The Italian-Turkish War. (Continued.)
By Commodore W.H. Beehler, U. S. Navy (Retired).
(Compiled and translated from the Marine Rundschau, and other sources.)
Events in the Red Sea and Vicinity of Suez Canal
For the protection of the Italian colony of Erythrea, the Aretusa, Volturna and Staff eta were cruising in the Red sea and, on October 2, 1911, engaged the Turkish destroyer Prik-i-Schewket which fled into the harbor of Hodeida, the Italians then engaging the ships and forts and withdrawing after sinking a custom house motor boat. The Italian garrison in Erythrea was reinforced from the 3700 Italian regulars to 10,000 men by recruiting natives. The cruiser Puglia landed 5 and 6-inch guns that were mounted on the works at Massowah.
September 30 the Turkish armored coast defence ship Muin-i-Zafer that had been stationed at Beirut arrived at Port Said and the Turkish transport Kaiscri with 700 Turkish troops came from Hodeida. Several days later a Russian transport also arrived from Hodeida with 800 Turkish troops. As the Turkish vessels did not leave within 24 hours the Italian and British consuls protested and the Turkish troops were landed and taken to the hospital because of the prevalence of cholera. The troops were subsequently sent via Kaleat and El Arich under Egyptian escort to Palestine.
The Muvn-i-Zafer and an old Turkish gunboat that had arrived at Port Said were disarmed, their guns and ammunition being landed at Port Said.
The Cruiser War
As soon as war was declared both belligerents proceeded to seize unarmed vessels of the enemy. The Italians began by seizing two steamers carrying small detachments of Turkish troops off the Albanian coast, and the Turks seized an Italian steamer in the Dardanelles loaded with grain and-lumber. Subsequently, large vessels were not seized, and prizes were limited to smaller craft, fishing boats, sailing yachts, motorboats, etc., details of which were not published. In the Bay of Smyrna sixty-five small Italian vessels were seized before October 13.
The Hague Convention and London Conference on International Law were proclaimed by both belligerents to be respected, though neither had ratified the Hague Convention which had been signed by their representatives. The Turks were not even represented at the London Conference.
The Italian government proclaimed that contraband of war included guns and weapons of all description, ammunition and all material that may be used in war or be directly serviceable for the land and naval forces. The Turkish government issued a similar proclamation. To avoid conflict with Russia the Turkish government agreed to permit neutral vessels to pass through the Dardanelles from Black Sea ports, provided they did not take contraband of war and even permitted neutral ships to pass bound for Italian ports in case their cargoes were not consigned to the Italian government or to be of service for the military or naval forces of Italy.
Prize courts were established by both belligerents during October.
The Occupation of Benghasi.
The official report of Lieutenant-General Briccola gives the following details of the operations at Benghasi:
On October 18 a fleet of eight transports convoyed by the Vittorrio Emanuele, Regina Elena, Roma, Napoli, Piemonte, Liguria and Etruria with five destroyers and seven high-sea torpedo boats arrived off Benghasi with the staff and half of the Second Infantry Division. Admiral Aubry's demand for the surrender of the city was refused by Chakir Bey, who had a force of 400 regulars and 2500 irregular troops with two rapid fire batteries.
The Italians opened fire the next morning at a range of 1000 meters on the entrenchments at Berca to the southward, and on the lighthouse and magazine to the northward. At the same time, 8 a. m., the squadron landing force of 800 men and 4 guns disembarked, followed by the troops disembarking by means of the ships' boats, 13 pontoon floats and lighters from Tripoli.
The first sailor company landed at 8.50 on the Guiliana beach 2000 yards south of the city. One detachment went along the beach and occupied the Christian cemetery on a sand dune 10 meters high. Pioneers followed the first landing party and facilitated landing by five pontoon landing stages. Major-General Ameglio landed and took command. The Turkish troops stationed north of the city, to oppose landing there, rapidly reinforced those at Berca and vigorously attacked the center and right flank of the Italians. The ships bombarded the Turkish position, but the sailors in the cemetery were exposed to a heavy fire and also in danger of the shells from the fleet, so that they were obliged to temporarily abandon the cemetery. The torpedo boat Orsa with several armed ships' boats proceeded to the custom house wharf to see if the Turkish troops had evacuated the city, but they were met with such a heavy fire from the troops concealed there that they withdrew. The fleet then directed a heavy fire on the custom house, which was completely demolished.
At 11.30 General Ameglio occupied the sand dunes back of Buscaiba Point with the sailors and two companies of infantry.
The landing of the fourth and sixty-third infantry regiments was delayed by the heavy seas until 3 p. m. At 3.30 these troops proceeded to attack the Berca barracks, supported by fire from the ships. General Briccola landed and took command, the troops fighting until sunset against the Turks intrenched at the barracks. The little town of Sidi Daub was obstinately defended, and a house to house resistance was encountered in the streets of the village.
The Turks were obliged to retreat to the city towards evening while the Italians, for lack of ammunition, remained intrenched at Berca. During the night the Italians landed more of the troops so that their total force ashore amounted to 6000 men.
At the urgent request of General Briccola the ships opened fire on the southern portion of the city of Benghasi, the European quarter, using searchlights. The bombardment lasted 20 minutes and drove the Turkish troops out of the city; but it also destroyed many buildings, including the British and Italian consulates, and killed many citizens, including 12 Europeans, mostly British subjects. Admiral Aubry bombarded the city only after repeated and urgent appeals from General Briccola, as he had declared before beginning hostilities that the fleet would not bombard the city.
October 29 the Turks evacuated the city, which was at once occupied by the Italians. The Turks withdrew to the elevated plateau east of the city and established headquarters at Bu Marian, about 20 miles from the coast.
The sailor landing parties re-embarked but left their guns ashore to reinforce the field artillery. The Italians reported a loss of 36 killed and 88 wounded, and estimated the Turkish loss at 200 killed and wounded.
A few days later the fourth infantry brigade at Benghasi was by the 68th regiment of the second brigade. The Arabs along the coast of Benghasi joined the Italians while the Arabs from the interior reinforced the Turkish troops.
Enver Bey, formerly military attaché at Berlin, commanded the Turkish forces. Frequent skirmishes followed but without decisive results. The Turks were usually repulsed by the shell fire from the ships.
The Occupation of Derna
The Pisa, Amalfi, San Marco, Napoli, Agordat and Coatit, with three destroyers and several transports with troops, arrived off Derna, October 15, and negotiations for the surrender of the town failed. The Pisa then bombarded the town for 45 minutes. The fire was directed against the barracks and a small fort with two light guns. The fire was slow at rate of one shot per minute. As this was not answered a boat with flag of truce was sent in but was met with a volley of rifle fire. The four armored cruisers then opened fire on the town with 15 cm. and 19 cm guns and in the course of 30 minutes completely destroyed it. A landing party of 500 men escorted by the destroyers attempted to land at 2 p. m., but owing to the rough sea and heavy infantry fire from the Turks entrenched on the beach this attempt was repulsed. The ships then shelled the beach until 4 p. m. The next day a strong northeast wind and heavy seas prevented any attempt to land.
October 18 the Turks evacuated the place and 1500 men of the Alpine chasseurs with pioneers and field artillery took possession.
After this there were daily skirmishes and the Turks gave the Italians no rest. The Arabs from the interior reinforced the Turks daily, and on October 25 the Italians were reinforced by the 22d infantry regiment.
October 28 the Turks succeeded in capturing several guns and ammunition in an attack upon the Italians, but the fire of the ships drove them back and the Italians were not dislodged.
The Occupation of Homs
October 16 the Varese, Arpia and four transports with the eighth Bersaglieri regiment having six field guns were sent from Tripoli to take possession of Horns. The Turkish commander refused to surrender and as heavy seas and bad weather prevented landing during the first three days the Varese and Marco Polo that arrived on the I7th, bombarded the castle and entrenchments on its flanks. The Italians estimate the Turks at 500 regular and 1000 irregular troops. The weather moderated on October 21 and the Italians landed after overcoming a stubborn resistance. Two Italian boats capsized. The Turks subsequently frequently attacked the Italians but were, as usual, repulsed by fire from the ships.
The Italian Military Position at Tripoli in October, 1911
The first corps of the Italians were entrenched around the city of Tripoli from Fort Gagaresch 2 kilometers west of the city to Scharaschat 3 kilometers east. The right flank extended from Gagaresch to Bu Meliana and was held by the 63d regiment. The Sad and 8oth regiments held the center from Bu Meliana to the village Henni, they occupied the cavalry barracks and Fort Mesri. The nth Bersaglieri regiment occupied the left flank from Henni to Scharaschat. Serving as reserves, in rear, at the extreme flanks, the naval landing brigades from the training ships squadron and a part of the 4th infantry were stationed.
The desert afforded unobstructed view of the approaches on the right flank so that the Turks were there exposed to the gun fire from the ships. The center was opposite the edge of the oasis and the left flank faced the oasis where elevations, trees, garden walls and buildings obstructed the view of the country beyond.
It was difficult to reconnoitre this country and the Italians used aeroplanes, three aeroplanes at Benghasi and six at Tripoli. The first aeroplane was used on November 1, from which hand grenades were thrown upon the Turkish camp at Ain Zara.
The Italians used a hand grenade invented by Lieutenant Cipelli of the navy, who was killed by an explosion of one of these grenades. These Cipelli grenades are made at Spezia. They are formed of a steel shell, about the size of an orange, filled with picrate acid. A cap is inserted just before the grenade is to be used. It is exploded by a steel ball that is withheld in position by means of a safety pin that is removed immediately before the hand grenade is thrown. The steel ball is held in place after the removal of the safety pin by pressure of the hand. In case the aviator is alone in his flight it is necessary for him to use one hand on the steering gear while he holds the grenade between his knees to remove the safety pin with the other hand. The use of the aeroplanes at Tripoli was much limited by the winds and dust from the sandy desert.
The Italians suffered for lack of water as the available wells were not sufficient to supply them with water. Naval waterboats were in constant service transporting water from Sicily to Tripoli.
Cholera prevailed and the Italian army suffered a loss of 25 to 30 men daily who died from cholera. The mortality among the civilians in Tripoli was much greater.
The Turkish Position Around Tripoli
The Turkish garrison of 2870 men withdrew to Ain Zara about five miles south of Tripoli with their main body at Zanzur, 12 miles southwest of the city. Their outposts were close to the Italian lines. By strenuous work the Turkish commander, Colonel Neschat Bey, organized an effective force which he recruited from the natives by volunteers to 20,000 men by November 1, and which was being daily reinforced. These volunteers were good riflemen and marksmen but undisciplined. The chief bases for recruits were at Aziziah, Kasr Gharian, and Kasr Veffren, from 40 to 75 miles south of Tripoli.
Engagements at Tripoli During November, 1911.
A series of attacks on the Italians were made in force by the Turks with 6000 men on October 23-26, chiefly against the Italian center and left flank. These attacks ware supported by a revolt of the people in the city that was suppressed with great loss by the 11th Bersaglieri regiment. The Sicilia and Sardfgna participated in the defence of positions on the left flank by shelling the Turks. The Turks were finally repulsed but they gained position by capturing Bu Meliana, Henni and Fort Mesri with several field guns, machine guns and other war material, together with about 100 prisoners.
The Italians were obliged to take up a new position that extended from the right flank to Feschlum and Schara Zaniet. The Turks took possession of the forts around the city and, on October 31, they began to bombard the city from Fort Hamidje. They were soon silenced by the gun fire of the Carlo Alberto and Lampo.
In the battles of October 23 and 26 the Italians lost 382 killed and 158 wounded. The Italians estimated the Turks lost 1000.
The civilians who participated in the revolt were arrested and about 100 were convicted and shot. It was reported that a much larger number of civilians were executed, some stating over 400, but this has not been verified and was denied by the Italian government. It was reported that some of the irregular Arab troops, who had expended their ammunition and surrendered, were shot. In consequence of these reports the Turkish government protested against the inhumanity of the Italians to the Hague court. The Italians claim that the native population were only treated as absolutely necessary for self defence. General Caneva then sent 3000 of the citizens as prisoners of war to Gaeta and the Islands of Ustica and Tremiti. He also compulsorily disarmed all the natives.
The Italians were reinforced by fresh troops from Italy to the number of 30,000 men by November 7, after which they began to retake the positions formerly occupied. The fifth brigade of infantry that had just arrived recaptured Fort Hamidje with difficulty. The training ship division shelled Fort A-Sultanje, and C-Fort Gargaresch. Two battalions made a reconnoissance in force towards Ain Zara and Zansur.
The Turks made a series of attacks after November 9, but were repulsed by shell fire from the ships Liguria, Carlo Alberto, Partenopc and Cigno. The hotly contested entrenchments at Bu Meliana were recaptured but had to be abandoned again because the heavy rains had flooded the neighborhood. In the confusion of the flood the Turks made a vigorous attack on November 17 and captured several Italian guns. The rainy season deferred extensive invasion into the interior.
November 5, 1911, the King of Italy proclaimed the annexation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica as under the complete sovereignty of the Kingdom of Italy.
Reinforcements for the Italian Troops
A second expedition corps was formed and transported in detachments to Tripoli and Cyrenaica during the early part of November.
The troops sent to Italy included some of the men on reserve lists and were not exclusively those belonging to the active army.
Additional reserves were called out to replace these men to number about 90,000 additional reserves.
As there was a lack of officers trained as aviators, ten civilian aviators volunteered with a corps of artificer mechanics and 60 engineer soldiers. One half of these were sent to Derna and Tobruk and the others to Tripoli.
The Activity of the Italian Navy
The co-operation of the navy, after the landing of the first expedition corps, was to accomplish the following objects:
1. Support of the land forces in engagements on shore was assigned to the Sicilia, Carlo Alberto, Sardegna and Marco Polo off Tripoli and Horns.
2. The blockade of the Tripolitan coast that was first conducted by the cruisers and torpedo vessels was assigned after November 10 to the four new Italian mail steamers that formerly plied between Naples and Palermo and which were each armed with six-inch guns.
3. The Turkish coasts of Albania, Syria and the Aegean sea were reconnoitered by a division of four destroyers in each region.
4. The passages between Crete and the mainland were guarded by several ships and destroyers of the Duke of Abruzzia's command. As the transports conveying troops were constantly going to and from Tripoli and Italy without convoy it was necessary to guard these passages strictly.
Early in November several cruisers and torpedo boats bombarded the small Tripolitan coast ports at Suara and Adjita near the Tunisian frontier in order to destroy the contraband stores that had been collected there from across the Tunisian border.
The ships of the first two squadrons left October 24 for Augusta, Tarento and Naples to replenish stores and fuel, and prepare for a new series of operations that were rumored to be contemplated against the Turkish forces in the Aegean sea.
Tobruk was established as a naval base and some of the fleet replenished stores and fuel there.
The Turkish squadron remained off Constantinople and rarely left the Dardanelles. In expectation of an attack by the Italian fleet, the Turkish troops on all the islands of the Aegean sea were reinforced, especially at Lemnos, Mythelene, Chios and Rhodes. The defences at the Dardanelles were strengthened and 5000 additional troops were sent there to reinforce the garrison. These rumors caused a large emigration of the inhabitants from the islands of the Aegean sea.
The defences of the Dardanelles that consisted of three forts at the western entrance with 20 heavy guns and 80 heavy guns in the forts at the narrow strait between Chanak and Nagara were strengthened with 120 additional guns but chiefly of smaller caliber. These forts were garrisoned by 7000 men and all the villages and buildings around these forts that might obstruct the fire of the guns were razed. The old mine fields forming three barriers at Kum Kale, Chanak and Nagara were reinforced by two additional mine fields with Whitehead mines of the latest construction at Kephes. The old mines were not reliable, they had been neglected and in that channel with depths ranging from 8 to 20 fathoms there is a strong current that often has a maximum strength of five miles per hour. Twelve old hulks were provided and made ready to be sunk in the narrowest part of the strait, that is at Chanak, where it is 1300 meters in width. The entire Turkish fleet was also prepared to defend the passage through the Dardanelles. Admiral Fisher stated that in view of the topography and conditions in the straits of Dardanelles they could not be taken or forced unless the attacking fleet could afford to sacrifice twenty obsolete battleships and force the passage with the rest of the fleet, which should be of the most modern type.
At Gallipolis 25,000 Turks were stationed to defend any attempt to land there.
The heavily armed forts at Cape Karaburun and the Nasiki peninsula were strengthened and several batteries of rapid fire guns were mounted there to defend the approaches to Salonica, a city of 120,000 inhabitants. The entrance to the bay, two miles wide, was mined. The channels leading into Smyrna were defended by two forts at Sanjak Kalessi, 6 miles from Smyrna, which is a city of 300,000 inhabitants. These were strengthened and a new earthwork fort was constructed with twelve 15 cm. guns with several rapid fire batteries. 20,000 Turks were ready to prevent any landing.
At Mythelene the garrison was reinforced by 2000 troops. All the other important islands were likewise reinforced; Lemnos, Rhodes, Samos and Chios each receiving 1500 additional troops with artillery.
The Turkish government issued rifles to all Mohammedans in the islands of Aegean sea, and ordered all Italians that resided in the region around the Dardanelles to leave, and, in the course of November, transported many to other parts of the country.
Any attack by Italy on the Turks in Europe or Asia Minor would involve international complications as all powers have possessions there, and, besides, the great strength of the highly trained Turkish army would render such an attempt hopeless.
The Italian government, however, notified the Austrian and Russian governments of intention to blockade the straits of Dardanelles on November 20, 1911. The Russian government answered in a note, on November 24, that the neutrality of the Dardanelles must be respected; and based this claim on the Pontus treaty of 1871 which was further strengthened by the protocol of the Declaration of London of 1909, that stipulated that the approaches to neutral ports shall not be blockaded. The Declaration of London was not ratified by the powers. Russia also protested against the Turkish contemplated design of placing barriers in the straits of Dardanelles.
On November 27 Italy replied that she did not intend to blockade the Dardanelles, but, nevertheless, the Turks continued to strengthen its defences.
The Austrian and Russian ambassadors endeavored to mediate to secure peace, to which Turkey replied that she had no objection to concluding an honorable peace, but the loss of the two African provinces could not be permitted by the Young Turk government without endangering the country's constitution.
Italian Naval Operations During December, 1911.
The second squadron remained in South Italian ports while the vessels of the first squadron were distributed among the ports of Cyrenaica, and seldom visited the home ports. During the first part of December the Roma, Rcgina-Elena, San Marco and Agordat were at Benghasi; the Napoli at Derna; the VittorioEmanuclc, Pisa, Etna and Etruria at Tobruk, with 12 torpedo vessels and the Vulcano; the Marco Polo at Horns, and the training ship squadron at Tripoli. These vessels co-operated in all the engagements with the army on shore, by landing parties, their naval guns and by bombarding the Turkish forces whenever within range of the guns of ships. The two old battleships Italia and Lepanto were prepared as station ships to relieve the training ship squadron. The Italians had a large supply of ammunition for the 43 cm. (16.8-inch) guns of these ships.
The Vettor Pisani, the Duke of Abruzzia's flagship, remained at Tarento and Brindisi until the middle of December. Some destroyers and high sea torpedo boats of this division cruised singly along the Albanian and Grecian coasts, in the Ionian sea, the Aegean sea and along the coast of Asia Minor.
The Liguria, Partenope, Dardo and Euro co-operated in attacking Zuara, Misrata and Argub near the Tunisian frontier.
December 15 the first division arrived at Tarento and the training ship division at Spezia. All ships were revictualed and the flag officers went to Rome for a council of war.
The navy was active in the Red sea where the squadron was reinforced by the Calabria returning from the Asiatic station. It was reported that 20,000 Arabs were organized in Arabia to attack the Italian colony at Erythrea, and to reinforce the Turks in Cyrcnaica.
The Italian cruisers searched all the Arabian Red sea ports for Turkish vessels and troops. November 19 the Puglia and Calabria destroyed the port of Akaba, a place of 500 inhabitants, where Turkish troops had assembled. During the passage of the British king and queen through the Red sea en route returning from the coronation ceremonies in India, all hostilities were suspended until after November 26. November 30 the Calabria and Volturno bombarded the quarantine station Sheik Said near Perim and Mocca 40 miles north of Perim, where 5000 Turks with field artillery were preparing to cross the Red sea and attack Erythrea. They sank all their sailing craft, including a large number of dhows.
After clearing the Red sea of the Turks, the Italians re-established the lights on the coast of Erythrea.
Engagements at Tripoli
November 26, after the arrival of the third infantry division, commonly designated as the third army corps, the Italians attacked the Turks and Arabs and regained Forts Messri, Henni and Scharachat that had been occupied by the Turks after the battles on October 23.
After this repulse, in which the Italians lost 16 killed and 104 wounded, the Turkish main body withdrew from Ain Zara to the southward. The Turks, however, continued occasional assaults until December 4, when General Frugoni led a force of 16 battalions of Italian infantry with 5 batteries of field guns to attack the Turkish entrenchments at Ain Zara where 3000 Turks still remained. In the engagement that resulted in the capture of Ain Zara the Italians had 17 killed and 94 wounded, while they estimated the Turkish loss at several hundred killed. The Italians captured 8 guns that had been rendered unserviceable.
The Italians followed this up with a strong reconnaissance to the borders of the hill country, 30 to 35 kilometers south and southeast of Tripoli. Cavalry and aeroplanes served in this reconnaissance.
The oasis on the east side of Tripoli was bombarded in zones by the Re Umberto, Sicilia, Partenope, Fulmine and Cassiopea without finding any enemy therein, so that the 93d regiment of infantry was sent to garrison Tagiura about 15 kilometers east of Tripoli. The Italians next proceeded to entrench the newly acquired positions. A battery of 14.9 cm. guns and a 21 cm. rifled howitzer that had been sent from Italy to bombard Ain Zara were now mounted there on the earthworks. A military railroad was constructed to connect Ain Zara with Tripoli.
The Italians thus found ample room for further operations into the interior and the fortifications of the approaches formed a secure base for conquest of the region.
Engagement at Benghasi and Derna in December
The Arabs and Turks, estimated at 15,000, made frequent attacks by day and night on the strongly intrenched Italian garrison in the southern suburbs of Benghasi. The four regiments of infantry acted on the defensive and were supported by the San Marco and Agordat. The Italians rarely attempted a sortie. An attack of 20,000 Turks was repulsed on November 30 with considerable loss. Shortly after this the garrison was reinforced by the 57th infantry regiment from Italy. The battleship Regina Elena also arrived from Tobruk. During the night of December 14 and 15 the Turks attacked in great force but were repulsed by aid of the fire from the ships. The Italians lost several field guns.
At Derna the Turks and Arabs were estimated at 3500, but they were being constantly reinforced and a general assault on the Italian positions was expected. During the latter part of November the garrison at Derna made a sortie with three battalions of infantry and 150 sailors from the Napoli. In an engagement of 8 hours the Italians lost 15 killed and 37 wounded. Such engagements as these were frequent. November 30 Count Trombi arrived as Governor of Derna with large reinforcements, consisting of the 26th infantry regiment, one battalion of Alpine Chasseurs and one battalion of the 2Oth infantry, by which the strength of the garrison was increased to 15,000 men.
The Italian and Turkish forces in Tripoli and Cyrenaica were constantly reinforced. The arrival of the third army corps increased the Italian forces to 120,000 men, which were distributed as follows: At Tripoli, 70,000; at Benghasi, 25,000; at Derna, 15,000: at Horns, 5000, and at Tobruk, 5000.
The withdrawal of the Turks into the interior enabled them to reinforce their troops considerably. The cost of the war was defrayed chiefly by freewill offerings of all Islam. Turkish officers, and men, weapons, ammunition, and all kinds of supplies were constantly sent across the Egyptian and Tunisian frontiers, notwithstanding their neutrality.
The Italians occupied Sidi Barrami on the coast between Tobruk and Solum to prevent contraband and troops from entering across the Egyptian frontier, while the naval blockaders guarded the coast and captured several sailing ships with contraband.
The Italians complained of this violation of the neutrality not so much against that from Egypt, which was done secretly, but against that from Tunis, where it was carried on openly. The French government declared that it did all in its power to stop the transportation of contraband, and suggested that Italy should strengthen her forces along the frontier. The effect of French prohibition stopped the caravan trade via Delibat to Tripoli.
The Turks used Delibat, the eastern terminus of telegraph communication in Tunis, for despatches to Europe, and they built a telegraph line from their headquarters south of Tripoli to Quezzan, five kilometers from Delibat.
The Turkish sick and wounded were tended by French and German Red Cross societies and the Turkish Red Crescent society who reached the Turks and Arabs via Tunisian borders. The English Red Cross society sent their supplies to the Turks via Egyptian frontier.
The Italian government exercised a rigorous censorship over the press and correspondents of the newspapers were limited strictly in regard to their reports. These restrictions were so strictly enforced that the majority of prominent correspondents left Tripoli and returned to their homes, and, excepting a few French correspondents, the Italians only were represented and their reports were revised by the Italian authorities.
The Italian government, however, permitted all the military and naval attaches accredited to the foreign embassies and legations at Rome to visit Benghasi, Tripoli, Derna, Tobruk and Horns in the steamer Bosnia that was specially provided for them on condition that they would not publish anything they might see on the four weeks cruise that began October 18, 1911.
Operations of the Italian Navy until February 20, 1912
During January, the Garibaldi, Varcse, Etna and some torpedo boats were at Tobruk, the Fcrrucio at Derna, the Etruria at Benghasi, the Marco Polo at Horns and the Carlo Alberto, Liguria, Iride and several high sea torpedo boats at Tripoli. The greater part of the fleet that returned to Italy about the middle of December remained in Italy refitting, etc.
As the Italian patrol of the Turkish European coasts had been to a great extent withdrawn, and as it was evidently not intended to attack such ports, the Turkish government discharged the reserves in the garrisons of the islands and some of those on the mainland.
In the Red sea a threatened attack on the colony of Erythrea caused the Italians to reinforce the naval forces there so that they had there the Picmonte, Calabria, Puglia, Aretusa, Volturno, and Staffeta, with the four large destroyers Artigliere, Granatiere, Bersagliere and Garabaldino.
The Italian naval commander ascertained that seven small Turkish gunboats that had been in the Persian gulf were concealed near the Farsan Islands and the above named ships searched for them. These vessels had been ordered home, but ran out of coal and were unable to proceed: as the Turkish transport Kaiscri which had coal for these gunboats had been captured by the Italians. The Italians were ignorant that the lack of coal had prevented these gunboats from reaching Suez, and believed that they had entered the Red sea to transport Arabs to reinforce the Turks or to attack Erythrea.
January 7 the Italians discovered the seven gunboats with the steam yacht Fuad, at anchor at Kunfuda. The Italian ships opened fire on the gunboats and after three hours' firing at 4500 meters they sank all except three that were beached. The crews deserted the beached gunboats and the Italians completed their total destruction the next morning, getting some light guns and a few trophies from the little squadron. The Italians bombarded Kunfuda and captured four Arab sailing vessels and the yacht Fuad, which they towed to Massowah. They bombarded small Arabian Red sea ports; Akaba (for the third time on January 19), Djebana, Sheik Said, Mocca and Midy. The auxiliary cruiser Citta di Palermo bombarded a camp on the Sinai peninsula, but these bombardments caused very little damage to the Arabs, as most of the shells failed to explode.
The Italians thereupon declared the coast blockaded for a distance of 45 miles around Hodeida in the Red Sea, a seaport of 45,000 inhabitants.
This blockade became effective January 26, 1912. It was caused by the transportation of Turkish troops, money and supplies in neutral vessels to Hodeida. The Egyptian mail steamer Mensaleh was seized with 750,000 francs on board consigned to Turkish officials. The Volturno found 20 Turkish officers on board the British steamer Africa and the Austrian Lloyd steamer Bregcnz. The blockade of Hodeida was assigned chiefly to the two large armed fast mail steamers Ditca degli Abruzzi and Duca di Genova that had been sent from Italy with the cruisers Liguria and Elba.
In the bombardment of Djebana the Piemonte damaged the railroad building by the French there and the railroad company sued the Italian government for 200,000 lires for the damage to French property. The Italians took off about 100 British and some French residents of Hodeida.
Early in February the Italians supported the Arabian leader of the insurrection against the Turks, Said Idris, 200 of whose followers took possession of Farsan Island, while these insurgents put the Turkish forces of Yemen on the defensive and greatly relieved the Italians.
Operations at Tripoli in January
The Italians were frequently attacked at Ain Zara by the Turks who established their active headquarters at Aziziah with their main body at Gharian. The Italians made repeated attempts during January and early in February to capture Zanzur but failed with heavy losses. The failure of an attack with four battalions of infantry, on December 17, caused the relief of Lieut-General Pecori-Giraldi by Lieut-General Camerana. The Turkish commander who defeated the Italians was Colonel Fara, who was promoted to Major-General for his victory. Details of this action were suppressed, but the Italians lost 50 killed and over 100 wounded.
The Turks surrounded Tripoli exterior to the circumference of a circle with a radius of 15 to 20 kilometers extending from near the village of Gargaresch around near Ain Zara to Bir-el-Turki east of Ain Zara. The natives of Gargaresch affiliated with the Italians and the Turks captured the town in order to punish the people for sympathizing with the Italians. On January 18 the Turks repulsed an attack by four battalions of infantry to recapture the place. The Italians were repulsed and only succeeded in taking the place after a desperate fight two days later. The Turks then withdrew but repeatedly renewed attacks on the Italians there. The Turks repeatedly attacked Ain Zara, but on February 5 they were driven out of their positions between Ain Zara and Gargaresch by long continued bombardment with 6-inch siege guns. An attack on Zanzur on February 22 with four battalions of infantry and three field batteries was repulsed by the Turks.
At Horns the Italians were obliged to remain close to the town. The Turks attacked repeatedly but were always repulsed by shells from the Marco Polo.
Zuara, 105 kilometers west of Tripoli, was a junction of the trade route between Tunis and Gharian. It was frequently bombarded by the Italian ships, but landing detachments were obliged to re-embark by the Turks.
The occupation of the town was decided upon just before Christmas when the Pisa convoyed four transports with the 10th infantry brigade to Zuara. Bad weather prevented landing, and after waiting several days the expedition returned to Augusta. The shells from the ships destroyed several buildings in the town but the energetic Turkish commander repulsed all attempts to land. The Italians finally abandoned the idea of landing as it would require greater sacrifices than the possession of the place warranted.
In Cyrenaica the Italians extended their occupation during January and February at Benghasi for a distance of 7 kilometers from the city and likewise at Derna and Tobruk. Strong fortifications were constructed, and heavy 6-inch siege guns were mounted on the works. At Benghasi the works were connected by a military field railroad ten kilometers long. At all these places the Italians acted on the defensive and repulsed the constant attacks by the Turks by aid of shell fire from ships, as these defenses were well within range of the guns of the ships in the harbors.
Invasion into the interior was not attempted and efforts were chiefly directed to strengthen the defences of a limited region along the coast and along the captured seaports. The Italians planned to prolong the war, and in the course of time by conciliatory conduct towards the Arabs to win them over and persuade them to accept the Italian conquest.
Aviation
The military aviators rendered good service as scouts. Lieutenant Rossi, of the Italian navy, made 60 flights at Tobruk and he recommended that the use of the Cipelli hand grenades should be discontinued because they are too difficult for a single aviator and very dangerous, besides which they rarely hit, and seldom exploded in the soft sand of the desert. Most all of the aeroplanes used by the Italians carry the aviator only. These aviators are obliged to ascend to heights of 1000 meters or more over the enemy's position that the aeroplane may not be hit by rifle bullets, notwithstanding the lack of proper aiming apparatus. In a flight at Tobruk, Rossi took Captain Montu as a passenger on February 1, and when at a height of 600 meters, the aeroplane was hit five times by rifle bullets and Captain Montu, himself, was hit and slightly wounded.
The Italian military aeroplanes carry the aviator only and are of the types of Bleriot, Nieuport, Etrich and Farman, with 50 horse-power motors. They cost about $6000 each, and will serve for about six months. It is contemplated to procure larger aeroplanes of 70 to 100 horse-power and capable of carrying several passengers. Upon arrival at the theater of the war they will experiment with various types of hand grenades. The Italian aviators instead of throwing hand grenades substituted Arab script calling upon the Arabs to surrender.
Captain Moizo made a flight to scout from Tripoli to Gharian, 85 kilometers south of Tripoli, and return, and on February 12 he made a flight from Tripoli to Horns and return, a distance of 240 kilometers, 150 miles.
Contraband of War Transportation
Solum, on the coast of the Egyptian-Tripolitan frontier, was the chief route for Turkish volunteers and contraband of war to enter Cyrenaica. The railroad terminus at Marsu Matruk, 300 kilometers west of Alexander, was connected by a good automobile road with Solum, a distance of 200 miles, and thus it was possible to cover the distance of 500 miles from Alexander in one day. Caravans then conveyed arms and ammunition in large quantities from Solum to the Turkish forces in Cyrenaica. Sailing ships loaded with contraband also landed near Solum where they could not be seized by Italian blockaders. The Egyptian telegraph operators also received telegrams for Constantinople via Alexandria and communication was practically uninterrupted.
These conditions were changed after December 15 by the Turkish cession of Solum to Egypt instead of to Cyrenaica, to which it had always belonged theretofore. Shortly after this cession Egyptian and British troops occupied Solum and suppressed the contraband trade. Lord Kitchener directed the strictest measures to guard against any violation of neutrality by conveying contraband and Turkish troops across the frontier beyond Solum. The telegraph operators were censored, and the British cruiser Suffolk arrived off Solum to enforce the observance of strict neutrality. These measures resulted in stopping 30 Turkish volunteers with two Russian aviators in their efforts to reinforce the Turks in Cyrenaica. But these measures did not prevent a large caravan of 175 camels to enter Cyrenaica from Egypt, presumably via Fayum. This brought a large number of officers and men to aid the Turks.
The Italians protested at Paris against the contraband trade and open violations of neutrality across the Tunisian frontier. This protest was answered by a statement that Italy openly procured camels and provisions for her troops, from Tunis and also purchased flying machines in France for her forces in Tripoli. The misunderstanding between Italy and France was such that the Italians finally ordered the seizure of two of the larger French steamers plying between Marseilles and Tunis, on which Turkish officers were suspected of being passengers. The French steamers Carthage and Manouba were seized off the coast of Sardinia, outside of Italian waters, and we're taken to Cagliari where they were detained four days and released. On board the Carthage they found the French aviator Duval with an aeroplane that the Italians claimed was intended for Turkish military service. On board the Manouba there were 29 persons who claimed to belong to the second detachment of the Red Crescent society, while Italian officers claimed they were military combatants. The Manouba was obliged to land these 29 persons before proceeding on her voyage to Tunis.
The Italians were finally convinced that the aviator Duval did not intend to go into Turkish service and he sailed to Tunis. The 29 persons of the Red Crescent society were detained, and, after considerable correspondence and debates in the French Assembly, they were finally released by the Italians to the French government. Upon arrival at Marseilles these 29 persons were thoroughly examined and found to be all surgeons, nurses or sanitary attendants, and with one exception, they were allowed to proceed to Tunis and thence to the Turkish headquarters. The one officer who was not allowed to proceed had large sums of money in his possession and was not solely on duty with the Red Crescent society.
The French government earnestly endeavored to stop all contraband trade. January 17, the Russian steamer Odessa arrived at Sfax from Prevesa and the Tunisian officials found a large consignment of arms and ammunition concealed in the coal bunkers. This cargo of 360 tons of war material was seized by the French Tunisian officers.
January 25, the destroyer Fulmine seized the French mail steamer Favignano in Tunisian waters and made a thorough search with force without finding any contraband on board. This episode made considerable excitement among the Tunisians, and caused such an animosity against the Italians that a large number of Italian residents in Tunis left the country.
The French sent the armored ship Henry IV and four torpedo boats from Biserta to the southeastern border of Tunis to stop contraband trade, and enforce the obligations of neutrality.
Italian Naval Operations During February until March 15
The Turkish armored coast defense ship Awn-Illah (Help of God) and destroyer Angora were lying at Beirut, and the Italians feared these ships would interfere with the transportation of Italian troops to the Red sea.
Rear Admiral Thaon di Revel arrived at Beirut with the Perruccio and Garibaldi early in the morning of February 24. The Garibaldi steamed in close and fired a blank shot. The Turkish commander sent a boat with a flag of truce to the Garibaldi, called the Angora to slip her chain and anchor in his lee close to the mole, and made preparations to defend his ship.
The boat returned with a written demand upon the Vali of Beirut for the delivery of the two Turkish ships in the harbor before 9 a. m., when unless a reply was received he would proceed to attack the two ships and he would be governed by Article 2 of the IXth Convention of the Second Hague Conference.
The Italian cruisers proceeded to the eastward in St. George's Bay awaiting reply from the Vali.
The Vali received the written demand for the surrender of the two ships at 8.30 a. m., and was in the act of giving his consent; when, at 9 a. m., no answer having been received by the Italian admiral, the two ships opened fire on the Aiun-lllah at 6000 meters, which replied slowly for about twenty minutes without making any hits. At 9.35 a fire broke out on board the Aum-Illah and ten minutes later the Turks hauled down the flag and abandoned the ship with the surviving members of the crew of 220 men. The Garibaldi stood close in and at 600 meters fired with the 76 mm. battery on the Angora without inflicting any damage. The Garibaldi then discharged a torpedo at the Awn-Illah but this deviated when half-way and ran in among a lot of lighters moored within the mole and exploded causing six lighters to sink; ten minutes later the Garibaldi fired a second torpedo that struck the Aum-Illah amidships and caused her to sink until she grounded and laid aground with decks awash. The Awn-Illah lost three officers and 55 men killed with 8 officers and 100 men wounded.
Stray shots from the Italian cruisers did great damage in the city; 66 civilians being killed in the city and several hundred being wounded. A great many buildings were damaged, among them were the Banque Ottoman, the German Palestine Bank, the Salonica Bank, and the buildings and warehouses of the custom house, some of which caught fire and were completely destroyed.
The Italians withdrew at 11 a. m., out of sight to the northward. At 1.45 p. m., the two ships returned and the Ferruccio stood close in and fired upon the Angora, which was sunk by gun fire in the course of three minutes. The Italian ships then sailed to the westward.
In consequence of the Italian action at Beirut the Turkish government issued an order to expel all the Italians residing in the Wilyets of Beirut, Aleppo, and Damascus within 14 days after February 28, 1912; and that all Italians residing in districts that might in the future be attacked by Italian naval ships should be expelled from those regions. This affected 60,000 Italian residents in those regions.
The expulsion of the Italians from the Wilyets mentioned was strictly enforced. Those who did not leave voluntarily were compulsorily transported.
After February, Italian torpedo boats again patrolled Turkish Mediterranean coasts, and the Italian press stated that hostile operations would be conducted in the Aegean sea. It was stated that the Italians had only officially declared their intention to avoid attacks on the Albanian coast, and did not purpose to avoid all hostilities against other Turkish coasts.
In the meanwhile, as the Italian forces did not make any important progress in the conquest of Tripoli, and the friendly offices of the great powers to re-establish peace had failed, it seemed highly probable that the threats of hostilities in the Aegean sea, published by the Italian press, would be attempted. The Turks therefore decided to put all places liable to attack in the Aegean sea in thorough defence. Measures for this had been suspended during the previous month because they were given to understand that the scene of war would be limited by the Italians to Africa.
The Turks began to strengthen the defences of the western approaches to the Dardanelles at Kurn Kale and Sedil Bahr. The mine fields were reinforced and improved; 350 guns were added to the fortifications, chiefly taken from the forts of the Bosphorus. The troops were drilled daily at target practice and 40,000 infantry and cavalry were mobilized in the Dardanelles district.
The passage of merchant ships through the Dardanelles at night was prohibited, and because of the mine fields all were compelled to take pilots. Turkish torpedo boats constantly patrolled the approaches and the Turkish fleet was stationed at Nagara.
At Smyrna four large merchant ships were heavily laden with stones and held ready to be sunk in the narrowest part of the harbor channel at about six miles from the city.
Two torpedo boats that had been stationed at Smyrna were withdrawn to the Dardanelles.
An attack on Salonica was not expected so much because the commerce of that port was carried on chiefly by the Italian colony, and Austrians were largely interested. Nevertheless the Turks strengthened the fortifications and mine fields and reinforced the garrisons.
The Italian fleet in the meanwhile had completed all its refittings during the winter and assembled at Tarento and Tobruk. Vice-Admiral Aubry died March 4, and Vice-Admiral Faravelli succeeded as commander-in-chief. He in turn was relieved by Vice-Admiral Biale.
The ten Italian cruisers in the Red sea bombarded several Arabian ports; Midy, on February 29; Dubab (near Perim), on March 4, and Shiek Said on March 6. Midy was at the same time attacked and captured by the followers of the insurgent Said Idriss, to whom the Turkish-Arabian garrison of 60 men surrendered.
In consequence of the co-operation of the Said Idriss with the Italians, the ruler Iman Yahia proclaimed a "holy war," and called upon all the inhabitants of Yemen to lay aside their internal grievances and rally to the support of Turkey, to destroy Said Idriss, and energetically oppose armed resistance against the Italians.
After the blockade of Hodeida, the Turks established communications between European Turkey and Southern Yemen via Aden.
(CONTINUED IN NEXT ISSUE.)