It is the object of this paper to discuss the subject indicated in the title, with the purpose of bringing before the service the necessity for post-graduate schools, the methods of conducting them, and the results attained by them. The Navy Regulations define the limits of the schools from the standpoint of the Navy Department, and it is believed that a short discussion of them from the standpoint of a student who has completed one of the courses will be of interest. Since the present method is quite new, the details of administration are subject to such changes that a description of details at this time will be incorrect at some future date. I will, therefore, describe but one course, that with which I am most familiar, and will make this description entirely general. It is believed that the discussion of the necessity for such schools, together with the results attained by them, will be of interest mostly to officers who, through lack of contact with them, do not favor their existence, while the methods of conducting them will be of interest mostly to young officers who are eligible for assignment and desire to know the character of such duty.
THE NECESSITY FOR POST-GRADUATE TRAINING
Post-graduate schools now occupy something of the position formerly held by the War College, in that they are subject to opposition from certain officers belonging to that school which believes that the way to learn engineering is to go to sea with machinery in ships. In civil establishments there is sometimes found the same situation. The so-called "practical engineer" has little respect for the college professor, who, though possessing a knowledge of Thermodynamics, is unable to fit a bearing to an engine. On the other hand, the college professor is inclined to look down upon the practical man with his limited scientific knowledge. Of course, the solution of the problem lies in a better understanding, and in such cooperation that each is able to avail himself of the special knowledge of the other, to their common advantage.
The need for advanced education in engineering is making itself strangely felt ashore to-day. There, engineering is utilized mostly in the manufacture of something, under keen competition, and success is measured by the return to the stockholders of interest on the investment. Our problem is quite a different one, being concerned first in the production of results from the military stand- point, with the money problem often a secondary one. Ashore, engineers, after a certain general study in the branch they are to pursue, find employment with a concern engaged in the manufacture of some one particular class of work. After mastering the details of the processes it becomes apparent that with certain special training in that particular subject the engineer may make himself much more valuable to his employer, and he looks about for a place to study. So insistent has the demand become for such an institution that Columbia University is organizing a special post-graduate engineering school along the lines followed in teaching the navy classes for the past two years.
In the navy the need is even greater. When it is considered that a midshipman, during the four years of his academic life, is required to train himself in several distinct professions, while the college man in the same time fails to master even one of these, the handicap is evident. One simply cannot become a trained engineer under the circumstances. He can become familiar with the machinery employed, and is thoroughly capable, after watch-standing for instruction, of operating this machinery. But when he is called upon to design new apparatus, to change the operating plans for the old, or run careful tests on either the old or the new, he finds himself handicapped by lack of training. The average officer, confronted with such a problem, goes about preparing himself as best he can. He looks up the sources of information, and by hard study succeeds in finding a way out. This is personal postgraduate work, and in some cases is sufficient. In others it is not, for the simple reason that sources of information do not agree, and the student soon finds himself hopelessly lost. One has but to try to solve a problem in design by means of that excellent hand-book by Kent, to appreciate this fact. One of the first things, then, which we lack is a knowledge of the sources of information and the ability to differentiate between the good and the bad.
Another important factor is that engineering is changing so rapidly that a man who confines his engineering experience to machinery at sea in ships cannot keep up with the changes. He may study, if he can find time between duties to do so, but studying machinery is not keeping up with it. As an example, one may easily conclude from reading one of the best turbine text-books that to lift a turbine casing it is simply necessary to assemble the men and gear and lift, "by the numbers." The absurdity of this is most apparent to the engineer who has spent weeks doing this same piece of work. Intimate personal contact with the latest type of machinery itself is the thing that makes an engineer capable of deciding whether there is a chance of its success in his own particular field. We have a great deal to learn from our brother engineer ashore. Many kinds of apparatus can be adapted bodily, while others can be used after modification. Certain methods of operation might be transplanted to advantage, yet the engineer who is doing the best he can in his own engine-room may never become familiar with these.
Of course, the original design of the ship is done in the department, but the question now becomes, Who are to constitute our future designers, when the present stock from the old engineer corps is exhausted? We may transplant a successful operator from his ship to the design office, yet we would not have a designer, because he would have to start in at the bottom and spend most of his tour of duty learning the details. The proper solution to this problem is obviously that which has been arrived at in the establishment of our schools.
We may summarize the necessities for post-graduate schools under the following heads: (a) to render the engineer familiar with the sources of information, (b) to produce the ability to differentiate between the good and the bad, (c) to keep the engineer in touch with the progress of engineering, (d) to broaden his knowledge by personal contact with other fields of engineering, (e) to train young men in the best manner to take the place of those men of the old engineer corps who as specialists stood foremost, not only in their own province of marine engineering, but in the whole engineering world as well. It is considered significant that such an ambitious nation as Japan maintains the same system of post-graduate instruction at the University of Tokio as do we at Columbia University.
THE METHOD OF 'INSTRUCTION
In the remarks above, the word "engineering" has been used in a broad sense as applying to civil, mechanical, electrical and ordnance engineering. The officers assigned to this school at present are designated for the civil, ordnance 'and construction branches when assigned. Those for the other branches are simply ordered for duty and make the selection of their specialty after the first year's work. Those officers in the special branches spend a certain time in the classes of the regular students, after which they are assigned to certain institutions for instruction. The remarks here will be confined to the regular class, with which I am most familiar.
For this class, officers are detailed who have applied for the duty and are recommended after engineering duty afloat. The average man comes ashore after five years' service, in which time he has become more or less familiar with engineering as it exists in the fleets. The class of which I am a member contains eighteen students, of whom twelve were assigned in August, 1913. The other six reported in February of the following year, but since this plan has obvious disadvantages, it has been abandoned in favor of the one which makes all assignments in August. The class reported at Annapolis at the end of the third week in September, and each member was assigned a desk at headquarters on the third floor of the Steam Building. The year commenced at the same time the regular academic year opened, and the first studies pursued were intended to get the students back into the habit of concentrated mental effort.
The course in Mathematics covered a review of all the "math" studied in the regular course at the academy, with its particular application to engineering. Physics and Chemistry were handled as a review, but in much greater detail than before, with a large amount of laboratory work. In addition to the regular classes, Professor Lucke of Columbia University lectured weekly on the subject of Steam Power Plants, giving a general summary of the subject. Office hours were from 8 a. m. until 1 p. m., and from 2 p. m. until 4.30, and since there were but few study periods during these hours, and an enormous number of problems to solve daily, the evening study period at home averaged from 7 p. m. until midnight. A student had practically no time for any of the social life of the academy, but devoted himself constantly to his work.
The second term, beginning in February and lasting until June. was full of more advanced work. In Mathematics, Differential Equations, the Theory of Least Squares, Analytical Geometry and Applied Mechanics were covered in detail. The Physics Course was changed to the study of Electrical Engineering, designed to lead up to Work at Columbia University, in the second year. Experimental Engineering was handled by a laboratory course, and Thermodynamics was studied in preparation for the complete course at Columbia. The visiting lecturer was Professor Walter Rautenstrauch of Columbia, who handled the subject of Machine Design and Analysis by means of a series of lectures and problems, with particular reference to the machinery of one of the battleships. Each of these courses was very complete, and in addition, Dr. Lucke continued his classes at less frequent intervals. With a large number of problems and laboratory reports, the work was of greater volume than in the first term, but an increased capacity in the student made it possible to accomplish the results in about the same hours.
The term ended with final examinations, one each day of June Week, lasting practically all day. During the summer, the first twelve officers to be assigned spent the day at the 'experiment station, while the other six continued the work of their second term. At the experiment station several tests were under way, including a test for the award of coal contracts, so that the subject of Experimental Engineering could be studied at first hand, under excellent instruction from capable engineers. No study was attempted at night because of the intense heat of an Annapolis summer, and the fact that many had suffered physically from the strain of the winter's study.
September was spent in leave, and in transferring to New York City, where the class reported at the end of the third week in that month and began work immediately. Here the class divided into four sections, two in the Mechanical Engineering and two in the Electrical Engineering group. In the first group there were two sections of six men each, one the Design section, the other the Shop Management section. In the second group there were four men specializing in Radio and two in general Electrical Engineering. These groups had some classes in common. For the first term the Mechanical group all studied Engineering Thermodynamics, Machine Design and Analysis, and Experimental Engineering. The only difference between the Shop and Design sections was that while the Design course included two courses in Electricity, one a lecture, the other a laboratory course, the shop course included the study of Scientific Management instead. In the electrical branch there were some courses in common, the chief difference being in the time assigned to Radio work. Here the classes were called at 9 a. m., as for the regular students, with an hour at noon for luncheon and closing time at 4.10 p. m. These hours were much more satisfactory than the extremely long ones at Annapolis, and were conducive to better work. Shortly after our arrival the faculty extended the privileges of their club house, and took advantage of other opportunities to make it pleasant for the class. The work, while different from that at Annapolis, was of such great volume as to require practically the same application.
Since the university closed for the Christmas holidays, work was suspended for ten days at this time. After the mid-year examinations, the second term began with Thermodynamics, Machine Design and Experimental Engineering continued, and in addition a course in Gas Power, both lecture and laboratory, was instituted for the Mechanical group. Practically the same division of studies existed as before, except that but one electrical course was taken by the design section, namely, the Application of Electrical Machinery. The term ended, after the final examinations, and on June 2 the class took part in the graduation exercises of the university and received the degree of Master of Arts for their postgraduate work. For the rest of the summer the class is attached to the New York Navy Yard, under instruction, for the purpose of observing the methods and machinery there, and at the same time visiting important plants in the vicinity which supply the navy with material. The Electrical section, as part of its summer course, is to work with the "trouble squad" of the New York Telephone Company.
The above remarks constitute a general description of the work. From this it is seen that the following objects were to be accomplished: (a) to first get the student back into the habit of studying, (b) to drill him by problem work in the different branches of both mathematics and engineering, so that he is capable of meeting any engineering problem intelligently, (c) to bring him into such intimate contact with all types of machinery and their actual operation that he becomes familiar with all their characteristics, (d) to so develop his powers of judgment and analysis that he can choose between the good and the bad on their merits, and (e) to familiarize him with the sources of information.
RESULTS ATTAINED
The individual who completes the course outlined above receives the most complete engineering education available to-day. To appreciate this fact, several points must be considered. The average midshipman is quite young, and is more or less interested, during his school days, in athletics and the social side of his life. He is often inclined to consider his studies a necessary evil, with less idea of using the knowledge he gains for practical purposes than in passing the next examination. After graduation, however, he changes his viewpoints in many ways, and by the time he has spent five years afloat, he begins to appreciate the value of engineering knowledge, especially if he has ordnance or engineering duty. When he undertakes post-graduate work he does so with an idea of its practical application, and as a result knows what he needs and carries it away with him. It is well known that the system of instruction at the Naval Academy is quite different from that in vogue in most universities. There is practically no lecturing or instruction in the academic work, and the midshipman must dig his information out of the books himself. The system of marking and examining leads to the development of a memory almost photographic, but at the same time, if he be not naturally endowed with good reasoning powers, he is not likely to have them when he graduates. In the universities, on the other hand, one is taught to remember nothing as a feat of memory, but to know where he can get any information when he wants it, and if he can't find it, to reason it out for himself. The instructor marks the student on his ability to substantiate an assertion by argument, even though he does not agree with the student's viewpoint. Obviously this method neglects the memory, and there is no doubt of its disadvantages. However, the student who is fortunate enough to study under both systems at a time when he is mature enough to realize the advantages of each must be considered fortunate. This, then, is the chief gain to the individual: excellent mental and manual training.
More important, of course, is the gain to the service, and this gain is chiefly that of a number of well-trained men. Whether the men can avail themselves of their training is a matter of personality, but they leave the school and return to the service with a broader viewpoint, better engineering judgment, and greater manual skill, but, greatest of all, the foundation and training with which to attack any problem and to accomplish its logical solution. The study of engineering is most stimulating for the reason that it is full to overflowing with problems that await the attack of an alert, well-trained mind for their solution. Four or five such problems are being studied by different officers of the several classes to-day, and some of them that, have baffled others for years seem near solution as a result of their efforts. Two members of the class finishing this year have been experimenting on ideas adapted from shore practice, with the result that they seem likely to solve some difficult problems aboard ship. The solution of such problems is important not only to the service, but to the whole engineering world as well, and their completion by the navy reflects credit on the service.
In conclusion, then, we may say that there is an urgent need of post-graduate work to maintain the standard of engineering in the navy, and to keep it in the forefront, as was accomplished by such men as Admiral Melville; that the present method of conducting the work is a good one, and far superior to the first engineering school method; and' that such work is of great value, not only to the service, but to the whole engineering profession as well.
COMMENT ON LIEUTENANT WILSON'S ARTICLE ON THE POST-GRADUATE COURSE
By CAPTAIN L. H. CHANDLER, U. S. Navy
*Captain Chandler was, at the time the article was written, head of the P.G. School.
Lieutenant Wilson's paper is, in my opinion, a most timely one, and should give to the officers of the navy information that they have heretofore been unable to obtain. I believe it will do much towards clearing up many misapprehensions that now exist and to the elimination of much unfavorable, and, be it said, mostly uninformed criticism.
The amalgamation of the old line and engineer corps, together with the great advances made in all mechanical branches during the last 25 years, have largely increased the amount of ground to be covered in the instruction of undergraduate midshipmen, but the length of time available for instruction has not been increased. As a result of this it has been found necessary to eliminate from the undergraduate course many subjects and parts of subjects that were formerly studied. The attempt has been made to eliminate from the academic course all purely theoretical subjects, and as a result the academy turns out officers as well qualified for their practical duties as it is possible to make them, but who have comparatively little of the theoretical knowledge necessary to make their education complete. As an example may be mentioned the fact that, although graduates are supposed to have a practical knowledge of the construction and operation of steam machinery, yet they have really been taught nothing in regard to the fundamental principles governing the design of such machinery, that is of Thermodynamics and machinery design.
Now a knowledge of such matters is necessary to make a competent, all around officer, and all officers should have a working knowledge of the general principles involved, though not necessarily of all the detailed methods of professional designers.
The first need that became apparent in this connection was for a limited number of officers capable of gradually taking over design, construction, and inspection work in all branches. The system of post-graduate instruction was therefore inaugurated, and has at this date settled down to the course so clearly described by Lieutenant Wilson, whereby a certain number of specially selected officers, are each year trained for the performance of the particular duties in question.
The school is, however, still in the early stages of development. In the past there were doubtless mistakes made in the character and details of the courses to be taken, and there are doubtless many things at present that need adjustment. My point is that the school is as yet young, and that it was a difficult thing to start correctly, but that a steady and gratifying improvement has been shown throughout the years of its existence, and that a continuation of this improvement may be confidently expected, provided we all put our shoulders to the wheel and push together, both those in charge and the student officers alike.
I have already stated that in my opinion the present day graduate of the Naval Academy does not know enough about theoretical matters to make him a thoroughly well-grounded officer. To overcome this fault it is my hope ultimately to see every officer of the navy take the post-graduate course before he finishes his service as a lieutenant (junior grade). Such officers should come to the school in one or the other of two classes, namely:
CLASS 1.—The comparatively few specially selected men who are to actually become practical designers. These should follow courses much as at present, extended and made better if possible, and having in mind the special purpose for which each man is being educated.
CLASS 2.-All other officers. These should be given a general course in the nature of a "finishing school" course. This should include the things that they ought to know but which were necessarily insufficiently taught, or not taught at all, during their undergraduate course; these things being a proper, useful, working education in Mathematics, Thermodynamics, Electrical theory, Mathematical theory of Deviation of the Compass, Exterior and Interior Ballistics, elastic strength of guns, etc.; with perhaps modern languages and naval and strategic history.
In a word, I hope to see the Post-Graduate Department become a general university for officers of the Navy, whereby each man may perfect himself in general in all branches of his profession, and in particular in those in which he wishes to specialize. That there is a wide field for such a university and that the officers of the navy as a body would be quick to take advantage of it, is my firm belief.