrance to Mobile Bay, March 12, to engage in a test of a new 10-inch battery, which has been constructed at the fort. The battery has been placed just inside the reservation fence, while observation towers have been built nearby from which officers will be able to determine the effect of the big guns aboard the war vessels when fired against the battery.—Army and Navy Journal, 4/3.
New French Anti-Aircraft Gun.—According to Aeronautics, it is learned from Allied sources that a new anti-aircraft gun recently adopted by the French armies has given the most satisfactory results. In its general lines, the gun resembles the famous 75 mm. quick firer; its recoil is rather less than three feet and the shell it fires weighs 35 pounds. The projectile is fired at a muzzle velocity of 1870 feet per second.—Scientific American, 22/1.
Invention to Save Ships from Mines and Torpedoes.—An important invention offered the British Admiralty, according to advices from Copenhagen, Denmark, is an apparatus which it is asserted will prevent the destruction of ships by torpedoes or mines. It is the invention of Frantz Poulsan, engineer. The details, of course, remain a secret, but the principal nature is said to remain a secret, but the principal feature is said to be air masses formed by the explosion. The British Admiralty has promised to test it.—Army and Navy Journal, 5/2.
Should Ships Carry Howitzers ? By a Land Gunner.-—At the Dardanelles the Queen Elisabeth, firing over the peninsula destroyed a Turkish bridge of boats with a 15-inch gun, firing at about 17 degrees elevation. The latest British naval guns are capable of 20 degrees elevation, the German naval guns of 30 degrees. It is now recognized that howitzers are necessary to supplement guns for coast defence, as they attack a weaker part of the target than the guns—namely, the deck—and can therefore take on ships at which the guns are ineffective. On the same principle, a ship should carry howitzers. But owing to the rolling and pitching of the ship, it is not easy to hit anything with a howitzer, even if fired at the moment that the deck is horizontal. The author goes into elaborate calculations concerning the angle and rate of roll, and concludes that the expenditure of howitzer ammunition necessary to hit a battleship would be prohibitive, and that, until a stable mounting can be devised, ships should not carry howitzers.—Extracts from Precis of Artillcristische Monatshefte, July-August, 1915.
Direct and High-Angle Fire. By Lieut. General Rohne.—At 45 degrees, and a few degrees above and below this elevation, the shooting of a howitzer is wild, and therefore shooting at the higher angles should be undertaken from 50 degrees upwards. At 65 degrees some of the shell fall base first, while at 75 degrees they all fall base first, giving very irregular shooting. Therefore the practical limits for high-angle fire are between 50 and 65 degrees of elevation. General Rohne reckons that the lateral dispersion is in direct proportion to the time of flight, that is, about double the dispersion with direct fire; the dispersion in depth is, however, not much greater. The striking velocity is much the same as with direct fire, but the penetration against a horizontal target is from 2 to 5 times as much as with direct fire. Therefore for penetration it pays to use high-angle fire at over 50 degrees elevation, while for accuracy it pays to use the lowest elevation that will reach the target.—Extracts from Precis of Artilleristische Monatshefte, July-August, 1915.
Statistics of Losses. By Major General Richter— Whereas in previous wars the rifle has accounted for most of the killed and wounded, it is estimated that in the present trench warfare seven out of eight casualties are due to artillery fire, and most of the remainder to machine gun fire. The bayonet does more work than the rifle bullet. The greatest moral effect is produced by heavy artillery.—Extracts from Precis of Artillcrtische Monatshefte, July-August, 1915.
Cotton in War.—The consumption of cotton for the manufacture of smokeless powder is. in peace time, 123,000 bales a year. In a nine-hours’ engagement in the North Sea the powder fired by both sides was equivalent to 4500 bales; in the first attack on the Dardanelles the equivalent of 50,000 bales was shot away. The Americans now reckon that the consumption in 1915 will amount to 14,000,000 bales.—Extracts from Precis of Artilleristische Monatshefte, July-August, 1915.
War Illuminations. Various Methods that have Proved their Value — In order that operations in war may be carried on by night as well as by day, artificial light in many forms has to be resorted to. One of these forms, known as the star-shell (Fig. 1), is a projectile fired from a field gun, its fuse being arranged so as to burst the shell over the area to be illuminated (Fig. 2), or, alternatively, on impact with the enemy’s earthworks. This particular device is very useful for detecting troops attempting a surprise attack.
The star-shell fired from the 3-inch quick-fire gun is fixed into a cartridge case the base of which contains the propelling charge; every round fired, therefore, takes the form of fixed ammunition. The corresponding shell used in the 6-inch howitzer and its propelling charge are, on the other hand, separate units. The star-shell itself is constructed on similar lines in each case. The body of the shell is an iron cylinder having a copper driving band round it near the base. A steel nose is attached to the body and screwed in at the forward end to take a fuse, either time or percussion, or a combination of both. The percussion-fuse carries a striking needle supported on a thin copper diaphragm. The diaphragm collapses when the fuse receives a smart blow on its nose, and the needle is driven against a percussion cap, in that way igniting the “quick-match,” which passes down the tube shown in the center of the shell and communicates with the bursting charge in the base.
The shell has a wooden lining, and carries between this and the central tube a number of cylinders, each containing a composition which ignites from the quick-match in the central tube (see Fig. 1). These cylinders are scattered as the shell bursts, and burn for a considerable time giving out a brilliant light (Fig. 4). When used for “ranging,” star-shell should be burst at such a height from the ground that the “stars ” are all burnt out before they reach the ground. Otherwise, the herbage may be set alight and the smoke so produced obscure the target.
Small illuminating shells holding “Very lights ” are fired from a Webley and Scott pistol (Fig. 4). They are used for signalling purposes. The weapon has a range of about 500 feet, and the shell is attached to a parachute, which descends slowly during the 45 seconds that the composition remains alight (Fig. 5). The latest pattern of pistol has a detachable stock for alternative firing from the shoulder, as the “kick” is rather heavy for a pistol.
Aircraft can assist artillery operations at night by dropping fire-bombs fastened to parachutes. The slowly descending mass of burning composition gives sufficient light to enable gunners to pick up the range readily.
a, cap; b, lump of potassium or sodium; c, weak india-rubber diaphragm closing top of tube; d, tube of liquid fuel illuminant. Pressure from liquid fuel reservoir ashore bursts the diaphragm and cap, setting the potassium alight from the water and igniting the liquid fuel.
In one type of star-shell the “'stars” take the form of cylinders, in one end of which the illuminating composition is inset. The other end contains a folded parachute, which is forced out of the cylinder by a coiled spring after the “star” is liberated from the parent shell. The composition is ignited by the bursting charge of the shell itself, which contains twelve or more of these parachute-stars. Many kinds of flare-lights are in use for illumination in digging trenches at night, etc.
An acetylene flare, to which are attached four mirrors radiating from the source of light (Fig. 3), is used as a signal to aircraft.
The angular positions of the mirrors enable the airmen to “pick up” the light from several different directions. Fig. 6 shows a German device for the production of colored flares for transmitting signals. The particular color desired may be obtained by adding suitable chemicals to the combustible liquid with which the reservoir (b) is charged. Chloride of strontium produces a red flame; copper salt a green flame; and so on. A long or short flame may be produced my admitting more or less gas pressure to the reservoir (b) from the gas cylinder (a) alongside. The same apparatus is used for distributing asphyxiating gas, and in a portable form for projecting liquid fire. For modifications of this device for illumination on the surface of water, and the apparatus, see Figs. 7, 8 and 9.—Illustrated War News.
ENGINEERING
Some Comparisons Relating to Electric Propulsion of a Battleship. By Mr. W. L. R. Emmett.—The Navy Department of the United States has awarded to the General Electric Company, of Schenectady, New York State, a contract for the electric propelling machinery of the new battleship California, which is being built at the New York Navy Yard. This ship forms a unit of the largest and most powerful class which has so far been adopted by the United States. Her displacement is 32,000 tons, and her maximum speed is to be about 22 knots, requiring about 37,000 S. H. P.
The contract with the General Electric Company covers two turbine- driven generating units, four propelling motors (one for each shaft), switching apparatus, cables, instruments, two turbine-driven exciting units, and a complete equipment of condensing auxiliaries and ventilating fans, all driven by motors from the exciting units. In other words, it covers practically the entire engine-room equipment except the main condensers.
Each of the auxiliary units is of 300-kw. capacity, with a 240-volt direct- current generator geared to a high-speed, non-condensing turbine. These turbines will exhaust into either the heaters or main turbines, or into both. The motors which drive auxiliaries will be designed for a considerable range of speed variations, so that the auxiliaries will be adapted to economical conditions at different speeds of the ship.
The generators of the California are bi-polar alternators, and the motors are arranged to be connected either for 24 poles or 36 poles. For economical cruising at 15 knots or less, one generator will be used with motors on the 36-pole connection, but for higher speeds the 24-pole connection will be used. The ship will be capable of operating at a speed of about 18.5 knots with one generator.
Speed variation with either motor connection will be effected by change of turbine speeds through the agency of variable speed governors designed to hold automatically any desired speed with the usual ranges. This arrangement entirely prevents^ racing and makes it convenient to hold a fixed speed irrespective of variations in sea, weather, or steam conditions, a feature which should prove valuable in fleet operations.
The steam consumption guaranteed on the California covers the total steam required for the main turbines and engine-room auxiliaries as described above. The conditions are 250-pound gauge pressure, dry steam, with such vacuum as can be produced under trial conditions. The guaranteed water rates per H. P. delivered to the propelling shafts are as follows:
At 10 knots......................................................... 14.61b.
At 15 knots............................................................. 11.4 lb.
At 19 knots............................................................. 11.1 lb.
Maximum speed..................................................... 11.9 lb.
Very heavy penalties are imposed in the event of these guaranteed consumptions being exceeded on the trials, viz., £5100 per pound for the two lower speeds, and £4100 per pound for the two upper speeds.
At full speed the California’s propellers will make 175 r.p.m., this being about the lowest speed of propellers which is practicable within the space. The propeller speed proposed for the sister ships with Parsons turbine drive is 240 r.p.m., and comparisons by Dyson’s method indicate that this speed will give the California an advantage of about 9 per cent in propeller efficiency.
Table VII.—Pounds of Steam to Main Engines per Hour per E. H. P.
| 12 Knots | 15 Knots | 19 Knots | 21 Knots | Prop-Speed 21 knots |
Florida | 31.8 | … | 24.0 | 23.0 | 328 |
Utah | 28.7 | … | 20.3 | 21.0 | 323 |
Delaware | 22.0 | … | 18.7 | 21.0 | 122 |
California | 17.3 | 15.2 | 15.0 | 16.4 | 175 |
Table VII gives a comparison of steam consumption per E. H. P. between the California as guaranteed, the Florida and Utah, which are driven by Parsons turbines, and the Delaware, which is driven by reciprocating engines. These figures, which are taken from the published records of trials, afford a reliable basis for comparison of prime movers. The estimated weight of the propelling machinery of the California without condensing auxiliaries is 530 tons, while that of the turbines originally proposed was 653 tons.
The contract price for the propelling machinery of the California, together with auxiliaries, is £88,500, which is £41,000 less than the Parsons turbine equipment previously considered.—Shipbuilder, February.
SUBMARINES
Neff System of Submarine Propulsion.—Abner R. Neff, inventor of the Neff system of submarine propulsion by means of oil-burning engines under water, whose device has been referred to on several occasions, appeared before the House Committee of Naval Affairs to request the authorization by Congress of an appropriation to pay for the installation and tryout of his system in one of the G type of submarines of the navy. He admitted that although the device functioned perfectly under water, it was subject to two serious military defects—a visible wake and the noise produced by the discharge of the exhaust gases. He claimed, however, that these defects were not so serious as they were represented to be, and that in any case they were outweighed by the increased submerged radius at higher speed, increased power, increased habitability and better ventilation of boats so equipped over boats provided with the present storage battery system of propulsion. He also claimed that officers who had witnessed experiments with a small 75-ft. submarine near Long Beach, Cal., in 1913, which vessel was equipped with the Neff engine, had failed to note the two defects alleged. He explained that he took care of the exhaust gases from the engine by conducting them through condensing tubes to a point underneath the hull, where they were sprayed out of a clam shell arrangement and carried back to the propellers, which churned them up again, so that they became so finely divided as to disappear before they could bubble up to the surface through from 30 to 60 feet of water. He explained that under his system compressed air was carried in flasks to provide oxygen for running the oil engine under water, and that there was no possibility of the development of deadly gases. Additional advantages he claimed for his invention were saving in first cost, as well as an enormous saving in battery renewals and repair charges, and a clean, roomy interior for submarines.—Shipping Illustrated, 19/2.
New Fleet Submarines.—The new .fleet submarines are practically duplicates of the Schley, under contract with the Electric Boat Co. for $1,350,000. The difference in cost between the earlier and the later boats to be contracted for is attributable to minor changes in specifications. It was stated before the House Committee this week that the plans of the Schley have had to be radically modified and that the boat as now building will be 7 ft. longer than was anticipated when the original plans were drawn.—Shipping Illustrated, 26/2.
International Submarine Shipbuilding Co.—With $5,000,000 capital the International Submarine Shipbuilding Co. has been incorporated in Maine. R. H. M. Robinson, general manager of the Lake Torpedo Co., will be president of the new concern and Fred. B. Whitney, managing director of the Lake Co., will be counsel. It is not known whether the Lake Co. will be absorbed, but such is the understanding in Wall Street, as the new company is to build mercantile vessels as well as submarines.—Shipping Illustrated. 4/3
Speed Requirements Present Difficulties.—In a letter dated March 3. to the chairman of the House Military Committee, Mr. Padgett, the Secretary of the Navy, explains the difficulty he has found in carrying out the provision of the Act of March 3, 1915, which provided, among other things, for “two submarines, to be of seagoing type, to have a surface speed of 25 knots or more, if possible, but not less than 20 knots, to cost, exclusive of armor and armament, not exceeding $1,500,000 each.’’ “It has been found wholly impossible,” the Secretary reports, “from the present state of the art to undertake a submarine of 25 knots using oil engines for surface propulsion.” To make 25 knots it would require about two and one- half times the horse-power of the Schley. This requires an entirely new design. When these designs were completed December 11, 1915, and bids were asked for no one bid for a 25-knot submarine. The best bid was that of the Electric Boat Company for two vessels at $1,490,000. This bid guaranteed a speed of 20 knots, the minimum mentioned in the appropriation act, but required the acceptance of the vessels if they made 19 knots, subject to a penalty of $20,000 per knot for lesser speed. The agreement as to the time in which the vessels could be constructed was also unsatisfactory, as was the requirement of the bidders that the maximum speed should be demonstrated, not by a four-hour trial as customary for all naval vessels for many years, but by three consecutive runs over a mile course. Concluding the Secretary says: “ The department, in view of all the circumstances, feels that it cannot place a contract for these vessels at the only bid received within the limit of cost as modified above, without violating the obvious intent and purpose of the provisions of the law with reference to speed. The only alternative is to construct the vessels in navy yards, upon the steam-driven designs. The department, however, as at present advised, does not favor steam-driven submarines, and feels that it was not realized at the time of the passage of the act that the provisions for speed would necessitate construction containing this undesirable feature. This being the case, it is considered necessary to explain the whole situation as above, to the Congress, in order that it may indicate its wishes in the premises.”—Army and Navy Journal, 11/3.
“E-2” Submarine Explosion.—The Navy Department has issued a statement relative to the explosion of the submarine E-2 at the New York Navy Yard, which killed four men and injured 12 more. The conclusions reached by the board of investigation is that “ the explosion was due to an excessive amount of gas; namely, hydrogen, generated from the storage batteries, forming with the air a high explosive mixture. That there were two pockets of this mixture, one at the after end of the after battery and the other at the forward end of the forward battery, and it appears that the initial explosion occurred at the after end of the after battery.” The ignition was caused by a spark, the origin of which the board is unable to determine. “The condition of the batteries at the low voltage and amperage, 82 and 940, respectively, at about 12.25 p.m. would probably cause a reversal of voltage in some of the cells, and, in the opinion of the board, this caused the generation of an excessive amount of hydrogen gas.”
The E-2 was fitted with the new Edison storage battery designed to eliminate the formation of chlorine gas during submergence. The Edison battery for submarines is nickel-iron-alkali type, composed of nickel, iron oxide and steel in a solution of potash. The potash acts as a preservative of all the combined elements, so that the battery elements do not destroy each other. The theory of it is this: The submarine is steel and floats in an alkaline solution of water. The battery is steel and contains an alkaline solution, so that the cause for the generation of chlorine gas does not exist. Following a series of exhaustive tests of every conceivable kind, a set of the new batteries was installed in the E-2 last summer. The first official trial of the batteries in the E-2 was made November n, when the E-2, equipped with the Edison cells, made a trip up Long Island Sound. In an unofficial test a few weeks earlier it was reported that the E-2 had done thirteen knots an hour for three and a half hours while submerged. The E-2 is four years old and of the Holland type.—Shipping Illustrated, 22/1.
Possibility of Dispensing with the Mother Ship.—One of the results of the discussion in the General Board and before the House Committee on Naval Affairs of the submarine problem may be dispensing with the mother ship. The mother ship in the submarine flotillas has virtually been a floating base from which the undersea craft operate. As a substitute for mother ships it is proposed to establish small shore bases. With the development of the submarine the work to be done on the mother ships and at the bases has been greatly increased. At present the crews and experts on the mother ships number three or four times as many as the crews of the submarines. Only a small proportion of the officers and men assigned to the submarine flotilla serve on the submarines. It is contended that the work could be done with fewer men and at less expense at shore stations than on a mother ship. So far as coast defence work goes, the claim is now made that the mother ship is unnecessary. It is held that even the smaller submarines have sufficient radius of action to be operated from shore stations. Especially will this be true if an adequate number of shore stations is maintained for the submarine coast defence flotillas. Another advantage of shore bases for submarines is that the crews would have an opportunity to spend more time ashore. The work of submarines is exceedingly exacting, and men must have more rest and recreation than those of surface boats. It is stated that there are no mother ships in the German Navy, and if the submarines can be operated from shore stations under the conditions of the European war they could be handled in the same manner in defending the coast of the United States.—Army and Navy Journal, 26/2.
Special Course of Instruction on Storage Batteries for Naval Men.— Last fall an electric storage battery manufacturing concern of Philadelphia initiated a scheme of instruction for the officers and men operating the submarines of the United States Navy. As a result, during the months of November and December each of these men spent one week in hearing lectures on storage battery design and operating delivered by the engineers of the battery company and were also given instruction in shop methods. Over 100 officers and men took this course. About five weeks’ time was devoted by the concern to this work, and the men and officers expressed great appreciation of the help thus received.
The course of instruction was originally laid out by the storage battery concern and approved by Admiral Grant, chief of the submarine flotilla, and his aide, Captain Yates Sterling, Jr. It was then sanctioned by the Hon. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy.
Since the storage battery is a vital feature of every modern submarine and usually the least understood of all the equipment of such craft, the course of instruction that has been given the naval officers and men in this subject is highly commendable.—Scientific American, 11/3.
AERONAUTICS
Equipment of German Aircraft.—Details regarding a Teuton hydro-aeroplane which fell into the hands of the Russians in the Riga region are of unusual interest in that they disclose the thoroughness with which German aircraft are finished and equipped. To quote from the report of the Morning Post correspondent at Petrograd: “All the necessary manipulating parts of the machinery are made luminous at night with a radium composition. There is a special newly invented level to facilitate handling the plane in darkness, and. a special compass, and seats are provided for three. The hydro-aeroplane carries a searchlight, a Maxim, and a rifle with an adequate supply of ammunition, and ten bombs, five on each side, of ten pounds weight apiece.”—Scientific American, 22/1.
German Biplane of Double Fuselage Type.—An account of the capture of a large German aeroplane appears in a recent issue of the Russkoie Glovo, which states in part: “Some time ago on the northern front our artillery succeeded in bringing down a German biplane with two unusually large fuselages and two tails. Each of the armored fuselages contains two machine guns and a light, quick-firing gun, besides ammunition receptacles. Propulsion is by twin engines, each developing 170 horse-power. In the center, midway between the fuselages, but a little lower is the pilot’s nacelle, protected by armor. The crew of the machine consists of six men, including pilot, observer and mechanic.” Evidently, this machine is a modification on an ascending scale of the well-known “Fritz” type of biplane, which has made its appearance over the western front from time to time.—Scientific American, 19/2.
Low-Flying German Aeroplane.—In contradistinction to the greater part of the aircraft engaged in the present war which, in order to secure immunity from anti-aircraft guns, fly at high altitudes, it is learned that the Germans have devised and introduced into service an aeroplane that flies below the line of fire of these guns. It is exceedingly fast and flies so low that anti-aircraft artillery cannot be trained on it so that the shells will burst with accuracy. However, in securing immunity from these guns it comes within range of rifle fire and machine gun fire, and as a protection against these it is heavily armored. Flying close to the ground, the occupants of the new German aircraft are in a position to locate accurately the position of troops and masked batteries, and secure much military information of inestimable value.—Scientific American, 19/2.
U. S. Naval Aeronautics.—Captain Bristol advises that aircraft be treated as a new type of warship and handled by officers detailed for such duty, and not by a flying corps of civilians. He would have a reserve of trained officers and men supplemented by an organization of manufacturers and material producers. A mobile fleet of 82 aeroplanes, five dirigibles and 41 balloons should be immediately provided at a cost of $13,670,000, with a personnel of 430 officers and 852 men, to meet present requirements, to be ultimately increased to 638 officers and 1200 men. As officers are already instructed in battleship duty, Captain Bristol believes that preference should be given, over other branches, to the service now known by the name of “aviation” and which he would call aeronautics. There are now nearly ready for delivery one dirigible, 23 aeroplanes, 64 motors and 12 competitive motors. Manufacturers are showing a gratifying spirit of patriotic desire to aid the government in this matter, the profit not being sufficient to tempt them. Captain Bristol recommends for use on battleships dirigibles, the type experience is showing to be the most effective, being a better distance flyer than the aeroplane and having greater carrying capacity. The balloon types are useful for observation. It is expected that officers will soon be ordered to aviation duty.—Army and Navy Journal, 4/3.
Secretary Daniels cut the estimates made by Captain Mark L. Bristol, U. S. N„ Director of Naval Aeronautics, for the Navy’s aviation needs from $11,000,000 to $2,000,000, Captain Bristol told the House Naval Affairs' Committee this week. He had urged the Secretary to raise the budget for aviation craft and equipment to $20,000,000 for the five-year building program submitted for the navy. A good part of the Secretary’s pruning was concerned with two special aircraft ships or carriers, designed for the transportation and repair of seaplanes, which were to cost $3,000,000 each. Of the navy’s immediate aviation needs he said that 1200 men would be required to operate the 82 aeroplanes, five dirigibles and 41 kite balloons he wanted for fleet equipment. And in addition to fleet equipment he said that there should be provided 120 aeroplanes, fifteen kite balloons and fifteen dirigibles for service as patrols, besides 46 aeroplanes for the naval militia. Under the five-year building program, he said that he figured on adding to the navy 185 aeroplanes, 15 dirigibles and 53 kite balloons, as well as 638 officers and 1106 men. Captain Bristol also told the committee that he did not believe in Secretary Daniel’s plan for a special flying corps, in which any young man who could qualify as a flier might be commissioned without any preliminary naval training. Captain Bristol declared that aviation officers in the navy should have navy training as a prerequisite to flying —Army and Navy Journal, 26/2.
Huge American-Built Battleplanes for Allies.—It is announced by the officials of an American aeroplane manufacturing company that orders have been placed by the Allied governments for 11 huge battleplanes of most modern design. Each aeroplane will weigh in the neighborhood of 30,000 pounds, and the framework will be entirely of steel. It is said that the wing spread is to be 180 feet, while the length of the aeroplane from tail to propellers will be 104 feet. The framework will be constructed on the cantilever truss principle, insuring great strength with a minimum weight. Twin bodies will be used, each body carrying an engine of 800 horse-power. It is planned to arm the machines with four guns, two fore and two aft, of a caliber of between 1J2 and 2 inches, and capable of firing 20 to 40 shots per minute. Each airship will carry a number of bombs of any size up to 14 inches in diameter. The specifications call for a speed of 85 miles an hour with full load and a crew of six men.—Scientific American, 22/1.
Inferiority of American Aeroplanes.—Surely the words of Lieutenant J. E. C. Scott, a British aviator and aeronautical engineer, who is in this country on a diplomatic mission for his government, are not complimentary to domestic manufacturers of airships when he states that not a single aeroplane made in the United States is capable of the service demanded at the front. He adds that not a single motor made in this country is capable of rendering the service needed by Allied aviators. He attributes the shortcomings of American aircraft to two causes: first, our constructors are careless and do not take the pains in building their machines that the French and British makers do; secondly, they have not yet learned the requirements of military service.—Scientific American, 19/2.
RADIO
Radio Stations of the United States.—The Bureau of Navigation, Department of Commerce, has recently issued the 1915 edition of “Radio Stations of the United States.” This list shows that there are now 5073 radio stations in the United States, an increase of 1139 since 1914. They are classified as follows: government and commercial land stations, 224; government and commercial ship stations, 895; special land stations, 1x8; general and restricted amateur stations, 3836.—Scientific American, 22/1.
Three New Stations for U. S. Navy.—(With the approval of the contract between the navy and an American wireless company for the equipment of the radio stations at San Diego, Cal.; Cavite, P. I., and Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, one of the final steps has been taken toward linking the United States with its overseas possessions. Not only will radio communication be possible between Washington and the insular possessions, but it will also be possible to send dispatches to almost any point in the world. The stations under construction at Pearl Harbor and Cavite will be the most powerful in the world; the continuous range of these stations being in excess of 4700 miles.—Scientific American, 5/2.
Proposed Government Radio Monopoly.—The last annual report of Captain W. H. G. Bullard, superintendent of the Navy Radio Service, contains a recommendation that the government control and operate all coastal radio stations within the jurisdiction of the United States, in such manner establishing a practical monopoly for the transmission of all government business. For some time there has existed considerable friction between the naval radio men and the wireless amateurs, and often the threat has been heard of late that the navy is soon to control all wireless communication in this country.—Scientific American, 5/2.
Wireless Communication Between United States and Japan.—The Japanese Government recently notified the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company that the new station at Funabashi, near Tokio, was completed and would be ready for trans-Pacific communication at an early date. Experiments that have been going on between that station and Honolulu are reported to be most successful, and no difficulty is being experienced in maintaining communications over the 3400 miles that intervene. In some instances the Japanese station has been heard at San Francisco, a distance of 5600 miles. The Funabashi station is rated at 300 kw. Were it not for the fact that Japan is engaged in war, the station would probably be in active service to-day.—Scientific American, 5/2.
Radio Station for the Society Islands.—According to an announcement made by the United States Bureau of Navigation, it is learned that a powerful radio station has been built on Tahiti, one of the Society Island group, by the French government. The temporary station is of 10 kw. capacity, and will be used until the permanent station is completed. The latter will have an aerial system supported by eight towers, each 325 feet high, placed in two parallel rows of four towers each. Two antennae will be provided for two different wave lengths. It is expected that the permanent installation will be capable of working with Sydney, South America, Honolulu, San Francisco, Cochin-China, and even Martinique and Guadeloupe. On January 5 the temporary station on Tahati was heard at San Francisco.—Scientific American, 5/2.
Radio Neutrality Regulations.—Instructions issued by the Navy Department for the enforcement of President Wilson's neutrality proclamation regarding communication by radio, provide that all merchant vessels flying the flag of a belligerent country must, upon entering United States ports, lower the antennae of radio installation to the deck and disconnect them from the radio station of the ship. The antennae must remain lowered and disconnected and the receiving and transmitting apparatus remain sealed during the time the vessel remains within the limits of the port, unless repairs are necessary. Immediately before clearing, collectors are instructed to authorize the masters of vessels to hoist the antennae and place the radio apparatus in condition for operation, so that on getting clear of the limits of the port the radio set may be available.—Shipping Illustrated, 15/1. .
CANALS
Slides at Panama.—As a supplement to its issue of January 5, the Canal Record, official organ of the Panama Canal Zone, publishes an article on “Slides at Panama,” by Major General George W. Goethals, U. S. A., governor of the Panama Canal, which is copiously illustrated and which sets forth clearly the exact reasons for the occurrence and recurrence of the troublesome earth-slips which have operated for so many months to close the canal to commerce. He sums up the situation as follows: “As to the amounts involved, it is difficult to make any reliable estimate. The length of these slides, which are directly opposite each other, is approximately 2200 feet (the channel through which is navigable with the exception of 600 feet); the banks are 300 to 350 feet above sea level on the east and extend up to 480 feet above sea level on the west. The area of the territory affected on the east side covers 81 acres and on the west side 78.5 acres.
“Assuming that all material lying above planes extending from the outside limits of the bottom of the prism, reference 40, up to the limits of the breaks, will move into the cut, 7,000,000 cubic yards will have to be removed before the slides are entirely stopped. It is at best only a guess. It must not be inferred from this that the canal will be closed until this amount is dredged; on the contrary, it is the intention to pass ships as soon as a channel is secured through the remaining 600 feet, and there are reasonable grounds for assuming that a channel through the obstructed area can be maintained.
“It is certain that the troubles are due to the failure of underlying strata, because these were unable to bear the weight that the banks brought upon them. Under the circumstances it is difficult to understand the impression that has gained credence in some quarters that a sea-level canal would have avoided the difficulties encountered, since the cutting would have been through the same material, but at least 80 feet deeper.
‘‘It is also certain that nothing can stop the movements now in progress until the angle of repose is reached for the materials under the conditions that exist, and that this can be reached only by removing the excess amount of material. If experience counts for aught, then that gained in the handling of the slides and the breaks that have occurred along the line of the canal leaves no doubt that the means adopted and now in use will effect a cure in the slides that now close the canal; furthermore, that when cured no further troubles need be anticipated from slides in this locality.”— Army and Navy Journal, 5/2.
Naval Bases for Defending Panama.—Coincident with the news of the ratification by the Senate of the treaty with Nicaragua—under the terms of which we covenant to pay that country $3,000,000 in return for a perpetual right of way for the inter-oceanic canal, surveyed along the San Juan river and Lake Nicaragua, and a lease of Great Corn and Little Corn Islands and a naval base yet to be selected on the Nicaraguan coast of the Bay of Fonseca—comes word that Denmark is again anxious to sell us St. Thomas and her other West Indian possessions for a consideration of somewhat more that $4,000,000, The possession of these islands, in conjunction with our present bases at Guantanamo and Porto Rico and the projected naval base on the coast of Nicaragua, would prove of great value in defending the Panama Canal, just as the purchase by us of the perpetual right to build the only possible rival of the canal means that such a waterway will not be built—or, at least, not until the needs of commerce render it profitable to have two waterways across the neck of Central America. The fears of other Central American governments that our foothold in Nicaragua would menace their neutrality are recognized by the incorporation in the Nicaraguan treaty of a clause expressly stating that the rights of the other interested republics, Costa Rica, Salvador and Honduras, are not impaired by it. The proposition for the acquisition of the Danish West Indies may be traced back to the days immediately following the Civil War, when we first began to entertain some comprehension of our obligations to the south of us. It is interesting to remember, too, that Hayti, over which we have just assumed what amounts to a proctectorate, was near to occupying that position during General Grant’s administration. Had the project then gone through, Hayti would now have been so much nearer civilization and millions of treasures and thousands of wasted human lives might have been saved.—Army and Navy Journal, 26/2.
MISCELLANEOUS
The War’s Naval Lessons for the United States. By Frederick Palmer.—Our first thought in preparedness, and our last, should be the navy. An efficient army at best can only stop an invader after he is ashore. An adequate navy will never allow him to land. Without naval protection, no force of ours, or of any enemy, can move over the seas. With no naval guns to escort them, transports are eggshells to the torpedo and the easy booty of the guns of a fast light cruiser.
Every square yard of our soil and every lock of the Panama Canal is safe while our fleet holds the seas that guard our coast. But a beaten navy means that the drawbridges of the Atlantic and Pacific are down and the road is clear for an enemy to work his sweet will with the Monroe Doctrine.
This is the overwhelmingly important lesson. I wish that I could bring it home to the United States as it was brought home to me when I saw the British grand fleet steam out into the North Sea offering the gage of battle to the Germans. It was a spectacle as convincing as addition and subtraction. The German submarines were busy at the time. They had sunk many British merchant ships. Yet British merchant ships still traversed the seas in every part of the globe. By its very nature, as this war has proved, the submarine must be a guerrilla, a highwayman.
The only purpose of a navy is to keep command of the sea. This command means freedom for the commerce under its flag. Commerce moves on the surface of the sea. We don’t take a submarine when we go to Europe or send our wheat to Europe on a submarine. When gunfire has swept the seas clear of any enemy’s ship that plies on the surface, there is nothing left for an enemy but underwater cruising. All he may show above the surface is a periscope—and that not for long. For speedy destroyers are watching for him, and hydroplanes are trailing his course to warn the destroyers of his location. He dare not face an open fight. He must hide in the sea as the highwayman hides in a cave by day before he goes forth by night to hold up the rich traveler. His part is that of an epidemic of burglary in a town. The burglars may cause a lot of annoyance to the police, they may take a good deal of booty, but the banks keep open and the traffic of the streets of the town go on as usual.
The British have twice as many submarines as the Germans, and German officers, who are not given to misjudging their enemy, do not regard them as inefficient. Yet we hear little of the exploits of British submarines. They have ranged the Mediterranean and the North Sea without finding any targets. In the Baltic they have accomplished something by forcing the German Navy to take the same precautions against them that the British had to take against German submarines. They have been to the harbor of Kiel only to find the German fleet protected by many mine fields and numerous nets.
The work of the British Navy is done on the surface of the sea because it commands the sea. If we command the sea in time of war, our submarines will be in the same situation as the British; they will lack targets. For east and west, north and south, the seas are clean of German ships which sail on the surface. Should one poke its head out of any harbor from pole to pole except in the Baltic, a British cruiser would go after it and run it down. No submarine could keep speed with that cruiser. It must wait by the roadside for the proposed victim of its torpedo to pass.
England gets her food supplies from the United States and Canada, and sends her factory products to her foreign markets the same as usual, while Germany is in siege—a sea siege. Nothing can enter into her portals, nothing come out, except past the British vessels on guard. Mysterious that British grand fleet, waiting in its unmentioned harbor. No daily bulletins of battle come from it as from the trenches on the continent. Its significance is in its silence. But every German soldier, every German man, woman, and child feels its power. That is the lesson to bear in mind. If there had been no British Navy, or if England had not gone into the war the mighty struggle would have been over by now, most experts think, and Germany would have won. The balance of victory has hung from the beginning on sea power. We must never let any side issue draw us away from this main thought.
The Germans did not wait on this war to learn the value of sea power. They set out again to attain it by a carefully planned program of the same kind which produced their army system. From fifth place they went to fourth, then to third, and then to second, passing us. Their navy being shut up in a harbor does not mean that it has ceased to be a factor in the war. It has only to lift the nets and open the mine fields and sail out when it chooses. Intact, ready, it becomes a counter in any bargain for peace. The Kaiser can steam his dreadnoughts in line ahead on to the peace conference table as cards to be played in the negotiations. The smaller the world becomes, the closer the continents are drawn together by traffic over the seas, the more important sea power becomes. For us it must protect the Monroe Doctrine, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines, if we choose to retain them.
Why doesn’t the British fleet go after the German fleet? Because the British fleet cannot reach it. The British fleet has accomplished its main purpose while it keeps command of the sea.
Why does not the German fleet come out? For the same reason that the American fleet would not go out if we were at war with a power having a superior navy to ours. The German fleet has even given up sniping, except with its submarines, because in every kind of ship in these two homogeneous, well-organized fleets the British have numerical superiority. The Germans are outnumbered in destroyers, in light cruisers, in battle cruisers, in battleships.
There is no weak spot in the armor on either side. They have built thoroughgoing, complete navies as far as they have gone. If the British had been weak in any one department, as we are in battle cruisers and in number of personnel, they would soon have heard from the Germans in the same way that the allied armies, which were weak in heavy artillery, heard from them. The moral, whether your navy is large or small, is not to make it a one-sided navy—all submarines or all battleships. Have an all-around plant, though it is small, and have it sufficiently manned.
Dreadnoughts must not only have the most expert service, but there must be enough of these experts. We must not run out of these skilled mechanics in time of war. Ships without men are as helpless as men without ships. England’s realization of this has not been the least of the contributing factors in her retention of the command of the sea. Her best, most seasoned men are on her battleships. The average man on a British dreadnought has had four years’ service, on ours two. Both England and Germany have big reserves of men ready to be called into service in time of war. We have not. We have not even enough men on active service to do the navy’s work. We have to lay ships up for the want of men to man them.
The battleships of the Atlantic fleet are short some 5000 men, and the total shortage in all vessels of the fleet is about 8000 men. Destroyers and reserve battleships are kept in harbor for want of men. It does not mean that we have enough when the total force allowed by Congress is enlisted. The new five-year program proposed by Secretary Daniels calls for 10,000 additional men, but the ships themselves will require 30,000 more if we are to bring the number of our personnel up to the European standard.
And what of officers? The men come and go, but the commissioned officers make the navy a permanent profession, no less than a lawyer makes the law or an engineer engineering or a physician the practice of medicine. No profession is more exacting in the knowledge required or in the study necessary to keep up to date. They begin at their profession young, the very day as boys they enter Annapolis; they keep hard at it. Naval officers can no more be improvised on short notice in time of war than surgeons or lawyers.
As the British navy has a long-term enlistment and we have a short, there is the more reason why we should have ample officers. We need them to train the recruits. Where our dreadnought, the Delaware, has 35 officers, a ship of the same class, the Bellerophon, of the British Navy has S3, and the Helgoland of the German Navy has 54. Secretary Daniel’s five-year building program provides for 250 officers, when the full complement would be 1700.
When war begins we shall want to put into commission immediately every naval vessel which we have in reserve. Where are we to find them men? Britain and Germany have them ready. We have not. Where are we to find the officers to take charge not only of the regular naval vessels in reserve, but all the auxiliaries which would be called into service, whether trawlers or improvised’ mine layers? All this work is highly technical. Its oversight in every instance will require an expert if any efficient results are to be expected. If you know how to walk, you possess one of the requirements of infantry; but before you can direct any kind of a naval operation you must at least know how to handle a ship.
Whatever success the Germans had with their submarines was due largely to their having such large numbers of highly trained officers; and the success of the British in holding off the submarines was due to abundant professional skill which understood naval requirements and methods and how to use the material. Let us have men enough for our navy. Certainly they form no threat of militarism by building up a large class engaged in the calling of arms. For naval power in the long run is expressed in machinery and expert handling by small numbers of skilled men.
Along that western front, where vast armies are engaged, thousands of men have been killed and wounded. The daily toll of death, both on the German and the allied side, is staggering. A great belt of France, from the British Channel to Switzerland, is in ruins as the price of the defence of France by land. But no British dreadnought except the Queen Elizabeth has fired a shot. All the naval fighting has been done by the battle cruisers and smaller craft. No one has been wounded on a dreadnought. By the fact of demonstrated superior numbers and power the British fleet has held the enemy behind Heligoland. In England there are no belts of ruins.
Our situation is like England’s in that we have the sea between us and any enemy. There you have the greatest of all the lessons of European war for our country. It is better to stop the invader from landing than to have a bloody line of trenches from Vermont to South Carolina.—N. Y. Times.
Guam’s Weakness.—Several bits of information that may not be altogether without significance are contained in the pages of the official report of Captain William J. Maxwell, U. S. Navy, Governor of Guam, concerning our little known and less appreciated, island dependency. On November 3, 1914, the Japanese battleship Katori cruised around the island at from three to eight miles distance offshore, taking a good look at the lay of the land and probably enjoying the utter lack of defensive measures—we have spent $13,228.88 for ordnance and ordnance stores up to this time on Guam. She displayed her colors and radioed her call-letters only when within the three-mile limit of the line drawn between the headlands. On November 8 the Japanese merchantman Nippon Marti persisted in entering the harbor of Apia, after having been met outside and warned off by a boarding officer. Explanations of her conduct being unsatisfactory her master was ordered to depart—which he did the next morning, probably after he had found out whatever he was sent to discover. Several lines below this, Captain Maxwell remarks that the marine garrison of the island was outnumbered 12 per cent by the 33 officers and 340 men of the crew of the German gunboat Cormoran, who were interned on December 15, 1914. Later, on December 30, 1914, two Japanese hydrographic engineers arrived for the purpose of determining the correct longitude of Tokio. They remained until February 5, 1915, arid, of course, any additional information the Japanese Government may have wished about Guam was readily obtained by them.—Army and Navy Journal, 5/2.
Weakness Invites War.—Mr. Straus said that he had an opportunity as Ambassador to Turkey to observe diplomatists and their work. “In all grave and important diplomatic issues between nations,” he said, “I discovered that the stronger nation won and the weaker nation lost. Armies and navies when not actually engaged in war have a great use—-namely, they stand behind the diplomacy of a nation. Their power is of the greatest value known for preserving peace and for allowing matters otherwise grave to pass through diplomatic channels. Preparedness and power are the greatest peacemakers I know. Weakness of a country as productive as this one, is but an invitation to war.”—N. Y. Herald, 1/3.
The Annual Meetings of the American Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.—The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers in America held their annual meetings in New York on the 18th and 19th of November last. A wide and varied field was covered by the papers read, the following being a complete list of the subjects dealt with:
“The Submarine of To-day and To-morrow,” by Mr. L. Y. Spear.
“Data on Hog and Sag of Merchant Vessels,” by Mr. T. M. Cornbrooks.
“Inland Navigation and Barge Construction vs. Floating Bridges,” by Mr. J. H. Bernhard.
“Variation of Frictional Resistance of Ships with Condition of Wetted Surface,” by Naval Constructor W. McEntee, U. S. Navy.
“Results of Model Tank Experiments to Determine the Action of a Ship Brake,” by Captain W. Strother Smith, U. S. Navy.
“The Application of Small Steam Turbines for Auxiliary Purposes on Board Ship,” by Mr. W. J. A. London and Mr. Frederick D. Herbert.
“Some Comparisons Relating to Electric Propulsion of a Battleship,” by Mr. W. L. R. Emmett.
“The Maintenance of the Fleet,” by Captain A. P. Niblack, U. S. Navy.
“Recent Progress with the Active Type of Gyro-Stabilizer for Ships,” by Mr. E. A. Sperry.
“The Determination of the Resistance of Ships: Present-day Status of the Art,” by Mr. Ernest H. Rigg.
“Period of Vibration of Steam Vessels,” by Mr. William Gatewood.
“Aerodynamical Experiments upon a Yacht’s Mainsail,” by Professor H. A. Everett.
“Interior Decoration of Vessels,” by Mr. Harry B. Etter.
“Superheated Steam in Marine Practice,” by Mr. H. B. Oatley.—The Shipbuilder, February.
CURRENT NAVAL AND PROFESSIONAL PAPERS
Note.—Lack of space limits the scope of these references. Upon application, members of the Institute will be supplied with fuller references to current periodicals published in both the United States and foreign countries.
The subject matter is roughly indicated by the following paragraph index:
PAR. NOS.
Strategy ................................................................. 1, 20
Tactics ............................................................. .. ...... 20
Engineering ....................................... 5, 7, 8, 9, 17, 18, 19, 20
Ordnance ................................................................ 5, 18
Aviation ............................................ 4, 5, 10, 15, 16, 19, 21
International Law and Diplomacy. .2, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16
War on Land...................................... 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, 16
War on the Sea .................................. 5, n, 12, is, 16, 17, 21
Trade ................................ 1, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18
UNITED STATES
1. World’s Work. March.—Canada in War Time, by French Strother. War Strategy: The Road to Egypt and India.
2.Century. March.—The Japanese Menace, by T. F. Millard.
3. Atlantic Monthly. March.—Business after the War, by Ray Morris. A Soldier of the Legion, by E. Morlae.
4. Review of Reviews. March.—Bankrupt Diplomacy, by Elihu Root. The Aeroplane of To-day, by Waldemar Kaempffert. Campaign as Spring Opens, by Frank H. Simonds. Preparedness of Army Medical Department, by Alton G. Grinnell.
5. Scientific American. January 15.—Industrial Preparedness for Peace, I, by Miner Chapman. Progress in Radio Telephony, by John L. Hogan, Jr. January 29.—The U. S. Naval Engineering Experiment Station, by Wvi. L. DeBaufre. Searchlights in War. Our Merchant Marine, I. Zeppelin Airships (from Jahrbuch der Schiffbautechnische Gesellschaft). German Commercial Preparedness for Peace, by James Armstrong. Supply Ships for The Navy. February 5.—Keeping an Army Supplied, by Alfred Gradenwitz. New Developments in Military Aeroplanes. Naval Militia and Preparedness, by Lieutenant W. J. Willis, N. M. N. Y. Throwing Bombs from Airships. Grenades, Rifle and Hand. February 12.—Feeling through Fog by Wireless. Munitions Profits. February 19.—Cooperation in Foreign Trade. Aiming with the Rifle, by Edwin Edser. Modern Science and War Surgery. February 26—Our Navy as a School House, by E. K. Roden. Explosives, by Frank Bailey. Aerial Torpedoes. Problems of Storing Coal, by C. E. Lesher. March 4.—Commercial America and the War. The Screw Propeller, by Sir Archibald Denny. Economic Preparedness, by Franklin K. Lane. Evolution in Shipbuilding, by A. C. Holsapfel. Signaling Among the Ancients, by Commander H. N. Shore, R. N. March 11.—Ocean Temperatures near Icebergs. Development of Military Small Arms, by Colonel O. B. Mitcham, U. S. N. The War Game, I, by Lieutenant G. von Horvath.
6. Journal Military Service Institution. March-April.—A Logical Program for Military Legislature, by Captain Stockton. A Review of West Point’s History, by Colonel Tillman. Plattsburgh Lessons, by F. C. Frothingham. The Railroads and National Defence, by G. D. Snyder.
7. International Marine Engineering. January.—The Geared Turbine and the Turbo Electric Systems of Marine Propulsion, by J. H. Macalpine. Electric Propulsion of a Merchant Vessel. Shipbuilding in the United States. Modern Submarines in War and Peace, by Simon Lake. February. —Ship Stability, by H. L. Whittemore. U. S. Naval Experimental Wind Tunnel at Washington Navy Yard, by Naval Constructor William McEntee, U. S. N. Propeller Design for Turbine-Driven Ships, by N. A. Graveson. March.—The Shipbuilding and Shipping Situation. An Analysis of the Shipping Bill, by “Old Scotch." A Constructive Policy for Upbuilding the Merchant Marine, by Bernard N. Baker. New York Chamber of Commerce Shipping Bill. Shipbuilding and Repair Yards on the Sea-Coasts and Lakes of the United States (illustrated). Types of Ships Built in American Yards (illustrated). United States Battleship Nevada (illustrated). Trials of Turbine-Driven Freight Steamer Pacific. Successful Installation of a Fire-Tube Superheater on a Railroad Tug.
8. Engineering Magazine. March.—The Great Pan-American Opportunity, by Dr. John Barrett. Lessons from the German War Machine, by C. E. Knoeppel.
9. Shipping Illustrated. February 19.—Skandia Marine Oil Engines.
10. Flying. January.—National Aeroplane Fund, by Henry Woodhouse. The Ethics and Economics of Preparedness, by Henry Woodhouse. Newport News Aviation Section. U. S. A. Aero Squadron’s Flight. The Sturtevant Battleplane. March.—Post Office Department Invites Proposals for Carrying Mails by Aeroplane, by Henry Woodhouse. The Fifteen Ton Curtiss Air Cruiser, by Henry Woodhouse. Directing Relief Work by Aeroplane during the Recent San Diego Flood. The Aero Coast Patrol, by Rear Admiral Robert E. Peary. Ten Thousand Aeroplanes to Protect the Monroe Doctrine.
GREAT BRITAIN
11. The Nineteenth Century and After. January.—The Only Way to Lasting Peace, by Dr. Arthur Shadwell. Germany’s Food Problem and its “Kontrolle,” by John Hilton. The Sacrifice of Serbia, by Robert Machray. Behind the French Lines: Impressions of Champaigne and Lorraine in War Time, by Percy Hurd. Current Theories of Democracy: an Analysis of Truths and Errors, by W. H. Mallock. The Integrity of the Empire: the Offer of Cyprus to Greece, by Sir Francis Piggott (late Chief Justice of Hong Kong). February.—The Pact of Konopisht: Kaiser and Archduke, June 12, 1914, by Henry Wickham Steed. Victory and the Alternative, by Dr. Arthur Shadwell. The Monroe Doctrine and the Great War, by Moreton Frewen. The General Staff, by General Sir O’Moore Creagh, V. C., G. C. B., G. C. S. I. (late commander-in-chief in India). British Merchant Sailors under War Conditions, by W. H. Renwick.
12. The Fortnightly Review. January.—Our Nearest aud Dearest Enemies, by Dr. E. J. Dillon. British Commerce in War-Time: The Abuse of Sea-Power, by Archibald Hurd. Denmark and the Great War (with map), by Geoffrey Pyke. Five Months on the Italian Front, by Julius M. Price. Economics and War, I, by J. A. R. Marriott. A Winter Campaign in Armenia, by G. M. Chesney. M. Briand’s Cabinet and its Problems, by Charles Dawbarn. President Wilson and His Message, by James Davenport IVhelpley. Action and Reaction in the Far East, by E. Bruce Mitford. History of the War (with maps). February.—The Fruits of Amateurism, by Dr. E. J. Dillon. The House and the Pledge, by Auditor Tantum. Anglo-Swedish Opposition: a Letter from Stockholm, by Robert Crozier Long. Secrets of the Admiralty, I, by Archibald Hurd. The New Orientation of History, by Sidney Low. The Fall of Belgrade, by a Serbian Officer. The Secretary for the Colonies, by Scriptor,. How President Yuan Became Emperor, by Francis Aldridge. The Italian Sphinx, by Berto Tasso Tassinari. The Germans in Persia, by Robert Machray. The Evacuation of Gallipoli, by Sydney A. Moseley. The War in Washington, by James Davenport IVhelpley.
13. The Contemporary Review. January.—The Balkan Question, by Sir Edwin Pears. Italy and the Triple Entente, by Dr. E. J. Dillon. Seven Postulates of International Law, by Sir John MacDonell. The Hohenzol- lerns and the German National Character. The White Man in Asia, by Sir Thomas Holdich. February.—Military Compulsion (both sides). Democratic Control of Foreign Policy, by Gilbert Murray. Some of Russia’s Difficulties, by Dr. S. J. Dillon. Philhellenism in England and France, by Roland Burrows.
14. The Quarterly Review. January.—Why Canada is at War, by a Canadian. An Economic Stocktaking, by H. J. Jennings. South Africa and Her German Neighbor, by R. C. Hawkin. War Relief and War Service, by Mrs. Fawcett. German Methods of Penetration in Belgium, by Henri Davignon. The Censorship and its Effects in England and America. British Diplomacy and the Near East. The Course of the War, by Colonel W. P. Blood. The British Government and War. The Danish Agreement and the Feeding of Germany.
15. United Service Magazine. January.—The Navy and the War, by “Admiral.” The Specialist and the Navy. A German Corsair, by Hector C. Bywater. Naval History and Efficiency. The Levant, December. 1915. by T. Miller Maguire, LL.D. “The Noise of Countless Wars,” by Colonel A. C. Yate. Progress in Aeronautics, by Major H. Bannerman-Phillips.
16. Land and Water. January 29.—Capturing German Trade, by Arthur Kitson. Control of the Levant, by Hilaire Belloc. Naval Diplomacy, by Arthur Pollen. February 3.—Common Sense about Monte Negro, by Alfred Stead. February 17.—Roumania’s Decision, by Alfred Stead. True and False Impressions of the War, by Hilaire Belloc. British Aeroplane Policy, by P. W. Lanchester. Some Lessons from the American Civil War, by John Buchan. War and the Bankers, by Arthur Kitson.
17. The Shipbuilder. January.—Shipbuilding in 1915 and 1916. Shipbuilding Developments in the United States. The Growth and Present Position of Shipbuilding in Japan, by E. R. Thompson. Shipbuilding in Scandinavia during 1915. Shipbuilding in Holland during 1915. New Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering Contracts. February.—The Submarine of To-day and To-morrow, by Mr. L. Y. Spear. Variation of Frictional Resistance of Ships with Condition of Wetted Surface, by Naval Constructor William McEntee, U.S.N. Results of Model Tank Experiments to Determine the Action of a Ship Brake, by Captain W. Strother Smith, U. S. N. The Application of Small Steam Turbines for Auxiliary Purposes on Board Ship. The Merchant Navy in War Time, by Mr. W. S. Abell.
18. Engineer. February 4.—Warship Design and the Present War. The World’s Shipbuilding in 1915. Resistance in a Seaway. The Baghdad Railway. February 18.—The Manufacture of High-Explosive Shells in France. On the Theory of Multiple Evaporators. Commercial Conditions in Japan.
19. Engineering. January 14.—Stable Biplane Arrangements. February 18.—Nomenclature of Internal Combustion Engines. Spanish Destroyers of Bustamante Class (illustrated).
SPAIN
20. Revista General de Marina (Madrid). December.—Submarine Propulsion. January.—The Battle of, Trafalgar (Spanish documents). Theory of the Gyroscope.
SOUTH AMERICA
21. Revista de Marina (Chile). December.—Points on Navigation. Aeronautics. Naval Actions, 1914-15: A Review.