*Read before the Post-Graduate Department, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., February 19, 1913.
From a careful investigation of all the coal fields throughout the United States it has been found that certain fields produce coal which is highly satisfactory as a naval fuel. This high grade coal is found to be located in the Pocahontas and New River mines of West Virginia, in certain mines of Maryland producing George's Creek coal and in certain parts of the Pennsylvania fields producing Eureka coal.
In the purchase of what is known as "Navy Standard Steaming Coal for Use Afloat," competition from other than the many companies handling these coals is not invited, for the reason that coal is now obtained at the lowest market rate from acceptable suppliers selected by the Department after years of experience in buying coal, and from those whose resources and facilities are such that a uniform quality can be supplied in large quantities on short notice. Naturally those who have stood by the Navy in times of business stress, furnishing coal at the usual rates upon call, without regard to commercial conditions, and whose coal possesses such steaming properties and characteristics that the necessary horsepower may be developed with the limited combustion spaces of modern high powered vessels, are preferred. Under these conditions the Department has followed strictly the plan of obtaining its coal through negotiations with the largest operators and suppliers of established commercial reputation in the Pocahontas, New River, George's Creek and Eureka coals.
It must be emphasized that military vessels should not and must not load into their bunkers any other coal than that which gives the largest cruising radius. Before the Spanish War it was customary to secure competition for the Navy coal supply. This competitive system resulted in the delivery of a comparatively inferior quality of coal by firms upon whom the Navy could not rely, in an emergency, for a sufficient supply; and the use of this inferior quality of coal caused not only considerable damage to the furnaces and grates of ships, but reduced their steaming radii, and thereby defeated the prime requisite for a military coal. Strikes, tie-ups, unforeseen accidents and other reasons have compelled the Navy Department to depend upon those suppliers from whom it can always obtain, even in times of commercial stress, the coal needed. About six years ago a strike of well-known proportions, affecting all business interests throughout the Atlantic seaboard, would have materially injured the military efficiency of the naval service, were it not for the fact that at least two of the large suppliers furnished the Navy all the coal it needed, although both of these firms could have sold their coal in the open market at a figure too per cent higher than that at which it was sold to the Navy.
The interests of the Government require that vessels and fleets move quickly and unexpectedly, and the sources of supply of steaming coal must be such that these conditions can be promptly met. The Department is now able to meet the needs of the fleet, from a military point of view, by obtaining and maintaining a supply of coal under the conditions cited. These conditions have no parallel in commercial business, and the practice followed is authorized by law.
As has already been stated, the policy of the Department is to recognize those coal suppliers who have the necessary facilities and the control of mines to furnish, when needed, the required amount of coal of the high standard necessary to be maintained. Keeping in mind the fact that the purchase of coal is of great military importance, and that the continuity of supply to the fleet must be insured in times of war or business stress as well as in times of peace, it will be readily seen that the supply of coal is a matter upon which the Department cannot place too high a value, and the coal suppliers on the acceptable list should find business with the Department most attractive, and the prestige gained thereby should cause them to make exceptional efforts to meet any unforeseen and emergency demands which must of necessity arise in any military establishment.
While it is an asset of the Navy Department to have certain suppliers upon whom it can depend when warlike conditions arise and coal is scarce, it is also a considerable distinction for the suppliers to be able to state that they are on the acceptable list of the United States Navy for furnishing steaming coal. One supplier, whose methods of business did not come up to the standard which the Department has for so long tried to maintain, was recently dropped from the list of suppliers. In his efforts to be returned to the acceptable list, he advised the Department that he desired to be returned to the list even if no coal was purchased from him, and that if other suppliers and large purchasers heard he had been dropped from the list, it would so seriously injure his standing in the business world as to make a complete recovery extremely difficult."
It is understood that the British Admiralty purchase coal from certain selected suppliers to whom they pay about two shillings per ton above the market rate. The contracts of the United States Navy are made usually at the average market rate. Our Navy to-day has probably the reputation of using the best coal in the world, and those officers who are responsible for its purchase and inspection, as well as the engineer officers of the ships, whose duty it is to obtain the best results from the coal supplied, should make every effort to uphold the reputation already gained.
Names of Fields.—Coal from the Pocahontas field is delivered over the Norfolk and Western R. R. to Lambert's Point, Va. New River coal is obtained over the Chesapeake and Ohio and Virginian Railroads, with tidewater outputs at Sewall's Point and Newport News, Va. George's Creek coal is obtained from the Alleghany County section of Maryland, and is brought to Baltimore over the B. and 0. R. R. while the outlet at Philadelphia and New York for this coal is over the Pennsylvania lines. Eureka coal from the Pennsylvania fields is delivered at New York and Philadelphia also over the Pennsylvania lines.
Having in mind the different coal fields, the best mines of these fields have been selected for the Navy acceptable list of standard steaming coal. The reputation and facilities of the various suppliers and operators who have control of the marketing and output of these mines are made the subject of a careful investigation. In the selection of mines, arrangements are made by the Department whereby fuel experts from the Bureau of Mines visit the coal fields and mines designated to be examined, and make careful, detailed reports as to the exact location of the mines, the name of the coal bed or seam, the trade name of the coal, the name of the operators, the name of the selling agent, the average daily output of the mines, and the general character of the coal. Mine samples from the entire thickness of the coal seam are taken from different sections of the mine and carefully analyzed at the Government laboratory. Samples of coal are also taken from coal cars at terminals, and forwarded to be analyzed. Finally, such further data are gathered as will help to determine whether or not the character of the coal will be acceptable for naval steaming purposes. It is necessary that particular attention be given to the selection of the mines. Certain coal companies, making application to furnish the Navy with steaming coal, will state that their coal is of a certain trade name, when it is known by the Department that this particular coal bed was long ago exhausted. This rigid investigation is also necessary because from different parts of the same coal field good and bad coals are obtained.
Each supplier concerned is advised as to which of his mines are acceptable for supplying the Navy with coal. Each naval coal inspector at the different loading piers is furnished with a list of acceptable mines, coal from other than acceptable mines not being allowed to be loaded. In the event of there being any doubt based upon the results of the chemical analysis of samples, a steaming test under actual conditions is sometimes resorted to, and this method is probably the most reliable in determining the good or bad qualities of a steaming coal.
The coal inspectors at the loading piers, who are usually machinists or chief machinists under the cognizance of the Bureau of Steam Engineering (which bureau has charge of the inspection of all coal and other fuel for the fleet), are charged with the inspection of all coal before loading. These inspectors make a careful examination of the coal as it appears on the cars, rejecting those cars showing bone, slate, or dirt, or not grading at least 40 per cent of lump, and take samples of coal representing the different mines during the loadings for the Navy. Such samples are gathered usually by holding a bucket or shovel under the coal car as it is being dumped. The samples at the Hampton Roads piers are put through quartering and mixing machines, and when the final sample is obtained, it is placed in sample cans and carefully marked and forwarded to the Department to be chemically analyzed. Every effort is made to make the sampling as thorough and as efficient as possible. The chemical reports on these samples are made the basis of determining whether or not the contractor is furnishing coal up to the standard. The best of coal may sometimes give poor results if it is not properly cleaned of bone partings and roof and slate or sulphur bands which have become mixed with the coal when mined. Each sample taken represents a certain mine, and when reports of analysis of samples are received they are carefully gone over, particular attention being paid to the ash content.
The coal inspectors at the piers witness the weighing of coal over automatic scales, and it is rarely, if ever, that errors have occurred in the weight taken by these machines. This is a commercial practice, and the weights recorded are made not only the basis of payment for the coal loaded, but also the basis upon which the railroads make claim on the coal supplier for freight charges on the coal from the mine to the loading piers. One large supplier found a difference of only a quarter of one per cent between the weight taken at the mines and the weight determined at the coal piers on shipments amounting to over 1,500,000 tons.
When the coal inspector is notified that barges or colliers are to be loaded, he obtains from the yard master at the piers a list showing the numbers of the cars to be loaded. Careful inspection is then made at the coal yard and all coal cars which contain too much slack or too much slack and slate and other impurities are rejected, the numbers of these cars being given to the yard master, who eliminates them from the loading. Rejections are always made a matter of special report to the Department, which in turn advises the coal supplier. The reports of analysis on coal received are forwarded to the coal supplier concerned, to the Bureau of Steam Engineering, to the master of the collier, and to the navy yard or commander in chief of the fleet, depending upon the final destination of the cargo. Reports of inferior coal from the fleet are made a matter of special investigation in order to determine why inferior coal was delivered to the Navy. The report is made a matter of special record on the Department's files with each supplier. For easy reference, a "complaint case" is made for each supplier, and when reports of inferior coal are received, they are filed in this complaint case, and if further deliveries of inferior coal are made from the same supplier, the amount of his requisition is reduced, or, if the complaint is serious enough, the supplier is eliminated from the acceptable list.
By listing reports of each mine, the Department is able to determine whether or not coal from certain mines is running up to the standard. If it is evident that inferior coal is being received from any one mine, such mine is eliminated from the acceptable list.
West Coast Coals.—One of the most perplexing problems which has confronted the Navy Department has been the supply of coal of the character adaptable for steaming purposes, on the West Coast. While it has been a comparatively easy matter to supply the fleet operating along the Gulf and Atlantic seaboards—within easy reach of the West Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania fields—there has been no coal found west of the Mississippi River possessing the qualities necessary for a naval fuel. Careful examinations have been made of every known mine of any importance in British Columbia, Washington, California and Oregon, as well as in the Rocky Mountain States. These examinations were made by fuel experts from the Bureau of Mines and engineers of the Geological Survey. The results obtained have shown in each case th.at none of the coals are suitable for naval purposes. British Columbia, as well as Australian coals have been tried, and both have been found to be below the standard required. The western coals have been found to be particularly high in volatile matter, and in the tests aboard ship it was found that most of the combustion took place in the smoke stacks. While these coals may be suitable for merchant vessels having large grate areas and combustion chambers, the reduced space under the boilers of a modern war vessel results in imperfect combustion and attendant difficulties when high volatile western coals are used and the cruising radii and sustained speeds suffer correspondingly.
Alaskan Coals.—The Department is now making every effort to determine whether or not the Alaskan coals possess the necessary qualities for naval use. The Naval Appropriation Bill of 1913, set aside $75,000 for "the survey and investigation by experimental test of coal in Alaska for use on board ships of the Navy; and for report upon coal and coal fields available for the production of coal for the Navy and vessels of the United States." The Alaskan coal investigation expedition was formed to determine whether the best known Alaskan coals were suitable for naval use, and to obtain enough coal for actual test aboard ship. The expedition was also to determine the extent of the coal beds, and the conditions in the coal region and to find out if Alaska could be regarded as a big source of supply for the Navy. The technical direction of the expedition was under the Director of the Bureau of Mines, and a report of this investigation was to be made to Congress. The main body of the expedition consisted of one mining engineer, 30 miners and 7 assistants under the supervision of Passed Assistant Surgeon John O. Downey, U. S. N., who also acted as surgeon and disbursing officer. Two geologists also went over the field in advance of the main body to select locations for mining operations. In the transporting of stores considerable difficulty and hardship was experienced on account of severe weather as well as the mountainous country, cut up by deep ravines, canons, etc., through which it was necessary to travel.
The expedition reported considerable faulting, caused by geological disturbances and more or less difficulty was experienced from the seams being pinched out within a few hundred feet of the mine openings.
The Bering River field being situated about 35 miles from the tidewater, with no railroad connections, was the cause of considerable expense being involved on account of transportations of supplies, etc. After considerable hard work about 800 tons of coal was mined and sacked, ready to be brought to tidewater at the first favorable opportunity. This coal will be given a steaming test during the summer of 1913.
A similar procedure will be carried out in 1913-14 in the other high grade coal field of Alaska—The Matanuska.
Coal for Foreign Ports.—Each year the Department arranges contracts for supplying naval vessels with coal at some of the principle foreign ports throughout the world. On account of the enormous shipping carried on by the British people, as well as the fact that the British, Welsh and Cardiff coals have for years been dominant throughout the shipping ports of the world, the Navy contracts have been arranged through American contractors and with large British coal and steamship companies. The large British concerns have local agents at the various ports of the world and a certain supplier at each port is designated by the contract. These contracts are awarded under active competition, and every effort has been made to make awards to the most reputable supplier offering the best coal at the lowest price. It is highly desirable that naval vessels visiting foreign ports and obtaining coal under the Department's contracts should make full report on the coal as well as the facilities and reputation for reliability of the contractors, in order that such information may be used in making future awards. Instructions to this effect will be found under the conditions of the contracts, published in the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts' Memoranda each year, under the title, Coal Notices for Foreign Ports." This particular clause was inserted on account of unscrupulous suppliers at certain ports, who would make low bids on inferior coal in order that they might show commercial shipping requiring coal that they were the regular contractors for the United States Navy, which fact in itself would be the means of greatly increasing their commercial business at the expense of the reputation of the United States Navy.
Chinese and Japanese Coals.—The contract for furnishing coal to naval vessels visiting foreign ports provides in effect that nothing in the contract shall prevent the commanding officer of any United States vessel visiting Chinese or Japanese ports from purchasing Chinese or Japanese coals should he so desire. This clause has been embodied in the contract to enable vessels visiting such eastern ports to purchase Chinese or Japanese coals should the commanding officer so desire, in order to familiarize themselves with the coals, and in order that the Department may have information as to the availability as well as the adaptability of such coals in case of need. The substance of the reports received from vessels using the best of these coals has been to the effect that some of the coals are economical for use in port, but they are not generally adaptable for military purposes.
Transportation of Coal.—The Navy yards and stations on the Pacific Coast, as well as the stations at Cavite, Guam, Tutuila and Honolulu are provided with coal shipped from the eastern coal fields of the United States, by means of chartered colliers. Vessels are chartered from time to time, according to the condition of the freight market and depending upon the amount of coal on hand at the different stations. It has been found, from experience, that vessels—particularly tramp steamers—are looking for cargoes to the Pacific Coast during the months of June, July, and August, in order to arrive in time for the large grain shipments from that coast which are usual at that time of the year, and the Department therefore endeavors to arrange its charters in order to take advantage of favorable rates.
When shipments are contemplated, circular proposals are sent out to about 125 of the largest shipping companies of this country. These circulars show the number of cargoes desired, and state that the tonnage may be taken in either foreign or American bottoms, but that the American bottoms are preferred. The proposals require that the capacity and register of the vessel be stated in the bid, the time that it is to load and that if the name of the vessel is not given in the bid, a certified check for $1,000 will be required to be submitted with the bid as a guaranty of good faith. The Government is allowed, by the conditions of the charter, 15 days in which to load the vessel, this being necessary sometimes on account of inclement weather, and waiting for dry coal—dry coal being most suitable for distant shipments. If the vessel is detained longer than 15 days in loading the Government pays the contractor demurrage at the rate of 6c per net registered ton, if over 6,000 tons of coal is loaded, and Sc per net registered ton if under 6,000 tons is loaded. The Government guarantees to discharge, usually, at the rate of 400 tons per day, and if an average on the daily discharge is not maintained at this rate the vessel is allowed 8c per net registered ton for all over-time when the average of 400 tons per day is not maintained.
Coal for Yard Use.—The coal supplied at the Navy Yard, Portsmouth, N. H., Is maintained by means of shipments by naval collier from coal received from the acceptable suppliers furnishing coal at the Hampton Roads pier and Baltimore—the great coal terminals of the Atlantic Seaboard. The coaling plant at the Portsmouth station has a capacity of about 8,000 tons, and the coal for the power plant is supplied, as required, from the coal plant.
The Boston Yard is supplied in a similar manner, the power plant obtaining its supply from the coal plant, as is done at Portsmouth.
The New York and Philadelphia navy yards are within easy reach of the coal terminals at those cities, and two of the Navy's largest acceptable suppliers furnish the requirements of ships, as well as for yard use, at these points.
At Annapolis, Washington, and for coal required for naval hospitals and magazines, the purchasing is done on a competitive basis under specifications requiring each bidder to give the name of the coal upon which his bid is based, the name and location of the mine or mines, the volatile content as well as the amount of moisture, ash and sulphur in his coal, and the number of British Thermal Units per pound of coal that the bidder will guarantee. On such contracts premiums are allowed and discounts exacted depending upon the chemical results of the samples of coal delivered. This method of purchase is open to those coal suppliers who are unable, by reason of the character of their coal or otherwise, to participate in the coal contracts for navy standard steaming coal. In some instances this method of purchase has been satisfactory, but in other cases the contractors have fallen down on their guarantee, and, although they have been heavily penalized, it has hardly paid for the trouble and embarrassment sometimes caused to the station or department for which the coal was purchased.
Consumption and Cost of Coal.—During the fiscal year 1912, 729,903 tons of coal were consumed by the fleet, at a cost of $2,971,543.05, of which 25,633 tons, valued at $107,780.80, were consumed by the yard craft. The following table shows the total consumption aboard naval vessels during each of the fiscal years 1906 to 1912, inclusive:
Year Tons
1906 436,654
1907 521,490
1908 618,085
1909 813,615
1910 651,241
1911 744,423
1912 729,903
The total quantity of domestic coal purchased was 805,554.61 tons, 189,141.01 tons, of which were transported to navy yards, naval stations, and naval coal depots by means of chartered vessels, foreign and American, at a total cost for transportation of $909,005.54, or an average cost for transportation of $4.80 plus per ton. The balance of the domestic coal purchased, being 615, 413.60 tons, was delivered to navy yards, stations, and coal depots, as well as to vessels of the different fleets, etc., by naval colliers, for which there were no transportation charges.
A total of $2,123,018.74 was paid for all the domestic coal purchased, which amounted to 804,554.61 tons, at an average of $2.63 plus per ton. The total cost of all coal purchased, including the cost of that transported, was $3,032,024.28, and the average cost of it, together with the cost of that transported, was $3.76 plus per ton.