The genesis and development of punishment have been divided into four periods. (1) "Retribution," vengeance, or vindictiveness constituted the sole object of all punishment in the days of the primitive man, the patriarchal system, and the tribe. (2) With the steady advance of civilization "Repression" of offenses became the primary consideration of punitive measures. This was attempted by intimidation and torture, the methods of which are so conspicuously recorded upon the pages of history. (3) The deep thinking of the Beccario and the indefatigable labors of John Howard gave a decided impetus to the third epoch, which has been termed "Reformative" period. During this time it was recognized that reformation of delinquents was not only beneficial to the individual, but indirectly aided in the prevention of offenses. (4) We are now on the threshold of the new epoch. Profound students of sociology and practical laborers in our great penal institutions are realizing the importance of prophylaxis or prevention of offenses over therapeutics or treatment of offenders. They now consider that the application of remedial measures to the affected individual after the manifestation of a pathological condition is by no means as efficacious in the reduction of the number of offenses as the removal of contributing, predisposing and exciting causative factors. In consequence of this, the last era has been termed the "Deterrent" period.
The navy, in accord with the most recent views on this subject, has established the U. S. Naval Disciplinary Barracks at Port Royal, S. C., which institution has for its primary purpose the reformation of military offenders. At the same time it assumes that the restoration of reformed offenders to active service will utilize to the maximum advantage the deterrent action of the punitory methods now enforced at this station.
Many modern sociological writers on this subject advocate and predict the future adoption of the "indeterminate sentence" in penal administration. The discharge of probationers at this station upon the expiration of their enlistment partly involves this penological principle.
The enlisted personnel of the navy is recruited from a varied aggregation, containing individuals in nearly every walk of life who enter the service for various and sundry reasons. At the Disciplinary Barracks, as is sifted out, we find individuals presenting type characteristics of almost every class in this heterogeneous collection. The efficient petty officer who, by the fact of this very efficiency, was caused to be placed in a position of responsibility and perhaps suffered from a culpable error in judgment (from a military standpoint), here stands in bold contrast with the indolent individual, who will be a failure in any calling.
A classification of any personnel according to personal characteristics is a rather difficult and indefinite undertaking. Man, according to psychological analysis, is a composite and complex organization, and the division of a personnel according to the predominating traits of character must necessarily be arbitrary and temporary. What might be termed capability of adaptation to external environment is remarkably prominent in some individuals, and a future change in their environments would so influence their personality that a different classification would soon become necessary. Notwithstanding all this an "attempted classification" will be undertaken, because at this station there is such conspicuous contrast in the characteristics of the different classes of this personnel.
CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL.
The personnel of this station are classifiable into three categories according to the degree of adaptability. The first class was subdivided according to degree of culpability; the second according to personal characteristics; and the third by the cause of inaptitude. Five hundred and thirty of these offenders were grouped into the following classes by the co-ordination of the opinions of three observers.
CLASS A. ADAPTED.
Capable, efficient and adapted for the service. Number 114, or 21 per cent.
(1) Inculpable, but unfortunate. (9.)
(2) Culpable, but actuated by some temporary morbid psychological condition. (105.)
CLASS B. ADAPTABLES.
Potentially capable and probably eventually desirable for further retention in the service. Number 297, or 56 per cent.
(1) Ignorant and inexperienced. (115.)
(2) Indifferent and irresponsible. (149.)
a. Lethargic.
b. Misapplication of excessive energy.
(3) Lacking in self control as intoxicants, irritability of temper, insubordination, etc. (33).
CLASS C. UNADAPTABLES.
Unadaptable for service conditions. Number 119, or 23 per cent.
(1) Mentally deficient. (32.)
(2) Morally undesirable (45).
(3) Physically unfit. (29.)
(4) Military recidivist. (15.)
CLASS A.—Adapted for service conditions.
(1) Inculpable, but unfortunate. This category is closely connected with the "accidental" culprit. Many in this class are what might be termed victims of misfortune; some are perhaps culpably negligent only from a military standpoint. Perhaps some in this class took the blame to shield others. One striking example of this is an experienced person of middle age. His appearance and conversation characterized him as an individual accustomed to the better walks of life, and at a glance he could easily be picked out as a man of exceptional ability. His conduct up to the time of this misfortune had been perfect, his performance of duty excellent, but unfortunately he was involved in a combination of circumstances and given a general court-martial. There is reason to believe that had he related all he knew the blame would have been partly shifted, but he, true to this type, refused to involve others. While at this station his clerical and executive ability made him almost indispensable.
(2) Culpable, but degree of guilt modified by some morbid psychological condition or incited by some temporary uncontrollable impulse. This includes the experienced individual who served many years with a fine record, but for some unexplainable reason his manner of performing his duties become temporarily and often suddenly changed. Morbid psychological may account for some of these irregularities; perhaps some are species of "eccentric activity," recently described by the late Professor James. At other times domestic infelicity, financial or other misfortune may actuate as a cause to dishearten the man and make him negligent, irresponsible and perhaps dissipated.
A man's power of sustaining responsibility year by year is limited, and a temporary abeyance of this power naturally takes place when actuated by any of the above conditions. It is reasonable to suppose that a man with two or three "excellent" or "very good" discharges, who has served ashore and afloat under different commanding officers in various climates, and under varying vicissitudes of circumstances, who, suddenly but repeatedly, commits offenses, is manifestedly incited by some morbid condition.
The relief of all responsibility and the removal from temptation to this station may serve to protect the individual from further degradation and save him to the service. A sudden psychological shock, such as placing them in detention, to some of these old-timers may often serve as a stimulus for an increased endeavor to fulfill the navy regulations.
CLASS B.—Adaptable for the service. Potentially capable and probably eventually desirable for the service.
(1) Ignorant and inexperienced. This class includes the young and inexperienced with undeveloped judgment and discretion. The training station serves to adapt the majority to service conditions, but in some cases, due to the personal equation of the individual, this adaptation is incomplete and disciplinary measures are necessary before complete adaptation is effected. A certain percentage, e.g., engineer's division, many of which are direct from the rural districts, are thrust suddenly into the military and nautical life. The suddenness and greatness of the change in their surroundings, without preliminary training, causes some to be victims of nostalgia. The chronological age of an individual is not always a reliable index of previous experiences, as the following case illustrates:
This individual was a college graduate, possessing both a bachelor's and master's degree, and soon after graduation, at the age of twenty-two, he entered the service. He was industrious, intelligent and energetic, and with the exception of the performance of his scholastic duties he had never been thrown upon his own resources. He had lightly regarded his former offenses. An unintentional prolongation of a previous night's celebration created the offense. The almost daily association with this person leads me to make the unqualified statement that by his restoration to the service the navy will gain one whose proficiency in rating and obedience will be better than ninety per cent of those now in actual service. The former system of punishment would probably have proved the ruination of his future life and his valuable services would have been lost to the government.
(2) Potentially capable and efficient, but indifferent and irresponsible. (a) Individuals of this class are lethargic, but stern punitive measures awaken latent possibilities. Some present traits of character, peculiarly indigenous to a certain section of the country. They have a well-developed sense of honor, yet are lacking in ambition, indifferent to their surroundings, and spend their time in day-dreaming. But the humiliation of a court-martial for culpable inefficiency suddenly awakens their dormant potentialities. The offenses of this class are usually negligence and crimes of omission.
(b) Others of this class are energetic and capable, but appear to be devoid of any sense of responsibility. Their self-satisfaction and surplus energy seems to get them into trouble. They are possessed of excellent executive ability and initiative, and are willing workers, but appear to be unable to distinguish pleasure from labor; life to them is not serious enough. They correspond very closely to the mischievous boy of younger years. The process of adaptation of this class to service conditions is so difficult and indefinite that their retention seems questionable. Their misdeeds are generally crimes of commission and not of omission.
(3) Apparently efficient, but lacking in self-control, due to insubordination, intoxicants, irritability of temper, etc. This class may be known as the "occasional" offender. Short, severe punishment, as a sentence to solitary confinement on restricted diet, is apt to further antagonize the members of this class and lead to recidivation. A milder, but prolonged punishment tends to lead them to gradually see their error and a uselessness of acting contrary to military rules and regulations, which have been the "survival" of the most suitable laws of one of the oldest professions known to history.
Often the person with the strongest character will resist this adaptation of self to sudden changes in environment, yet eventually but gradually he will absorb the immutable and ancient customs and usages of military life and may finally prove more efficient than his weak companion, who is easily influenced by all conditions, good or evil. After the period of adaptation some develop into ideal petty officers. The correct diagnosis of this type from class C is only possible after a protracted period of observation, and thus may account for the lower restoration percentage. It appears advisable that every effort should be made to effect an adaptation of this class to service conditions.
One man of this class was formerly a student at a large eastern university, and while in a depressive mental state following an extended debauch he enlisted in the service. According to authentic written information he possessed considerable financial means. When it was suggested to him that his sentence at this place might be mitigated he refused, saying that "he was going to stick it out and fool the old man." Evidently disciplinary action had succeeded where education had failed, thus illustrating the reciprocal relation of instruction and punition in the elevation of human efficiency.
CLASS C.—Unadaptable. Undesirable for the service.
(1) Mentally deficient. Naval conditions exact a certain amount of intelligence. The average individual is able to fulfill these requirements, but there are some, endeavor as they may, who are inculpably incapable of the proper performance of the duties of their ratings. Others, while possessed of sufficient mentality, yet are inherently and temperamentally disinclined to this sort of life, or, as it is sometimes colloquially expressed, "a good farmer ruined."
Four cases of defective mentality have been surveyed. The diagnostic methods of psychopathy are often so difficult that some cases of psychosis and psychoneurosis may escape detection of even a specialist after a prolonged period of personal observation.
In my opinion, 2 to 10 per cent of these offenders are mentally irresponsible and possibly should be, or eventually will be, in an institution for the insane. Many present the various stigmata of degeneration. Others, who possess limited responsibility, comprise a comprehensive group existing in that broad domain which lies between the sane and the insane. One person, according to his letters and conversations, has aspirations to be a great detective; a portion of a rusty revolver was found in his possession. Another was encumbered with presumably abnormal religious zeal. Still another eccentric (?) was an inventor of many interesting mechanical devices.
(2) Morally undesirable. The majority under this classification could be grouped in the above, yet there are exceptions, as the following case illustrates:
A patient was court-martialed for fraudently re-enlisting. Previous to a surgical operation, while in the second stage of etherization, which was unusually prolonged, he gave his real name, which was different from the two on his enlistment record. In this state he quoted at random sketches from various noted writers, delivering at times rambling discourses on different subjects couched in excellent scientific diction, thereby indicating an intellect and an education above the average. But interspersed with these intellectual subjects he indulged in profanity and topics of depravity of the worst immoral nature imaginable. Later he has been very reticent concerning his past; he claims to have studied medicine. His mentality is apparently warped; a genius in some lines and an imbecile in others. Certain evidence suggests that he is a hypnotic habitue. He reminds one very forcibly of a certain well-known literary genius of the past century. This class includes the dipsomaniac, the cocaine and morphine users. It also includes the criminal type, who, by chance, were first detected in committing a military offense. One person admitted that he had been sentenced to seven years in the penitentiary for theft.
(3) Physically unfit. The equilibrium of human efficiency is nicely balanced by numerous factors. A temporary deficiency or defectiveness of one of these factors, such as temporary indisposition of health, will produce little effect in the efficiency of a normal person. There is a struggling class that soon succumbs to adverse circumstances when one of the factors are in abeyance. The medical officer attending "mast" is frequently impressed with the strikingly large number of his repeated sick bay visitors present among the offenders.
This class includes a familiar type known to the medical officer. Objectively they are fit, but subjectively they are incapacitated for duty. They complain of pains in chest, backache, weakness, and the like. Many can be classed under the comprehensive, yet ever narrowing diagnosis of neurasthenia. Repeated physical and laboratory examinations are negative. It is possible that some are suffering from incipient or latent disease that would baffle detection by all known means of medical diagnosis. A Wassermann reaction has served to clear up a suspicious diagnosis in some of these cases. Still further advance in medical science may materially lessen this type; for example, as the recent discovery of the detrimental influence of certain intestinal parasites (hook worm) upon the efficiency of the affected person has demonstrated!
A coal passer was court-martialed for failure to perform duty and sent to this station. He claimed that he was physically unable and became a constant visitor at sick call. Repeated examinations were negative and he was considered a malingerer or a hypochrondriac. Later he developed clinical symptoms of consumption and was given a medical survey. There is reason to believe that the incipiency of this disease might have been a casual factor of the offense.
CLASS D.—Military recidivist.
This class corresponds to the habitual criminal or "recidivist," a well-known type to the criminologist. To these persons violation of the rules and regulations is a mania. They violate the rules without any apparent motive of gain. Numerous uninteresting cases of this type could be quoted. In this class we find the habitual liberty breaker and repeated violators of minor regulations. They seem to gain delight in being detected and punished for their infractions. It is said that one man boasted of never reporting from liberty on time, and one day when he saw that he was returning on time he deliberately waited for the next boat.
Infractions of regulations seem to be an obsession to this class, corresponding somewhat closely to burning, stealing, and drinking to the pyromaniac, kleptomaniac, dypsomaniac, respectively. One individual, apparently possessing the average intelligence and normal in all other respects, was considered mentally irresponsible for his recidivistic tendencies and was discharged on a medical survey. Leniency, admonition, rigorous and cumulative punitory measures appeared to be totally ineffective in producing a detectable change in his antisocial conduct.
REMARKS AND DEDUCTIONS FROM ABOVE FIGURES.
The more or less harmonious correlation of the various factors forcibly suggests the presence of some fundamental basis for this classification.
The small number, relatively speaking, of marines and seamen in class B illustrates the value of training stations and recruit depots in adapting individuals to service conditions. This, however, is not strikingly demonstrated.
The average period of sentence seems to vary inversely as the adaptability.
Unfortunately among the old timers (class A) intoxicants appear a rather potent etiological factor. The significance of alcohol as the instigating cause for some of the offenses is not fully demonstrated in the figures.
Minor discrepancies might be attributed to coincidences caused by the insufficient number of statistics.
Naturally the offenses of the artificers branch are not so grave.
The restoration percentage as a rule is influenced by the gravity of the offense, or, more properly expressed, is regulated by the motive inciting the offense. Compare absence with a restoration percentage of seventy-five to assault with a restoration percentage of twelve.
Obviously, the military recidivist could not exist long (average 1.06 years) in active service. Their youth (average 21.6 years) suggest that they are still in a developmental state, and that some may eventually, unless corrected, suffer severe penalties for their propensities.
In conclusion I would like to state that the personnel of the U. S. naval disciplinary seems to present as marked variation in degree of human efficiency, considered intellectually, morally, and physically, as can be found in active service. In fact, it would appear that there are very few other places which would present a personnel on the sante social status, where there is such a difference between the maximum and minimum capabilities of the individual units.