The Italian-Turkish War (Continued)
By Commodore W.H. Beehler, U. S. Navy.
(Compiled and translated from the Marine Rundschau, and other sources.)
The Cost Of The War.
The approved estimates in the Italian Parliament, in March, 1912, show that for the period of five months ending February 29, 1912, the current war expenses amounted to $41,495,000, of which $5,790,000 was for the navy, and $35,705,000 for the army; besides which $2,045,800 was expended for special purposes. $18,914,000 of the amount expended for the army included the cost of mobilization and conduct of the war—transportation of troops, maintenance of personnel, purchase of horses, ammunition, and war material—for the troops in Africa; and $11,966,000 was expended to replace the personnel and war material transported to Africa in the standing army in Italy, and for organizing additional forces in Italy.
The $5,790,000 expended for the navy was for the extraordinary expense of maintenance, transportation, the increased complements of ships and subsistence with cost of fuel and material consumed.
The special sum of $2,045,800 was for harbor improvements at Tripoli, Horns, Benghasi and Derna, as well as for telegraph, telephone, and sanitary service in North Africa. This sum also defrayed the cost of laying new cables from Syracuse to Tripoli, and Syracuse to Benghasi.
The expenses of the army and navy thus estimated at $42,140,ooo will be covered by the saving in the budget of 1910-11, some $11,172,000, and that of 1911-12—estimated at $14,504,000— together with $16,464,000 to be deducted from the regular budgets in the fiscal years 1912-13 to 1917-18. The apparently low cost of the war has been maintained by the economical administration of the finances, and this expense amounts to about $260,680 per day. But an accurate estimate of the total cost of the war, of course, cannot be given until after the war is over, because there are many details that are not considered in the present estimates. Expert financiers estimate that the war has in the period ending February 29, 1912, cost a total of $57,900,000, or at a daily rate of $386,000.
The Italian finances were thus in favorable condition, especially as the administration received a large surplus by economy in the budgets during the recent years. The Italian people were willing to make great sacrifices for this war, so that there was no lack of money on the part of Italy to still further prosecute the conquest of Tripoli.
The Turks spent, up to the beginning of February, about twenty million francs chiefly for establishing the new coast defences. February I, the war minister received an appropriation of $44361.320 for coast defences.
The friendly offices of neutral powers to re-establish peace between the belligerents failed. On March 9 the diplomatic representatives of Germany, Austria, England, France, and Russia took a united step for this purpose with the Italian government at Rome. They asked confidentially upon what terms Italy would agree to suspend hostilities. The Italian government replied March 15, according to the Corriere delta Sera, as follows:
Italy demands that Turkey shall recognize Italy's absolute sovereignty over the African provinces and withdraw all Turkish officers and troops from Africa, strictly forbidding Turkish officers to lead the Arabs in opposing the Italians; and Italy will then cease hostilities in all parts of the Turkish empire and reduce the imposts on Turkish goods to the former rates. Italy will, on the other hand, recognize the religious Caliphat and give amnesty to all natives. Italy will assume that part of the Turkish debt apportioned to Tripoli, and will purchase the Turkish government property situated in Tripoli from the Turkish government. Italy further promises to agree, with other powers, to preserve the integrity of the Turkish empire.
The Italian parliamentary discussion proves that the nation fully agreed with the chief demands of the Italian government.
It also appears that Russia had assembled troops on Trans-Caucasian frontier, had recalled the Russian Ambassador Tscharvkow—who was in Constantinople for many years—and replaced him by Von Giers, the former minister in Bucharest. The Russian press also reported that a Russian fleet was ready to proceed to the Bosphorus in case the Italians forced the passage of the Dardanelles.
The Sultan presented the Shiek of Senoussi with a sword set with diamonds, a decoration, and other precious gifts in gratitude for his support of the war against the Italians.
Turkey replied to Italy's claim by reasserting her claim to full sovereignty over her African provinces, and the Arabians were determined to continue their resistance to the Italian conquest under all conditions. The Arabian representatives in Constantinople declared that they will continue the war even if Turkey yields the annexation of these provinces to Italy.
During the middle of March the Arabians in Tripoli and Cyrenaica elected delegates to the Turkish Parliament in Constantinople, and declared that the Italian proclamation of annexation of these two provinces to Italy was null and void.
Military Operations Up To The Middle Of March, 1912.
The Turks determined to vigorously prosecute the war in Tripoli and Cyrenaica, and incessantly attacked the Italians at all points. At Tripoli the Italians were kept constantly alarmed by these attacks by day and night. The Italians also failed after repeated attempts to capture Zanzur which was occupied by the Turks in force, and which they fortified with artillery and machine guns. In attacks against Zanzur the Italians used, with but little effect, two dirigible balloons arranged for throwing various kinds of bombs and hand grenades.
The Italians collected 3000 burden-bearing camels and 300 riding camels for the camel corps in Tripoli. A battalion of Askaris and a camel riding detachment arrived from Erythrea late in February, and was vigorously attacked by Arabs on March 4 at Bir-el-Turki, the Askaris were routed, and only managed to escape into Tripoli under cover of darkness with heavy losses.
A Turkish attack on Ain Zara was repulsed on March 10. Malarial fever broke out in the camp at Ain Zara, and the garrison was relieved by other Italian troops. A portion of the camp adjoining a swamp was abandoned, and an advanced entrenchment was captured by the Turks and gave rise to a report that Italians had abandoned Ain Zara.
A narrow-gauge railroad from Tripoli to Ain Zara was completed as far as Fornaci, which is 7 kilometers from Tripoli. The Italians built a field construction railroad to the stone quarries at Gargaresch for stone to build the breakwater at Tripoli.
At dawn of February 27, the Italian garrison at Horns surprised the Turks on the Mergheb heights, about four kilometers from the town and practically commanding the town. The bulk of the Turkish troops had been decoyed from the heights to oppose a feigned landing of Italians from a squadron of transports that appeared off Sliten, about 20 miles east of Homs. The Italians meanwhile entrenched their position on Mergheb heights so that when the bulk of the main body of the Turks returned from Sliten that evening, the Italians defeated them in their efforts to retake the heights. Subsequently the heights were strongly fortified and the Turks could not dislodge the Italians from their commanding position.
There were many fierce combats at Benghasi from March 8 to March 12. After these were repelled General Ameglio led a force of 7 battalions, with cavalry and artillery, to the oasis at Fogat, where he captured 500 Arabs after a desperate resistance. For this brilliant victory Major-General Ameglio was promoted to lieutenant-general.
Attacks by the Turks at Derna on March 3, and at Mirsa Tobruk on March n were repulsed with difficulty.
In these engagements in Cyrenaica during the month ending March 15, 1912, the Italians lost 193 killed and 350 wounded.
There was no probability of any decided advance by the Italians into the interior in the immediate future. The commander-in-chief, Lieutenant-General Canera, convinced the government at Rome that successful advances into the interior can only be made very gradually, and must be accompanied by railroad construction that will secure every step that may be gained. The chief of staff, Major-General Gastaldello, who originally advocated vigorously pushing the campaign into the interior, was relieved and replaced by Major-General Ciancio.
There was no probability of any substantial increase to reinforce the 100,000 troops in Africa, March 15.
The reserves serving in Africa were, however, relieved by men of the active army.
A German Red Cross detachment succeeded in reaching Gharian about March 1. This detachment consisted of three surgeons and 12 nurses, two of whom died of typhoid fever en route via Tunis. They attended the sick and wounded in the Turkish camp at Gharian.
At the beginning of April, 1912, the bulk of the Italian naval forces was in the home ports undergoing repairs and recruiting as in peace. Several divisions of torpedo boats and the four auxiliary cruisers, the Duca-di-Genova, Duca-Degli-Abruzsi, Citta-di-Palermo and Citta-di-Messina, cruised along the Turkish Mediterranean coasts and searched merchant ships of all nationalities for contraband of war. The naval forces stationed off the north coast of Africa participated in small engagements with the land forces on the coast; among other smaller engagements the Etna bombarded Hoeifa, a small place near Benghasi.
Vice-Admiral Faravelli was obliged to give up the command on account of a severe nervous ailment, and he was succeeded on April 9, 1912, by Vice-Admiral Viale, who had shortly before this assumed command of the second squadron. Vice-Admiral Amero d'Aste took command of the second squadron.
After the training of the new Italian recruits was completed, the reserves of 1887 were relieved.
The fourth division, comprising three Garibaldis, were in the harbors of Cyrenaica, partly at Tobruk and partly in the Gulf of Bomba. It is said that Bomba, which is 55 nautical miles west of Tobruk, will be the future naval port on the African Mediterranean coast. The reason for this change is stated to be that the magnificent harbor of Tobruk lacks adequate supply of potable water, and that there is an ample supply of potable water at Bomba, which can also be easily defended by means of the islands of Menelaus and Bomba that command the approaches to the bay. The depths of water and anchorages are about the same at Tobruk and Bomba, but the serviceable area of the harbor at Bomba is considerably greater. The anchorage at Bomba is only 70 kilometers from Derna, with which it could readily be connected by a railroad. In case Bomba should be selected as the Italian naval port, Tobruk would serve for a base for light naval forces.
As soon as the report of the occupation of Bomba was circulated a large portion of the Turkish-Arabian forces besieging Tobruk was withdrawn to Bomba.
The schoolship squadron of three Sardfgtuis reinforced by two armored cruisers under Vice-Admiral Borea Ricci resumed operations against Zuara. This force was joined by the armored cruisers Carlo Alberto and Marco Polo, with the auxiliary cruisers Citta-di-Catania and Citta-di-Syracusa, six torpedo boats, three naval tugs and three transports having the two battalions of grenadiers on board, that sailed from Tripoli westward along the coast on April 8, 1912, for Zuara. En route the latter force bombarded coast places and finally anchored, April 9, 2000 meters distant from the coast in the newly surveyed harbor at Zuara.
The naval vessels began to bombard the town and fired shells all day at intervals of five minutes until night. The next rooming 20 armed boats put off from the three transports and, favored good weather, made a feint at landing. The armored cruisers at the same time vigorously bombarded the town. This bombardment, however, caused no serious damage, but with the feigned landing had the effect of deceiving the enemy and prevented them from opposing the landing of the Garioni division of infantry at a point about 40 kilometers northwest of Zuara. This division of about 10,000 men had embarked at Augusta in 7 transports during the night of April 7 and under the convoy of the schoolship division arrived during the night of April 10 at the peninsula of Macabez on the Tunisian border. With the support of the warships, including a number of torpedo vessels, Agordai, Iride, and 6 high-sea torpedo boats, that had sailed from Tripoli and had met the convoy at sea en route. The navy immediately sounded out a channel and a landing place in this difficult locality that enabled the army to begin landing at 3 a. m. and complete the disembarkation the same day without any disturbance by the enemy.
By noon the next day a detachment of naval brigade and Askaris also took possession of the small fort Forwa, or Bu Kamez at the southern end of the Macabez peninsula about 35 kilometers from Zuara.
The Turkish-Arabian forces did not appear until after the Italians had secured possession of this fort and that attack was repulsed. The Italians then still further fortified their positions on the peninsula and prepared for their advance upon Zuara from this new base.
A small bay 6 miles long and 1 ½ miles wide served as a good anchorage for the Italian vessels, and this place has been established as a torpedo boat station for the Italian torpedo craft.
April 12 the Italian military balloons P-2 and P-3 arrived from Tripoli. These balloons had reconnoitered the Turkish-Arabian positions at Zuara, and gave the Italians at Fort Bu Kamez written descriptions of the enemy's strength and positions at Zuara. The balloons then returned off Zuara, where by means of four small anchors, the balloons were anchored close to the Italian warships from which they, were supplied with gas and benzine. They then returned to Tripoli, 120 kilometers distant, after an absence from Tripoli of about 12 hours.
The transportation of contraband of war from Tunis via the coast road Ben Gardane was thus cut by the Italian occupation of Bu Kamez. This obliged the contraband trade to take the more difficult and longer route via Dehibat-Nalut, about 150 kilometers further in the interior.
Although reports of Italian operations in the Aegean Sea had subsided the Turks continued to maintain their defences in readiness, especially in regards to the mine fields in the Dardanelles. The Turkish fleet remained inactive in the Straits of Dardanelles, off Nagara.
April 13 the Italian first squadron, consisting of the Vittorio Emanuele, Roma, Napoli and three armored cruisers of the Pisa class, sailed from Tarento with the Vettor Pisani, flagship of the Duke of Abruzzia, and a number of flotillas of torpedo boats. The press reported that this fleet had sailed for Tripolitan waters to relieve the naval vessels operating there, but the fleet went to the Aegean Sea to make a naval demonstration on the Turkish coasts. Simultaneously the second squadron sailed from Tobruk and Augusta for the same destination. This force comprised the flagship Regina Margherita, Benedetto Brin, St. Bon, E. Filiberto, three armored cruisers of the Garibaldi class, three auxiliary cruisers and three naval colliers.
The fleet united during the night of April 17 near the island of Stampalia, west of Rhodes, and steamed the next morning at a speed of twelve knots to the northern part of the Aegean Sea, with the flotillas of torpedo destroyers in advance. The third division under Vice-Admiral Amero d'Aste remained in the southern part of the Aegean Sea.
The main body of the Italian fleet arrived in the northern extremity of the Aegean Sea during the night of April 18, and cut the cables between Imbros and the Dardanelles as well as that from Lemnos to Salonica and Tenedos. At dawn the fleet was off Enos. At 6.30 a. m., Vice-Admiral Viale steamed thence southward towards the western entrance of the Dardanelles with the Pisa and Amalfi well advanced in order to entice the Turkish squadron out of the Dardanelles. About 9 a. m. a Turkish torpedo chaser was sighted off the entrance but immediately withdrew within the straits upon the approach of the Garibaldi and Varese. The outer Turkish forts then opened fire from the four coast forts of the Dardanelles, Kum Kaleh and Orhanie on the Asiatic side, and Sedil-Bahr and Ertogrul on the European side. These partly modern fortifications mounted 18 heavy Krupp guns of 8-inches to n-inches caliber.
The Italian ships returned the fire at a range of about 8000 meters and fired for a period of two hours. The three ships of the first division bombarded the two forts on the European side and the five ships of the second and fourth divisions engaged the forts on the Asiatic side. Turkish reports estimate that the Italians fired 342 projectiles. The forts, especially Fort Orhanie, were severely damaged. The barrack buildings were hit frequently, and in the fort Sedil-Bahr alone the Turks suffered 15 men killed and 18 wounded.
The Turkish fire was ineffective, about 150 Turkish projectiles were fired. The Italian official report states that the Italian ships sustained no damage, and they expressly denied the Turkish reports that the Varese had been set on fire by the Turkish projectiles.
The Turks closed the Dardanelles to all shipping upon the appearance of the Italian fleet, and all the openings in the mine fields were closed.
While the main body of the fleet was engaged at the Dardanelles, the third division was active in the south. The battleship Emanitcle Filiberto arrived at 5 a. m. with the torpedo-boat Ostro, off Bathi, the chief port of the island of Samos which has 10,000 inhabitants, and without any notice immediately opened fire on the infantry barracks for 1200 men, and completely destroyed them. A Turkish gunboat that was in the harbor was sunk, the Italians claim, by a torpedo fired from the Ostro, while the Turks claim she was sunk by her own crew. The Italians departed immediately after sinking the gunboat.
The Regina Margherita and Benedetto Brin, each with a torpedo boat, cut the cable between Rhodes and Marmarice at both cable landings.
April 19 the main body of the Italian fleet started back to Italy leaving the third division with the Pisa Amalfi and a number of flotillas of torpedo boats to operate on the coast of Asia Minor and continue to destroy the cable communications. Among other places attacked they destroyed the telegraph station at Chios and that at Tschesme opposite Chios. They destroyed the radio station at Guelemich, opposite Rhodes, that formerly kept communication with the radio station at Derna, besides which they destroyed a telegraph station at Smyrna. These cable and telegraph stations were partly the property of the Turkish government, and partly belonged to the Eastern Telegraph Company.
The Italian fleet made this demonstration the day the House of Deputies opened its sessions in Constantinople with the newly elected delegates. The address from the Turkish throne on this occasion was: "The unjustifiable war waged by the Italians still continues notwithstanding the earnest desire for peace. We also desire peace, but we cannot make peace except upon the condition that the maintenance of our sovereign rights shall be preserved intact effectively."
The Italian press designated the naval demonstration a protest against the address from the throne, as the tenor of that address was anticipated.
Since sixty steamers with an average of 4000 register tons passed through the Dardanelles daily, neutral trade was badly crippled by closing the Straits of Dardanelles. French and Russian shippers complained to their ambassadors in Constantinople, and demanded damages from the Turkish government for stopping the commerce. The ambassadors and foreign governments, however, delayed action because the Turks declared, on April 19, that the Dardanelles would be open to commerce as soon as there appeared to be no immediate danger of further attacks by the Italians.
The reopening of the Dardanelles was, however, still postponed, because some Italian ships and destroyers continued to operate in the Aegean Sea.
As the Turks had long expected such an attack by the Italians they were fully prepared to resist it, and consequently the Italian attack did not cause any serious damage nor induce a panic among the people.
Speculators attempted to raise the price of provisions, whereupon the authorities in Constantinople published a decree that ample provisions were available in the government depots, and that the supply of provisions in the markets was ample. All persons concerned in efforts to raise the price of provisions would be summarily tried by martial law.
April 16 the representatives of the great powers interrogated the Sublime Porte to ascertain under what conditions Turkey would consider negotiations for peace. The Turkish reply was in substance that which was expressed in the address from the throne to Parliament.
Rear-Admiral Williams having retired from the duty of reorganizing the Turkish fleet, the British Rear-Admiral Limpus, on the active list, was appointed to relieve him, and he arrived at Constantinople about the end of April with his staff of British officers to train the Turkish navy.
The blockade in the Red Sea was extended to about double its former extent, and was declared to embrace the east coast of Arabia on the Red Sea for a distance of 83 nautical miles, from latitude 14° 30' N. to-15° 50' N., and included the ports of Hodeida, 2000 inhabitants, Loheija, of 45,000 inhabitants, and Kamaran Island. Neutral ships were allowed five days after the declaration of the blockade during which to leave those ports. Neutral ships engaged in transporting pilgrims to Mecca were allowed to visit the sanitary station on Kamaran Island upon condition that those vessels should pass the southern coasts of that island under the escort of an Italian blockading vessel. The Italians made much of the fact that pilgrimages to Mecca were not interrupted by the Italian blockaders.
After the Calabria returned to Italy, the Italians had, after the middle of April, the following naval forces in the Red Sea: The four protected cruisers, Piemonte, flagship, Puglia, Liguria. and Elba; the four gunboats, Aretusa, Caprcra, Voiturno and Governolo, the surveying ship Staffetta and the four destroyers, Artigliere, Bersagliere, Granatiere and Garibaldino.
Italian Military Operations In Africa.
During April the Italian military operations were comparatively quiet. The Turkish-Arabian forces attacked all the coast places occupied by the Italians, but were invariably repulsed without penetrating the Italian lines. A fanatical attack at Mirsa Tobruk was a desperate affair, but badly conducted and disastrously repulsed. Enver Bey claimed a victory at Derni but this was disputed by the Italians whose lines were not penetrated. The Italians did not make any advances into the interior and such an advance did not appear probable soon.
The expedition against Zuara that has been related under the naval operations was the most important of all the Italian operations in Africa in April.
Aeroplanes and balloons made frequent reconnoitering flights, and at times threw bombs upon the enemy with contradictory reported results.
The railroad from Tripoli to Ain Zara was put in operation March 19, and the field railroad to Gargaresch was being built.
The Turkish-Arabian forces in the interior were constantly reinforced, and it is estimated that they had from 15,000 to 20,000 troops before Tripoli. In Cyrenaica the Turks had about 40,000 troops, but they were outnumbered there by the Italians. In Cyrenaica the Arabs were temporarily weakened by the departure of numbers to cultivate their fields in the interior. The Arabs were still enthusiastic for continuing the war, and the reports of their being weary of the war are not well founded.
Twenty-three thousand Italian reservists, of the year 1888, were relieved from active war service in Africa; but there was some delay in getting these reserves home again, and there was consequently some dissatisfaction in regard to these reserves in Italy. New troops were being assembled during April at Naples to replace these reserves in Africa.
In the Red Sea the Arabian insurgent Said Idriss still co-operated with the Italians in the operations against the Turks in that region. Latest reports from Turkish sources claim that Said Idriss had been badly defeated by the Turks, but this lacks confirmation.
Naval Operations.
On April 17 the Italian navy established a rendezvous on the island of Astropalia, which has about 2500 inhabitants, as a base for all the auxiliary vessels of the Italian navy operating in the Aegean Sea. The auxiliaries comprised transports, colliers, distilling ships, tank ships, and ammunition ships. The Italians took possession on April 28, a naval force from the Pisa and Arnold of 250 men landing, and capturing the Turkish garrison of seven men. The large open bay on the southern coast of the island was made a temporary naval base, and all the vessels seized by the Italian torpedo boats in the Aegean Sea from Crete to Enos were brought here for action by prize courts.
The exact results of the Italian naval bombardment on April 19, at the Dardanelles, are disputed. It is, however, established that the damage inflicted by the heavy naval guns at 7000 meters as the forts was severe, as the Turkish batteries were frequently to and the Italians fired more projectiles than the Turks. The Italian; may have sustained some slight injury to the rigging of their ships but no serious damage.
But the immediate effect of the Italian naval demonstration was of much greater importance and interest to the commerce of Russia from the Black Sea ports.
The necessity of England's neutrality was emphasized in Parliament because of the vast number of British subjects among the Mahomedans and their interests, and, on the other hand, England's long traditional friendship with Italy.
The British trade was seriously damaged by closing the Dardanelles, but Viscount Morley pointed out that Turkey was justified by the treaties of Paris in 1856, of London in 1871, and Berlin of 1878, to close the Dardanelles as long as the Italian naval forces threatened the security of Constantinople.
April 20 the Russian government protested to the Sublime Porte against closing the Dardanelles by the Turks in violation of the Berlin treaty, and to the great injury of Russian commerce. This act seriously crippled the export trade of the Black Sea that amounts to about $315,000,000 annually, and which sum represents about 43 per cent of the entire export trade of Russia. Shipments of grain, ore, coal and petroleum were stopped. The grain trade was severely affected, the loss caused at Odessa alone is estimated at 300,000 roubles with a total loss of one and one-half million roubles. This grain was consigned to Italy, southern France, Switzerland, Belgium, England, and western Germany. The delayed exportation of coal was very serious, this trade had only recently been developed on the Don, and was urgently needed because of the coal strikes in England.
At the end of April 20 freight steamers were obliged to wait in the Black Sea ports with four passenger steamers of the Russian Steamship Company, one steamer of the Russian volunteer fleet, and 15 sailing ships. Six passenger steamers and one freight steamer were prevented from entering at this date. During the middle of May there were about 150 steamers laden with grain, coal, ore, naphtha, lumber, etc., laid up in the Russian Black Sea ports waiting for passage through the Dardanelles.
The expense incurred by each of these vessels amounted to between 200 and 400 roubles daily.
The Turkish government replied to the Russian protest that the Dardanelles could not be opened as long as the Italian naval vessels were in the vicinity, but at the beginning of May they yielded to the pressure of the powers, and after long delays finally reopened the Dardanelles on May 19.
Sixty mines had to be removed from the mine fields in the Straits of Dardanelles before it would be safe for vessels to attempt to pass. These mines were removed with great difficulty and required ten working days to clear a channel. One of the mine laying vessels, the tug Semendar, was blown up while working with the mines in the Dardanelles. Eight civilian employees and 15 military persons were drowned by this accident.
The passenger steamer Texas of the American Archipelago line struck a mine in going out of the harbor of Smyrna, and the explosion of the mine caused the ship to sink so rapidly that only one-half of the people on board were rescued by boats from vessels that immediately went to her assistance.
The Italians then decided to continue pressure upon Turkey by seizing the other islands in the Aegean Sea, especially the island of Rhodes.
This island is about ten miles from the coast of Asia Minor. It had 26,000 inhabitants including 17,000 Greeks. The Turkish garrison consisted of about 1000 infantry and artillery. This garrison was strengthened by a landwehr force of 10,000 native Mahomedans. Stores of provisions and ammunition magazine; were in the interior of the island. Major Abdullah had command of the Turks.
The Italian expeditionary army for the conquest of Rhode; consisted of about 9000 troops, three regiments of infantry, of which two were sent from Benghasi and one from Tobruk; one battalion of chasseurs that had been stationed at Tripoli with several small detachments of light field artillery, cavalry, sanitary detachments and train. The latter including a balloon park and aviation apparatus. Lieutenant-General Ameglio, recently promoted for his distinguished services at Benghasi, was in command of the expeditionary army.
The first and third divisions of the fleet were designated to cooperate with the army expeditionary corps in taking possess of Rhodes. The first division under the command of Vice-Admiral Viale left Tarento, April 30, for Rhodes via the provisional base at Astropalia. A number of transports were assembled at Tobrek with the third division of the fleet and flotillas of torpedo boats s convoy the expeditionary army. The waters in the vicinity of the island of Rhodes were in the meanwhile patrolled by torpedo boats, and a considerable number of Turkish sailing vessels were seized as prizes. On May 1 they cut the cable from Rhodes. Scarpanto, and Candia, so that Rhodes was thereafter without cable communication with the mainland. Turkish reports were transmitted by means of signals, but this method of communication was frequently interrupted, especially at night by the Italian searchlights.
The Italian army convoyed by the third division, under the command of Vice-Admiral Amero, left Tobruk at noon May and arrived off the city of Rhodes during the night of May 4.
While the vessels of the first and third divisions made a demonstration against the city, the transports, accompanied by torpedo boats went to Kalithea Bay, ten miles south of the city, on the east coast of the island. The troops were landed May 4 between 4 a. m., and 2 p. m., without opposition, and at 2 p. m. began to advance upon the city overland from the southward. A light detachment of Turkish troops that had left the city at noon to oppose the invaders were met on Smith Plateau and quickly dispersed while at the same time they were exposed to a bombardment by 11 Italian ships.
The Italian troops halted about 2 kilometers from the city at 7 p. m., and passed the night in that position. The Italian warships displayed their searchlights on the city during the entire night. The losses during the skirmishes with the advancing army were very slight. The Italians officially reported seven wounded. During the night the Turkish troops withdrew in small detachments to the west coast of the island via Trianda.
As soon as the troops had landed at Kalithea Bay Vice-Admiral Viale sent an officer to the Wall of Rhodes and demanded a surrender of the island. The Wali declared he could not resist the admiral and had no authority over the Turkish garrison; and he therefore declined under protest. The Admiral again demanded the surrender of the city the next morning with an ultimatum that if not granted within one hour he would proceed to bombard the city. The representative of the Turkish government thereupon yielded, and the Italian army and navy took possession at 10 a. m., May 5.
The Wali of Rhodes—who was also governor of the entire archipelago from Tenedos to Scarpanto was captured on May 7 in the harbor of Lindos by the Italian destroyer Ostro as he, with other Turkish officials, was about to leave the island. He and his companions, together with 117 other Turkish prisoners were sent to Tarento May n.
The Turkish garrison was prevented from escaping from the island by the watchfulness of the Italian torpedo boats, and they rendezvoused in the vicinity of Pithos, a region hemmed in by a mountain range that crosses the island, and at about 18 kilometers southwest of the city.
May 15 General Ameglio took the offensive against the Turks at Psithos. He led troops from two regiments from the northeast and east towards Psithos. Italian troops were landed from the naval vessels at Kalavarda 30 kilometers southwest of Rhodes, and at Malona Bay, 33 kilometers south of Rhodes.
The Turks were thus attacked from three different sides while the battleship St. Bon bombarded the only other available road of escape by firing over the hills.
A desperate battle that lasted nine hours was fought by the Turks were dispersed leaving 83 dead and 26 wounded in the ravines of the hills. The Italians took possession of Psithos and passed the night there. The next morning the Turkish commander surrendered. The Turkish garrison of 983 men, including officers, were prisoners of war. In view of their distinguished bravery the Turkish officers were permitted to retain their stars. The bulk of the Italian forces then returned to the city. The Italians officially reported a total loss during the fight as only 4 dead and 26 wounded.
The island of Rhodes was declared to be blockaded with exception of the port of the city of Rhodes, commerce with it could be maintained under the surveillance of Italian authority.
The former Italian consul at Salonica, Bivalda, was appointed governor of Rhodes.
In the period from May 8 to May 20 the vessels of the division took possession of the small islands of the Aegean archipelago between Crete, Rhodes, and Samos. They hoisted the flag over these islands and made prisoners of all the officials and the small Turkish garrisons they found on the islands.
May 18 the Regina Margherita bombarded the small Asian port Marmarice, opposite Rhodes, where Turks had assembled and established a depot.
The continued presence of the Italian warships in the Aegean Sea, and threats published in Italian papers that Italy would be in possession of other larger islands, induced the Turkish government to reinforce those islands and complete their defences, persons who could not participate in the defence of these islands were removed to the mainland, and additional troops were sent reinforce the garrisons. Mytilene which had a garrison of 300 received a reinforcement of 2000 troops who were convex thither in small detachments by small boats from Aivali. The garrison of Chios was in like manner reinforced by several thousand troops.
The ports in Syria: Beirut, Mersina, Acre, Jaffe and Haida were reinforced and fortified.
May 20 the Turkish government decreed the banishment of all Italians from Turkish dominions; about 50,000 persons, 12,000 of whom were in Constantinople. The decree excepted clericals, widows, cripples and laborers (about 2000 men), and required all others to leave within 14 days.
The decree of banishment was handed to the German ambassador, representing the Italian government in Constantinople, on May 22. This decree was based upon the manner in which the Italians conducted the war, and especially protested against the Italians for taking Turkish civilian officials as prisoners of war to Italy. It also based its necessity upon the fear of an outbreak by the populace which was much embittered against the Italians for the war and the government was not able to protect Italians residing in Turkey.
A number of Italian ship captains were arrested, as they might serve as pilots for the Italian navy.
The English and French press published protests against the Italian seizure of these 11 islands in the Grecian Archipelago, and claimed that this act materially changed the map of Europe and strengthened the Triple Alliance in the balance of power among the European states. Russia, France and England were weakened by these acquisitions by Italy, and control of the great commercial route through the Mediterranean was passing to Italy and the Triple Alliance.
The press demanded that efforts should be made to stop the war and further encroachments by Italy.
The Italians proceeded to make their possession of these islands secure and permanent. A fortnightly mail service was established from Brindisi via Patras, Pireaus, and Astropalia to Rhodes. The Italian Chamber at the same time established mail steamer service between Italy and North African ports as follows:
Syracuse to Tripoli, three times every week.
Syracuse to Benghasi, twice a week.
Palermo, Trapani, Tripoli, once a week.
Genoa, Sicilian ports and North African ports, once a week, and Venice and North African ports, once a week.
Telegraphic communication was reestablished by radio stations and cables as previously mentioned.
There was no activity of any importance by the navy on the north coast of Tripoli and Cyrenaica during May. The schoolship division and a few ships of the navy cruised on the coast, but on May 25 the schoolship division left Zuara, or rather the new base Sidi-Said, to recruit in Italian home ports.
April 28 the Italian transport Domenico with 1275 reservists en route home was stranded on Cape Spartivento, but torpedo boats and other vessels rescued the transport.
Italian Military Campaign In Tripoli And Cyrenaica.
During the period from April 15 to May 15, 1912, there were engagements at all the places occupied by the Italians on the coast of Africa, but the Italians held their positions through without making any advances in the conquest of the country. The summer opened with intense heat and violent sandstorms, the advance into the interior was not contemplated for this season.
The expeditionary corps that landed at Sidi-Said secured the: position on the line to Fort Forwa, also known as Bu Kamei The occupation of Sidi-Said temporarily stopped the contraband trade, and the torpedo-boat harbor was completed. A radio telegraph station was erected and regular communication was established with Tripoli by means of dirigible balloons.
The constantly increasing Turkish-Arabian forces, which were well supplied with artillery, opposed the Italians all along the coast. Major Fethi Bey, formerly Turkish military attaché at P*05' was in supreme command of the Turkish-Arabian forces. There were many desperate attacks by the Turks which were invariably repulsed, but often with great difficulty.
During the latter part of April the Italians made several advances to the southwestward but were compelled to return, and even lost territory they had previously held.
Zuara was still held by the Turks, but the caravan trade was considerably reduced via the Tunisian frontier.
At Tripoli sandstorms caused considerable damage. One zero-plane was destroyed and all the others were damaged, and the Italians barely held their positions. The defences at Tadjura east of Tripoli, were strengthened.
May 2 the Italians at Homs surprised the Turks and capped the heights southeast of Lebda. The Italians lost four officers and 61 men killed and wounded in this affair, but they repulsed the Turks and have managed to retain this advantageous position which was strongly fortified.
The spirit of the Turkish-Arabian troops was enthusiastic for the war. There were between 300 and 400 trained Turkish officers in the field. They had ample supplies of ammunition and they were not hampered for commissariat. The prospects of the crops were good this year.
(To Be Continued.)