Notes on Inspection Duty at Shipbuilding Works.
By Rear-Admiral A.B. Willits, U. S. Navy.
Naval officers assigned to duty as inspectors of the work done by contractors in the building of our battleships and smaller units of the fleet, may not all be experts in methods of manufacture, or details of design, but, as a rule, they do know what the finished article should embody and, from their experience afloat, they are excellent critics of the plans for the various divisional requirements, from fire room to main battery.
Sea duty impresses most strongly upon the minds of such inspectors the defects in design and arrangement with which they have had to contend, and the lessons learned through having been "shipmates" with irksome or faulty conditions often bear fruit in valuable suggestions for improvement in matters pertaining to a later design which may not have been wrought out in the light of a fairly extended criticism of the old. Especially is this true in the smaller details so likely to be continued from one contract to another, unless pointed out and bettered through the experience of some inspector who has been to sea.
The writer has had quite an extended duty at shipyards both as assistant inspector of machinery, and as senior inspector, and while confident that he knows not it all, by a very large margin, he feels that there may be some members of the "Institute" who, when ordered for the first time to similar inspection duty, may find these notes and suggestions of some interest, and, if not able to cull therefrom a full meal, will at least be able to gather a moderate luncheon. But, even if this should not be true, there still remains a certain amount of satisfaction arising from having read a soi-disant authority and being able to say "Nothing in it." I remember hearing someone say of a relative: "He is a wonderful literary critic; perfectly wonderful! I have seen him take up a new book, open it, glance at a single page, and say 'Rot.'"
Attitude of the Inspector.
It is remarkable how much importance attaches itself to the attitude the inspector assumes toward the contractor on taking up his duties. Personality, of course, figures greatly, but even with a natural inaptitude for "supervising without directing," an inspector can make or mar his general success by his official pose. To a first time inspector there is a weight of responsibility for results which quite naturally makes him wary. He believes himself to be a detective, not only of bad workmanship, but of secret designs of the contractor to get ahead of the government in mysterious and well-designed schemes which it is his duty to lay bare and frustrate. Hence he cannot permit himself to be reasoned or cajoled into acquiescence in, or recommendation of, a proposal for even the simplest of changes without profound study of all the possible bearings it may have upon the contract or the profits of the contractor. This, of course, wears off to smoother running conditions with time and experience; yet, with some, it never does give place to either a confidence in the intention of the contractor to give a fair return for the dollars paid him, or to that greater confidence that no bad feature can possibly be "smuggled in" under a simple and practical system of supervision.
The attitude most desirable for an inspector to assume is that of a co-worker with the contractor for the purpose of securing the very best possible results. This enhances his value both to the government and contractor in a measure quite impossible to be appreciated by the wary, detective sort. When an officer assumes duty in this coordinating spirit he docs not for a moment weaken his guardianship of the interests of his office, but distinctly adds to it by the reciprocal candor and extended privileges educed from the builders by such an attitude—and instead of being considered a hindrance to effective work, he is looked upon as a real helper, and is esteemed as a valuable assistance to progress in, and excellence of, construction.
The two poses so very opposite in effect, and yet both quite consistent with carrying out the duty fully, may be described as follows: First (and worst), the inspector contents himself with passing judgment upon all work submitted for his criticism or discovered through his vigilance, and placidly demands his "pound of flesh" as explicitly agreed to by the terms of the contract, and described on the drawings and in the specifications. In cases of defects in material or workmanship, these are broadly condemned for slightest deviation. It is as if he were to say to the contractor, "You have engaged to build a ship in strict accordance with a detailed description of its elements and accessories, for a certain price, and I am here to see that you do it." In this spirit, and with the power or authority given the inspector, rejections are frequently made for literal and not material departures from the specifications with the result that most of the minor cases of needless condemnations stand, while, in more important cases, appeals to the Department or Bureau concerned for re-consideration, are forced to be pushed by the builders in order to save themselves from unreasonable losses.
This same spirit is also carried along in the correspondence connected with forwarding plans for approval. Drawings submitted are examined, and a list of the points of difference between the specifications and plan is made out and the whole forwarded only with the certainty of increased correspondence before approval can be secured. Delays through this cause are equally expensive to the builder, as those created through bad judgment or peremptory action in the matter of passing upon material, and indeed often much more so. This pose cannot be objected to on any legal ground. The inspector is doing his duty as he sees it but, under such conditions, an atmosphere of distrust and antagonism very soon surrounds the office in all its workings, and through this it becomes continually more difficult to see clearly; neither is it probable that the inspector will gain much voluntary assistance from the contractors under such a system, in discovering any defects that can be concealed without danger to a successful trial trip.
The second and best pose is one where the inspector's view of the situation may be expressed thus: "The contractors have entered into a contract to build a ship of best material and workmanship, and in accordance with explicit plans and specifications, and I am here to help them do it."
First Duties of an Inspector.
The first duty of an inspector assuming charge of any division of the work of construction of a naval vessel, is to familiarize himself with the "tools of his office," and those upon which the contract is to be accomplished. This is not the work of an hour or a day, but must be a part of the proceedings of each day during the period of his novitiate, until he knows the principal men he has to deal with, not only by name, but also by "outline"; which means a mental sizing up of their individualities and abilities. These first impressions are sometimes quite misleading and therefore should be labeled "For test," and stored in the back part of the head and not voiced to anyone. Most frequently false impressions come through those who are the glibbest talkers and most plausible generalizers, and the inspector or contractor feels that here at least he has met one "dependable." Well—there is no use looking for trouble, and experience will never be exactly similar, but it may be put down as an axion that it is the part of wisdom in getting "acquainted," to talk as little as needs be, either regarding one's own deficiencies in the special work, or in vaunting a wide knowledge in the duties involved. The truth "will out" in ample time for all practical purposes.
Some inspectors personally prefer to conduct all intercourse with the contractors in a formal manner and by letter, whenever this is at all practicable, meeting the chief officers of the company as seldom as possible. This is supposed to lend a dignity to the inspector's office and to extract a deference from the builders which protects the best interests of the government. This is certainly a mistake and tends to delay work to a most serious degree. As it is, however, entirely in accord with the red tapeism of Navy Department work, and leads to an orderly and systematic consideration of every step, perhaps I should have said that, instead of this being a mistake, the reverse policy will be found to be an improvement and one that will greatly advance the business of the office and the completion of the vessel, and will not detract from any dignity of office that is worth possessing. Indeed it is considered most important to early pave the way for ready and agreeable personal discussions of the many points of difference constantly arising and upon which a free exchange of views is most desirable, before proceeding to letter writing, as such discussions often obviate the necessity for writing any letter at all on that particular subject or issue.
With the general manager and shop foreman the clearest understanding should be had from the start in relation to concealment of defects. It is not possible, with all the lynx-eyed assistants ever yet allotted to the office, to prevent the concealment of some defects, some time. With all the penalties for failure to meet the contract stipulations, it is obvious that no defect that would probably militate against a best performance would for a moment be permitted by the builder to remain if they knew it, but there is another class of defects which may not prevent a perfect trial trip performance, but which would shorten the "life" of a part of the machinery, and cause the expense of removal long before a perfect casting or forging would have to be replaced, and of which these notes will treat later on. As, however, the government is paying for the "best material and workmanship," and as we are detailed for the duty of seeing that this is given us, there is no defect, however slight, and (perhaps) unimportant, that should not be instantly reported to, and passed upon by, the inspector. Therefore, the plain understanding at the beginning must be that the discharge of the immediate supervisor of any workman failing instantly to report a defect as soon as discovered, will be absolutely insisted on. Then make a case out of the first offense without recourse.
First duties include the reading of such contracts as may be in hand carefully, but the study of the specifications, so eagerly begun by many inspectors should be done piecemeal and (except for the general descriptions and those principal data which are needed for notebook and ready reference), only at such times as the particular part is brought up in submitting the detail drawing thereof for the inspector's criticism and the approval of the Bureau.
If the inspector is establishing a new office, of course the arrangement of his office force will be a primary requisite, and should follow the needs as shown under the next heading in these notes: but it is scarcely probable that such original duty will fall to the lot of many naval officers for years to come, or until this need of a fleet of the air will permit some of the middle states to go heavily into the shipbuilding trade and establish dock yards on mountain tops. Generally the office will be one already established, and in this case it is most advisable to make it one of the first duties to briefly study the scope of the work done by each of the force through personal queries, in connection with a scrutiny of the papers and methods at each desk. This will put the inspector wise to the comparative amounts of work done by each individual as well as post him, as nothing else could, in the range of duty included in his office and its status at the time he assumes charge.
The writer would like to impress this upon the mind of the first time inspector as something which is not always done, but which it will surely pay him to do. Often an office force that has been running smoothly for some years will hold itself above the plane of criticism from a novice and will rather try to convince the inspector that he will do well to let the wheels alone and not waste time in securing explanations of the details, and that he will gradually become familiar, etc.: But what the inspector wants to know, and should know, is just what work is being done by each of his force—not for Criticism at the time, but for his general information and the satisfaction resulting from knowing' all the compartments of his command just as the knowledge gained by the captain of a ship, through his regular inspections, gives him a greater confidence in his control.
It is usual for an inspector to begin his duty with a note book in which he enters many memoranda, and from which he expects to derive much benefit later on. It is perhaps dangerous to decry the note-book habit, yet it is most certainly true, that it has not the value so commonly attributed to it. The only notes of actual worth (barring exact data and tabulations) are those which can be and are acted upon or filed and indexed at once, or that can be stored in the back part of the head in its proper cell. A note book full of miscellaneous memoranda, "for future reference," simply makes a fool of itself in the inaccessibility or unserviceability of its contents. Such notes are seldom explicit enough to be thoroughly intelligible after the unwritten contexts are forgotten, and as they are not indexed, the maker usually spends more time in futile search for an ancient jotting than is at all commensurate with its value.
The note book, however, has its field of usefulness for the sketches and data which should be entered systematically and in handy form, will give the inspector an accurate ready reference record of the most important features of the work in hand.
A few examples of what is considered of value for the pocket memorandum book are given in Figures 1, 2, and 3, taken from the writers loose leaf book used during his last tour of duty at a shipbuilding yard. The figures are photographic facsimiles of the original leaves, and therefore show both the size of book and the character of the entries; they do not, however, show the light quadrille ruling of the pages which so greatly facilitates free hand sketching. Only one page of ship data is shown, the further extension of these being continued on following pages, and which include spaces for entering later the leading trial data. The sketches should all be free-hand, inked in, and the lines for the pipe leads should be made preferably in red ink. In the sketch of arrangement of turbines of Utah, the several methods of using steam, by which different " expansions" are governed, and fixed conditions for certain speeds are obtained, are readily studied and kept in mind. Additional valuable data for ready reference will suggest themselves to the officer as work proceeds, but there is one little list which he will find very useful until thoroughly acquainted with what is "doing," and that is a brief of each contract (number and object) that the builder has in hand. As all castings and parts in the shops are numbered, in painted figures, with their contract number, a knowledge of what these mean is of legitimate interest as far as it is not objectionable to the contractor, and keeps the mind alive to the general work to a point of being able at least to answer broadly questions referring to any imposing piece of work in the shops, while a familiarity with the number of the contracts for vessels under his own inspection is of course a necessity.
If any contract is well advanced when the inspector assumes duty it is advisable, after looking carefully over the work done, to have a "brief" made at once showing either the list of principal parts already completed, or those yet to be completed, according to which is the shortest list, as this will give him a clearer idea of the status than any amount of actual inspection.
Officer Force and Its Duties.
Inspection duty, as it appears to most people who have never investigated it, consists principally in a shrewd supervision of the physical work and material, as construction proceeds. It will be found, however, that an immense amount of work of a partly clerical nature must be continually progressed in order to keep up with the game and not cause delays. The inspector's office must therefore be provided with proper "tools and facilities" if the results of his work are to be worth while. This office work covers the following duties:
Correspondence. This should be separate and complete for each contract whether the vessels are alike or not.
Filing, indexing and keeping attendance records.
Checking up detail drawings and indexing file copies.
Preparation of papers in connection with "payments."
Preparation of estimates of costs of approved changes for use by the "Board of Changes."
Calculation of weights and tabulation of actual weights.
Checking finished tracings and the reduced plans for booklets.
Preparation of data for Trial Trip Board.
Reports and tabulations of all tests made, and
Writing up journals for each vessel under construction.
Correspondence—Clerical Work. Where more than one vessel is under construction (except, of course, in cases of the smaller types, or when there may be two or more destroyers exactly alike) there should be a chief clerk, who is a stenographer and typewriter, and an assistant who is a typewriter. These two men can attend to all the correspondence and typewriting necessary, and can keep up the index and file records properly, if the work is systematically arranged. It should be a duty of the inspector to interest himself in the regulating of the office work in order to prevent, as far as possible, the frequent recurrence of "Field Days," when the disorder of haste and the recriminations of the tardy or lax may make an undesirable and really unnecessary exhibit. This proper regulating can be accomplished in only one way, and that is by requiring an advance to be made wherever possible in all data collection necessary for the proper preparation of papers known to be ultimately needed, and the preparation of such papers as upon as the information is obtained. To facilitate this the inspector should have posted at all desks a briefed list of just what will be wanted in this line for each contract, as an obvious discourager of the idle hour.
In an extended experience the writer has found the office force of an inspector's office no less inclined to procrastinate in matters not immediately urgent, than are other groups of mortals. True, when the time came for rush work there was a very loyal response to the call, and they performed that miracle, so common to us all, of "just getting the last paper completed in the very last minute" possible to allow. Perhaps this variety is not a bad thing, and that it does the mind good to be "put to it" once in a while, but it is not in accord with the rules of efficiency, and we must keep everything up-to-date in office work if we would get best results and appear to best advantage. The rush times will come in spite of all that, but they will be legitimate and not bastard.
Especially there should never be permitted any preventable procrastination in filing and indexing papers and correspondence. This putting off until a leisure day, is wrong in principle and detrimental to dispatch of work, and the effect of having to await a search through several piles of documents, or a drawer full of mixed letters, for a paper urgently needed is, at least, not soothing. If the inspector will insist on completing the filing, each morning, of all accumulations of the preceding1 day before general work is taken up, he will be surprised at the ease with which this is accomplished, and pleased with the knowledge of being able to secure at once any record he may want that has passed through his hands or office. In this connection it is well to remember that often papers will come in for forwarding, of which it may not be deemed important to keep more than a copy of his endorsement. He should not lightly judge of this, but should at least dictate a comprehensive extract (often better, because briefer, than the original) and file with the forwarding endorsement.
The periods of greatest activity on the part of the actual clerical force of the office is when a trial trip approaches, or when two or more requests for "payments" are suddenly sent in. As a rule the chief clerk keeps in touch with the contractor's intention regarding applications for payments, and can begin getting up his papers fairly in advance, but it is not always possible to prevent rush work at these times. The contract price is paid the contractors generally in fifty separate payments, whenever the material bought and received and the work done amounts to a sufficient sum. On the contractor's part the vessel is kept insured to its value as advanced, and reserve payments are held at the end until acceptance is final.
The papers forwarded to the Department with each application for payment appear to be excessive but perhaps are really not so. With a letter of transmittal the inspector of machinery, for instance, must include the letter of the contractor advising that they have made application for the particular payment; an itemized statement from the contractors (under the principal divisions of the work) of total amount of cost of labor, and material furnished to date of application which they desire to include. A certificate (or copy) from the sub-contractors for boilers, showing how much they have received from the contractors on account of work done; an itemized statement from the inspector under the principal divisions of the work, showing condition of work in percentages accomplished; a formal estimate of total weight and cost of material, and cost of labor for work done to date and for material on hand yet to be incorporated; a letter showing amount of material received from the makers of the boilers; a public bill signed by inspectors of hull and machinery covering the payment asked for; affidavit from the treasurer of the shipbuilding company relative to the absence of liens against the vessel; and affidavits relative to the work having been done under the eight-hour law.
The time for requesting payments can generally be managed so as to utilize the regular monthly reports showing percentage of work accomplished, and thus obviating separate calculations for an intermediate report of this kind.
The papers necessary to be prepared in connection with the trial trip of a battleship indicate in a greater measure the amount of upkeep work in data collecting that is referred to above as not to be put off any longer than is compulsory from lack of available information. I quote the list of papers for the Arkansas as a good example, and believe simply from the consideration of these item's one can gain quite a comprehensive idea of what inspection duty covers.
The list is as follows:
PRELIMINARY OFFICIAL TRIALS; INSPECTOR OF MACHINERY SUBMITS CERTIFICATES, REPORTS AND OTHER PAPERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE TRIAL BOARD.
Certificate of the exact weight of machinery under cognizance of the Bureau of Steam Engineering, in accordance with the contract for the above-mentioned vessel.
Certificate that the machinery is strong and well built.
Certificate that the machinery is complete in accordance with the contract.
Certificate of the calibration of feed water measuring tanks.
Certificate regarding quantity of bagged coal, and weighing of same.
Certificate of tests of ash hoist engines and gear.
Certificate of tests of engine room signal gongs.
Itemized list of unfinished work under cognizance of the Bureau of Steam Engineering.
Itemized list of work under cognizance of the Bureau of Steam Engineering (Electrical) to be completed by the government after delivery of the vessels.
Recommendations and suggestions to the Trial Board regarding alterations and additions.
Table of tests of steam and vacuum gauges.
Reports of tests of auxiliaries, as follows:
Horse-power curves of auxiliaries.
Test of ice machines and cold storage plant.
Test of workshop tools.
Test of generating plant (48-hour).
Quantity of fuel oil on board, and method of measuring.
Calibration curve of Gary-Cummings Torsion Meters, and affidavit regarding correctness of same.
Calibration of main engine shafting, and shaft horse-power constants.
Propeller measurements.
Synopsis of machinery and hull data, Bureau of Steam Engineering Form No. 77
Coal bunker measurement calculations, and capacity curves.
Certificate of boiler safety valve setting.
Test of evaporator and distiller plant.
The Detailed Drawings and How Handled.—The Departments contract plans upon which the estimates for bids are made do not exhibit the details. Outline and general arrangements are shown, to be read in connection with the specification describing material and sizes of main parts, but making the detailed drawings for each part is the business of the contractor, and it is in working out these details that the skill, experience, and engineering ability of the contractor's designing force is brought into the lime light, and makes for superior or inferior results. The tendency naturally is towards conservatism, and it will be found that radical departures from known "good enough" designs, that are acceptable to the government, are few and far between, simply because of the greater safety in play of that kind. It is up to the contractor to realize such results as will avoid the penalties noted in the contract for defect and default, and it is for this reason, and for lack of funds for large experimental work that we are slow to initiate, generally following the more venturesome and enterprising engineering of the "other side" instead of leading.
Hence the majority of detailed drawings of machinery submitted by a contractor for approval are similar in design to approved drawings for former vessels, modified only in dimensions. The detail drawings, as completed, are sent to the inspector, each accompanied by a letter in duplicate, in which should be stated all the departures from the specifications embodied in the plan. This, however, is not always done, and while it is of great advantage to have the drawings presented with this information, it does not relieve the inspector from the responsibility of the completeness of the list, and which compels him to have a most careful scrutiny made by the draftsman in charge of checking up these details. It is at these times that the inspector particularly studies the specifications and it is of the highest importance that he has the assistance of a very superior marine engine and boiler draftsman (for machinery office), and an excellent electrical draftsman for the electrical equipment, to make these careful studies and bring to him a synopsis of discrepancies found that are not simple mistakes of the contractor's draftsman, readily corrected. The drawings could go forward formally, simply calling attention to departures from the specifications and recommending approval or disapproval, and putting the detail up to the Bureau for further study; but a preferable method of handling1 this work can best be shown through the following slightly digressive paragraphs.
The inspector will find that as time goes on inquiries will be made of him by the contractors, by letter, as to why certain drawings, submitted weeks before, are held up, and he will perhaps find that these either have only just been forwarded to the Bureau or are still piled up on the waiting list. Sometimes, of course (although seldom), the delay is at the Bureau. Such inquiries are annoying and compel definite reply or explanation, and no inspector cares to say it is because he is short handed or over-crowded if he can avoid it, because with proper distribution of work he may not be. The facts will usually put the real blame on the contractor for sending in drawings in bunches instead of in a fairly continuous manner, and putting on an overload for which the office is not rated. The real cause, however, is lack of co-ordination between the inspector and builder in the designing work.
If the inspector shows a keen interest in design and is tactful, he can make himself persona grata to the designing department of the contractor and, by avoiding all supercilious criticisms, can gain a foreknowledge of what is to be submitted that will be most helpful in expediting the final approval. In fact it would be of greatest advantage if the chief draftsman of the inspector's office could always go over with the chief draftsman of the contractor all new designs in the pencil, before tracings are made and prints struck off, and note or correct all discrepancies at this time. To all novel features the inspector's personal attention could then be called and a brief discussion secured, while if the inspector, through his personal experience has suggestions of value to offer at this time in direction of overcoming some inconvenience or difficulty in actual service, he may be sure of an intelligent hearing and a cheerful willingness to change if it is really an obvious improvement. There can be no question of the mutual advantages of this co-ordination, in getting before the Bureau drawings with a clear and full criticism, and with intelligent and reasonable recommendations, and not simply present the data and let the Bureau hoe its own row in deciding, or have the contractors personally discuss with the Bureau, in improving the inspector's value as a just critic.
The standard size of drawings for machinery (27 x 40 inches or multiples of that size) permits drawing in arrangements and details to a good working scale and allows most of the details to appear on the same sheet as the assembled part shown. The titles should be clear and in large type in lower right-hand corner, the drawing number in particular being made in larger and more prominent figures than the balance of title subject matter. A good system for numbering is to give every contract a number and incorporate that number as a prefix to the drawing number. Should there be many parts to a contract a composite drawing number is most useful, e. g., drawing number 100-500-5 would mean contract 100, section or part 500, sheet of that part 5.
This facilitates tracing work in the shops and in the records of the drawing rooms, general offices and accounting department. The scale should always be sufficiently large to enable all dimensions to be easily read, and dimensions should not be unnecessarily repeated. This mistake in putting all possible dimensions on each view of a part has led to many shop troubles and losses through using the wrong dimension, for, in checking up drawings, it is frequently found that one dimension is not correct, and in changing this the draftsman sometimes overlooks the correction of the same dimension in another view, and the uncorrected dimension is the one which the workman, through some blind fatality, will be sure to use.
Finished drawings for filing and permanent record must be made on the glazed side of tracing cloth and must be veritable tracings in good India ink, of the original drawing with all connections or approved changes shown thereon. The original drawing is of course in pencil, and is generally traced off for the purpose of securing blue prints to submit for approval and for shop use, but a careful and skilful draftsman can design in pencil on the dull side of tracing cloth and ink in the original for printing purposes, or in cases of sketch work, secure blue prints from the pencil drawing and save much time thereby.
Cross hatching for "sections" is far preferable to coloring, as it shows up so positively on blue prints and renders them much easier to read in the shops. It is our custom to resort to coloring very seldom, although abroad the opposite is the case, and coloring is applied to a great majority of drawings and prints, quickly, and by a trained force of young people at low wages.
Each drawing is required to have shown upon it a complete "list of parts," and each separate piece of a detail drawing must have a "piece number" clearly printed and "tied " to it by reference line. There is no uniformity in the practice of the several shipbuilding establishments relative to the data and arrangement of this list of parts, nor is the inclusion of calculated weights adopted by any of them. In reference to the work of making out weight sheets noted under the next following section, it will be readily seen that such a column, if filled in on all detail drawings submitted, would be found most useful as a comparative check on the work and, besides this, the ever present weight record of each part of the machinery, on the drawing of that part, would most obviously be of great and frequent value to the engineer officer of the vessel, and to any one "reading" the drawing for full information. Some shipbuilders use the term "mark" for "piece number," and some put in column for weight with nothing in it. A model scheme for this list of parts would be headed "List of Parts for One Complete Ship," and would have the full data in columns under the following headings and sequence: Piece No., Name of Part, Number Required, Material, Pattern or Die No., Est. Weight, and a head column for Remarks. All other data, found useful only to the builder in his work, should be excluded from the detail prints and finished drawings furnished the government.
In checking up drawings (blue prints) with specifications and record of approved changes, it is a good plan to use a yellow pencil for marking errors or questionable points, and a red pencil for checking off the correct points.
The following scales should be used in preparing plans: 3/8-inch and ½-inch for general arrangements of piping showing details; ½-inch and ¼-inch for general arrangements of piping showing outline only; 1-inch and 1 ½-inch for assembly arrangements of engines and machinery; not less than 1 ½-inch for details of engine and machinery parts, 3-inch being more generally used than any other. All lettering, figuring and dimension lines should be clear and distinct, a square hand being preferable on account of being more easily read. No colored inks should be used. Where possible, dimensions should be given outside the figure, especially if the figure is in section. When the drawing is not to scale the dimension should be underscored by a heavy line so that the discrepancy is readily noted.
An office record print should always be retained of each plan submitted, and upon this should be recorded date of receipt from contractors or outside party, date of return to same. Letter number, and date of, and office file number. This does not entail much additional work if a rubber stamp is used for this date with properly arranged headings, while the great convenience of the record and time saved in searching files thereafter is obvious.
Changes.—It will be found that the one impossible thing to do is to have a contract carried out exactly as originally specified. With the constant advance in the mechanical arts, and the improvements that are continually being devised by those whose minds are devoted to such work, there are always some features of the specification for a warship which, between the time of their compilation and that of their practical application, develop "wrinkles" or some other signs of approaching senility, or else are shown to be unnecessarily complicated. In such cases changes are prepared either by the government or builders tending to improve matters, and each of these changes is treated separately and in detail as effecting the cost of the work. As soon as the Department approves of a change it directs that the matter of its cost be referred to the Board of Changes, which is a conference of somewhat permanent character, meeting at such times as the accumulation of pending subjects demands, and deciding upon the amount to be deducted from or added to the contract price for each change approved.
Before this board acts upon any item the inspector has prepared a detailed estimate of the cost of the new arrangement or modification, as well as the probable cost if the work was done as originally specified, and this preparation requires good judgment, mechanical experience and a knowledge of current labor and material costs. It is a part of the duty of the chief draftsman of the inspector's office to work out these estimates, independent of the calculation of the contractor, as, although a stated sum has been given by the latter in the proposing or accepting letters, the legal adjustment is the answer of the board, and the proper estimate becomes a matter of serious consequence as regards the final cost of the vessel.
In deciding the final amount of increased or decreased cost for any change, the board listens to the argument of the contractor's representative and his statement in detail, as well as going over carefully the office estimates, and it is therefore necessary that these estimates be presented clearly and logically; and in this work the inspector will soon realize the value of his chief draftsman.
Sometimes it happens that, while the cost of an approved change is less than that of the originally specified work, the resultant modification is of such distinct benefit to the vessel and the government as to entirely offset the deduction, and it is the duty of the inspector to make such recommendations to the Department or Bureau concerned as will bring the fairest treatment to the contractors possible, under all the circumstances of the building. This effect on the value of the completed ship is not always considered as broadly as it should be, and while there is danger in any loose method of dealing with changes, the reasons for, and the final effect upon, efficiency should count in special alterations, with decided favoring of the contractors in cases of doubt. All changes are in line of improvement, and where a contract is made to build a vessel according to a general design and a detailed specification, and the contractor can greatly improve upon that design in some detail and show a better result than was called for, either by a simplification or modification, it gives him little encouragement in such effort if a corresponding reduction is made in the amount paid him, due to an estimated reduced cost to him in the physical incorporation of the change. One may imagine such cases arising, as the writer has realized them, and while most of the changes are minor or do not come in this class at all, it would appear that in the class referred to an estimate on the value of this new design itself could well be considered by the board.
Weights.—When one considers the vast number of elements comprising a modern battleship, and realizes even in a modest degree the calculations necessary to produce such a vessel of a displacement closely predetermined, and a speed within a fraction of a knot of that stipulated, he can, while marveling at the accuracy of the designs and the wonderfulness of the results, appreciate the importance of estimated weights for every part and their approximate coincidence with the actual. No such results as are now possible could have been approached without a vast collection of correct data, and their arrangement and tabulation in groups so as to permit handling the many details in " blocks" as it were, and estimating the weight of groups from a knowledge of their components. In machinery where the varieties of appurtenances are manifold and where the main engines themselves have changed so completely during the past decade, it is most essential that each contract shall contribute its share of accurate information regarding relative weight and power so that increased facility shall be given to the work of designing new vessels to meet desired requirements.
The estimates for weight of machinery of the several types are made upon previous results and their indications, and are approximately as follows: Reciprocating machinery for battleships and heavy vessels, with the B. & W. boilers, 10 ½ horsepower per ton of machinery; turbine machinery for same class, 15 horsepower per ton of machinery, while with Express type of boilers and turbine machinery for destroyers it is estimated at 25 horsepower per ton. To preserve a proper regard for the importance of this feature, there is attached to each contract a penalty for overweight of machinery, the upper limit being stipulated clearly in the contract, so that builders are mulcted $500 per ton of excess of such weight for battleships, and half of that for destroyers, and the actual weight of every piece entering into the construction is ascertained most carefully before it is put in place.
It is the inspector's duty to secure the record of the weights as the parts are prepared, and for this purpose he must not only have a weight clerk present at the scales, but must check up from the drawings by estimating the weights of all the details of parts that are built by contractors, and not bought or installed in an assembled unit susceptible of being weighed and tabulated as such a separate item. These are, however, listed so as not to overlook any piece in obtaining the weights from the records, yet even with all these precautions some remarkable instances of omission have occurred, such as leaving out entirely the weight of one smoke pipe—the error being caught by comparing weights with those of a sister ship building at another ship yard.
A good engine and boiler draftsman is needed for these calculations and the proper tabulation of weights in groups, and his exactness and care will save a world of trouble such as comes when the reported weights on board do not at all account for the draft. The groups referred to for these weights are:
I. Main engines, casings, etc.
II. Shafting and couplings.
III. Line and propeller shaft bearings.
VI. Main condensers.
VII. Main air and circulating pumps.
VIII. Propellers.
IX. Boilers.
XL Uptakes, smoke pipes and guys.
XII. Steam and exhaust pipes and valves.
XIII. Suction and discharge pipes and valves.
XIV. Lagging and clothing.
XV. Floorings, gratings, etc.
XVI. Auxiliaries.
XVII. Fittings and gear.
XVIII. Water.
XIX. Stores, tools and spares carried on board.
XX. Miscellaneous machinery.
XXII. Connections to other miscellaneous.
It will be found that the weights added to or subtracted from the contract weight through approved changes sometimes even up quite fairly. As an illustration there were 30 approved changes in the machinery of the Arkansas, which involved an increase of 60,830 pounds, and a decrease of 47,775 pounds, leaving but 13,055 pounds, or 5.825 tons to add to the 2095 tons specified in the contract, through this cause.
Finished Tracings.—Where there are several contracts active under the inspector, it will be necessary to have another draftsman to check up the finished drawings which the contractor must furnish at the end of each contract. These sets of carefully made tracings must be of standard size and embody every change approved or made, and otherwise accurately show the object as actually built, and when one realizes that there are between 1200 and 1300 plans for a modern battleship (hull, machinery, ordnance, and equipment), he will understand the magnitude of this work. In making these tracings the contractors, knowing that the inspector must check them up, often fails to make a proper effort to discover all mistakes or omissions at first, and the inspector will do well to insist on care in this particular, tb avoid delay and the return of tracings to them for correction. From these finished tracings all the blue prints are made for issue to the vessel and to the various yards, and mistakes, if allowed to remain, would possibly be productive of serious consequences.
Booklets.—It is customary now to require a set of reduced size drawings of general arrangements, pipe plans and such of the details as are most liable to be in frequent use, and have them lithographed and supplied by the contractors in flexible cover booklets for handy reference on board ship. These must be also carefully checked up as they are not always photographic reductions of finished tracings, but are made specially to clearly show certain distinctive features or plans on each sheet.
Ship and Shop Inspection.
The details of office procedure, while necessary to the work, do not appear to the future inspector to be as important a part of the duty as does the actual physical inspection of the material and workmanship entering into the construction of the vessels under his charge. In this latter work his responsibilities seem entirely practical, and his guardianship of the public interests here has its final exercise with no possible recall of decisions. Let us, therefore, define as closely as possible the proper lines upon which he can proceed with safety, and at the same time see how he is assisted in the prevention of unsatisfactory results. Anyone, however, expecting to find in these notes a clear and definite guide through all the "maze" will be disappointed, because "there ain't no such animal."
While the good inspector becomes so through experience, a study of the requirements, and a common sense application of these to the work in hand, assurance can be given the inexperienced which should be of comfort, and that is that if the inspector will bear constantly in mind that nothing but the very best material and workmanship will satisfy the contract, he will be saved many a period of uncertainty; and possibly also of regret and anxiety at having accepted something doubtful through a too lenient consideration of the losses of the builders attendant upon the condemnation of an expensive part. He must remember that nothing has done so much towards bringing material and shop methods up to their present excellence as has the framing of high grade specifications and compelling the contractors to live up to them through having the work supervised by officers; men devoted to the interests of the government and beyond suspicion of corruption or of venal laxity. These inspectors, by their consistent rejection of inferior or defective material or workmanship, have made necessary on the part of designers, manufacturers of material, and of shop supervisors, a continuous study of the possibilities in improvements which has resulted in production of such uniform grades of material which, at the time of the writer's first duty at a ship yard, would have been considered absolutely impracticable; and has also revolutionized design and workmanship in marine engineering construction. Therefore, it will be seen that while rigid inspection is, at times, mercilessly cruel to the immediate gain of the builders, it nevertheless ultimately works to their highest advantage, and adds each year to their ability to produce better and more perfect results.
As it is quite inconceivable that perfection in either material or workmanship will be ever secured, the nearest practical approach to it, consistent with requirements of the service demanded of the parts, is all that should be aimed at. This does not mean any deviation from the specifications that are intentional, no matter how much lee-way might be allowed for an accidental discrepancy. In the latter cases, a full and careful consideration should be given to the particulars of the fault or defect in relation to the effect it will have on the service of that piece, and when it is found obviously inconsequential, there should be no question of passing it; exactly as would be the case were the inspector paying for the vessel himself. It is a pertinent query to put to one's self in these cases, "Would I take it if I were buying it for myself." If the consequences of using the parts are doubtful at all, the same directness should accompany its rejection, so as to permit the ordering another part at the earliest moment. There should be no doubts accompanying acceptance. If the matter is one of serious difference of opinion and the contractors desire to go beyond the inspector, it should be with his full written statement to the Bureau of his reasons for rejection, and fully shift the responsibility of overruling him to the Bureau, or whoever it is delegated to. Sometimes hardships are no doubt inflicted upon the contractor by rejecting what would be absolutely as good as a perfect part. but the moment laxity is shown in the matter of allowing "good enough" to equal excellent, when excellent has been stipulated, the efforts to produce excellent will be a little bit relaxed also, and a precedent in official action of this kind will have been established that will have a most persistent way of embarrassing future decisions.
Decisions should not be delayed a moment longer than it takes to get at the facts, or the positive existence of a reasonable doubt. It is money saved to the contractor to have decisions made promptly, one way or the other, and they justly appreciate a man who will not dilly-dally over a defect, nor take questions of acceptance home to think over and prepare a decision for next week. This must not be construed with advocating hasty or arbitrary action. If the inspector does not feel qualified to personally declare upon the fitness of a part, he should consult his assistants of more experience in the particular work, and if he does feel himself so qualified he should still consult his assistants so as to avoid overlooking some pertinent reasons for or against, which may not have occurred to him. He should always have a reason and state it, but he should not argue over a fact.
All parts purchased from sub-contractors in a finished state, such as boilers, tubes, blowers, pumps, in machines, etc., and all castings and forgings made by sub-contractors for final machining by the contractor, are inspected by other officers detailed for outside material inspection, and in this degree the shipyard inspector is primarily assisted in a large field. He accepts these parts subject to final tests on board ship or to rejection for defects developed in machining.
As the inspector cannot personally be in the shops or on ship board more than an hour or two a day, he must have his representatives, special mechanics skilled in machine work, always on the job. One at least should be in the shops and one on each large ship as soon as installation is begun, and the duty of these men is to keep the inspector daily posted as to defects, or of important work approaching in line of tests which he would prefer to witness himself.
In the larger items of shop work, and those in which accuracy and excellence of work and material directly affect the results of the trial trip, the contractor's interests are paramount, and there will be found little to criticize that will not be discovered and made good on the builder's own initiative. Clearances, journals and bearings, balancing of shafting and rotors, and of propellers, and making tight joints, all must be cared for in the best manner to bring about a satisfactory performance in engine operation and in water consumption.
The largest field for inquisitive inspection is that of castings, especially of iron or steel, and in this the inspector will find it necessary to remind himself of the guiding principle very often—"Only the best material and workmanship." In large iron castings, as of rotor casings or cylinders, there is need of assuring oneself of having the proper thickness of metal in the walls, with proper allowance for machining, and especially must the flanges measure fully up to the design after carefully noting the drop which the boring of a rotor casing will bring about, and upon which the final thickness of flanges will depend. Far better have them too thick than even a sixteenth thinner than called for. In parts of such importance and costs, there is no economy in allowing machining to proceed when positive indications are that the part will not measure up or will be a little short of dimensions when finished. Call it off at once, and if it appears to be within a fair margin of safety, refer the matter to the designing bureau immediately with exact figures, and do not assume any authority to accept short measure yourself, at least in flanges or in the steel castings for high pressure parts. It is usually under the test pressure that defects are found. One here must look closely for cracks and at once reject a cracked valve body no matter what metal it is made of. Sometimes a slightly porous condition will show up under the very severe hydraulic pressure put upon these bodies and yet not actually indicate a spongy spot in a bad sense. Slight caulking or peening will sometimes fully stop this acceptably, but spongy spots can be discovered by the peen hammer also, and an expert will readily show up the difference. After machining, steam valves are tested under steam pressure, also to see if distortion from expansion prevents the valve from seating tightly, and in cases of the "double poppet" throttle valves of Destroyers, the greatest difficulty was experienced in this direction. It is interesting to study the designs of the larger steam valves and see the difficulties in the way of getting a "cold and hot tight" valve.
Electric welding may be allowed by the Bureau when the replacement is a serious expense or a cause of great delay to the vessel. This has been done with very satisfactory results in numberless cases abroad and at home, but in contract work it should not be permitted without a six months' guarantee after delivery of vessel.
The special mechanics must look closely after test numbers and inspector's stamps on material from outside sub-contractors, and should not permit removal of identification stamp until transferred to another part of the piece. Parts as finished should be weighed, stamped and recorded for final computation of weight sheets. Spare parts must be inspected, checked, boxed and boxes clearly marked with note of contents.
The witnessing and record of shaft calibration under torque must be carefully carried out, as the great value of the data is obvious in trial results.
Ship Inspection.—In installing machinery the general layout, as designed, generally will be followed very closely in the main elements, but in the case of the adjuncts and accessories thereto, much latitude is reserved and changes in location of auxiliaries or in run of piping are not only frequent but, for best results, must be made by personal observation of the compartments, and a practical sizing up of the several possible arrangements by temporary placements. The guide-word for this part of the work is accessibility—always accessibility. The inspector must be keenly alive to the fact that overhaul and repair work must often be done at sea, and in a hurry, and he must not permit a valve, pipe joint, cylinder, steam chest cover, or any other removable part to be located where its "undoing" will be the undoing of the worker. It is easy to prevent such faults in the original installation, but so difficult to correct them afterwards, that the writer most earnestly urges that the query be ever kept in mind "Are the removable parts readily accessible?" and then work to secure the very best arrangement it is possible to obtain.