Ships of War, Budgets and Personnel.
Argentine Republic.
The Argentine Battleships “Moreno” and “Rivadavia.”—The arrangement of the armor amidships of the two Argentine battleships Moreno and Rivadavia, which are being built at the Fore River Yard, Quincy, in the United States, is shown herewith.
The Rivadavia was laid down on May 25, 1910, and was launched on August 26 last. The displacement of the vessel is 28,000 tons in speed trial condition, and the corresponding draft is 27.7 feet. The other dimensions are: Length, 580 feet; breadth, 95 feet 6 inches; depth, 49 feet 7 inches.
The Moreno and Rivadavia are protected by a water-line belt of armor attending from stem to stern, the thicknesses of which are: 12 inches Midship, for a length of 250 feet and a depth of 4 feet 7 inches above and 3 feet 5 inches below the water-line, tapered down to 10-inch thickness at a depth of 5 feet 10 inches below the water-line. Fore and aft of the main belt the thickness of the water-line belt is reduced to 10 inches as far as the foremost and aftermost 12-inch gun mounting, and from these points the thickness is 6 inches forward and 4 inches aft.
The citadel armor between the armored deck and the upper deck has a height of 9 feet 6 inches and a thickness of 9 inches below and 8 inches above the upper deck for a length of 400 feet amidships. The thickness of the armor forward and aft of these points is 6 inches and 4 inches respectively.
The casemate armor extends from the foremost 12-inch barbette to the aftermost barbette, and has a height of 8 feet 6 inches and a thickness of 6 inches. The forward conning-tower is 12 inches thick, the after tower 9 inches. The thickness of the protected deck is 2 inches on the horizontal part and 3 inches on slopes.
The armament is to consist of twelve 12-inch guns, twelve 6-inch guns, and twelve 4-inch guns.
The height of the main armament guns above the water-line is:
Foremost turret guns 31 ft. 8 in.
Superposed turret guns, fore 39 ft. 9 in.
Starboard turret guns, fore 31 ft. 8 in.
Port turret guns, aft 31 ft. 8 in.
Superposed turret guns, aft 31 ft. 8 in.
Aftermost turret guns 22 ft. 5 in.
The total weight of armor aggregates 7600 tons, 680 tons of which are employed for under-water protection against mines and torpedoes.
The bottom of the magazines are protected by armor and situated at a distance of 13 feet to 14 feet from the outside plating.
The battleships will be driven by three sets of Curtis turbines working on three propellers, and aggregating 40,000 horse-power, the corresponding speed being estimated at 22.5 knots. The fuel-carrying capacity is 4000 tons of coal and 660 tons of oil. the radius of action being 10,500 miles at a speed of 11 knots, 7200 miles at a speed of 15 knots, 3600 miles at a speed of 22.5 knots. The boiler plant is composed of 18 Babcock and Wilcox boilers in six water-tight compartments.—The Engineer.
The Argentine torpedo-boat destroyer Cordoba, built by Schichau, at Elbing, is stated to have exceeded 34 knots on her official trial.
Austria.
Budget.—The total naval estimates for 1911 amount to approximately $25,000,000.
A new naval program has been adopted by the Austrian-Hungarian delegations, which authorizes the expenditures of $63417,200 for shipbuilding, in six installments, during the years 1911 to I9i6; inclusive. With this amount there are to be constructed four battleships, three cruisers, six destroyers, twelve torpedo-boats, and six submarines. Two of these battleships were laid down in 1910, and contracts for the other two have been awarded. Of the remaining vessels of the new program some have already been ordered, and the others will be ordered shortly.
During 1911 there was completed the battleship Zrinyi, of 14,271 tons displacement.—Army and Navy Register.
Data of Battleships.—The new Austrian Dreadnoughts, which were at one time the subject of a brisk controversy as to their raison d’être, are similar to their Italian rivals in that they carry their guns in triple turrets. The disposition, however, of the four turrets of the Viribus Unitis and her sister, the Kaiser Franz Joseph, is like that of the Michigan, and so even in this early stage of triple mountings there are examples of three different methods of disposing them. In the Dante Alighieri they are carried on the center-line all on the same level, and the Ganguts exemplify the echelon disposition. On a displacement of 20,000 tons the Viribus Unitis carries amidships, as in German ships, a secondary battery of twelve 5.9-inch, in addition to the heavy main battery of twelve 12-inch guns, which can deliver a broadside of nearly I2,ooo-pound weight. Parsons' turbines of 25,000 horse-power will drive the vessel at 20 knots, which is the same speed as the Radetsky class can maintain. A main belt of 12-inch nickel-chrome steel, tapering to 5 inches at the ends, gives adequate protection on the water-line, while the secondary battery is mounted behind 6-inch armor.—Naval and Military Record.
Progress in Building.—The Armeeblatt of Vienna states that the battleship Viribus Unitis is making rapid progress at Trieste, and should be in commission next September. The sister ship IV is also advancing, and is to be launched in the spring. It is hoped that another ship, V, will shortly be laid down at Trieste. Active work is also proceeding at Malfoncone, where the cruiser G is to be launched in the first half of 1912. She is a sister of the Admiral Sfaun. The very considerable works at Fiume are making progress, and it is hoped that one of the large berths will be ready for the laying down of the fourth Dreadnought, known as VI, in the first half of 1912. At the same yard the cruiser H has been laid down, and in the auxiliary yard at Porto Re six destroyers are to be built, of which three have been laid down and are well advanced. In the numeration of the battleships two pre-Dreadnoughts are included.—Army and Navy Gazette.
New Budget.—The estimates for 1912-13 carry a total of $28,318,500, an increase of approximately $3,500,000 over last year. The shipbuilding program, extending to 1916, is being carried put as planned.
Of the four battleships authorized one will be completed during the year, one will be launched shortly, one was laid down last December, and the fourth is to laid down immediately.
The three cruisers and the torpedo craft are all either under construction or ordered.—Army and Navy Register.
Brazil.
Another navy which has become more important since the commencement of the Dreadnought era is that of the prosperous South American State of Brazil. She caused some stir by ordering from British firms two battleships of the Mines Geraes class, which at the time they were laid were the most powerful ships in the world. Since then she has ordered a third vessel, which was at one time to be of 32,000 tons, and designed to mount the hitherto unsurpassed armament of twelve 14-3-inch. However, on assuming office the new President caused the designs of this ship to be altered with a view to considerably reducing the tonnage, with the result that the Rio de Janeiro, as she is called, will only displace 28,000 tons. The caliber of the guns remains the same as in the first pair of ships, but, as stated in the South American supplement of The Times, she will carry no less than fourteen of these in seven twin turrets, an unprecedented number for one-caliber ships. For protection against destroyers, this powerful main armament is supplemented by a score of 6inch weapons, and twelve 12-pounders. The Sao Paolo and Minos Geraes, which were laid down in 1907 by the firms of Armstrong's and Vickers' respectively, were completed in 1910, and are in every way worthy of British designers. Although of the same displacement as the St. Vincent, they were designed to carry two more heavy guns, so that the broadside amounts to ten guns, which, amongst the 12-inch-gunned ships of the British Navy, can only be equalled by the three Neptunes. Four turrets arc mounted on the center-line in two pairs superposed fore and aft, the other two being mounted singly on each beam. The innovation of superposed turrets, which was first tested in these ships, results in an ahead and astern fire of eight guns. and. as stated in the description of United States ships, is of great utility in economizing length. A strong secondary armament of twenty-two 4.7-inch, somewhat akin to the American 5-inch batteries, is disposed for the most part on the main deck, the remaining eight being in well-protected positions in the superstructure. A feature is the armor protection, which, though thinner than usual on account of the heavy offensive equipment, is very complete and uniform in thickness. For instance, the whole of the side between the extreme turrets is covered with armor 9 inches thick, which ensures the safety of the secondary armament, which in contemporary British ships is exposed to considerable risk of destruction. With reciprocating engines of 23,500 horse-power both ships easily reached their designed speed of 21 knots, the Minas Geraes having steamed at a best speed of 22.29 knots, which is very creditable to the constructors.—Naval and Military Record.
Chili.
The first piece of the ram of the famous Chilean battleship Conslitucion was put in place at Elswick in the second week of December. This vessel will have a displacement of approximately 28,000 tons. It should be launched early in 1913, and enter the service towards the middle of 1914. This battleship and her sister will have ten 13.5-inch guns in main battery; and sixteen 6-inch guns in her torpedo-defence battery. They will be of 45,000 horse-power, have Parsons' turbines, and make a speed of 23 knots.
France.
Budget.—The total naval appropriations for 1911 amount to $80,371,109, as compared with $72,485,000 appropriated for 1910.
The shipbuilding program authorized for 1911 provides for the construction of two battleships, two submarines, and two mine-laying vessels. The battleships are to be similar to the Courbet and Jean Bart, authorized in 1910, of 23,100 tons' displacement and a main battery of twelve 12-inch guns. The submarines are to have a submerged displacement of about 980 tons and a large steaming radius in order to be able to accompany the battle fleet.
Six battleships of the Danton class, 18,030 tons displacement, were completed during the year, as well as the armored cruiser Waldeck Rousseau, of 13,780 tons displacement. Seven destroyers of about 700 tons displacement and a number of submarines were also completed. Various experiments were made with the new submarine Mariotte, of 630 tons submerged displacement.
The naval estimates for 1912 have recently been submitted and amount to $82,364,302. The building program for 1912 consists of two battleships, nine submarines, and one transport.
According to press reports, the minister of marine has announced his intention of asking parliament to authorize the construction of a third battleship in order to make good the loss of the battleship Liberte, recently destroyed by magazine explosion.—Army and Navy Register.
The Battleships of 1912.—These battleships will have, like the Jean Bart, a displacement of 23,500 tons. The battery, however, will be different, and will consist of ten i3.6-inch guns mounted in five turrets, twenty-two 5.6-inch guns mounted in an armored casemate, and four under-water torpedo-tubes.—Le Moniteur de la Flotte.
The new French super-Dreadnoughts will, in their main batteries, be the equal of the English Orion and are superior in torpedo defence battery.
French 10 13.6-inch 22 5.6-inch
Orion 10 137-inch 16 to 20 4.1-inch
English constructors consider the armor belt of the French ships too far below water, and that it does not protect the decks from oblique fire.
The Orions are, however, in service three years ahead of these French ships.
The New French Battleships.—The Moniteur de la Flotte publishes a diagram showing the plan of the two battleships which the Ministry of Marine hopes to lay down in 1912. The design resembles in many ways that of the Jean Bart and Courbet, but there is an important change in the matter of armament. Instead of twelve 12-inch guns, the ships will mount ten of 134-inch, all in double turrets on the middle line. The guns forward and abaft will be mounted as in the earlier ships, and will have about the same arc of training, being some 135 degrees, and probably a little more for the upper guns. Amidships, instead of two turrets on either broadside, will be one on the middle line mounting two of the new guns, and having an arc of fire of perhaps 100 degrees on the broadsides. There will also be twenty-two 5.5-inch guns mounted as in the other ships. The displacement will be about the same, namely, 23,500 tons. There have been labor troubles both at Lorient and Brest, and at the latter port electric wires were cut in the Jean Bart, whereby it appears some men were injured. The France has been put in hand at Lorient, and the Paris at the Chantiers de la Seyne, Toulon.—The United Service Gazette.
The “Paris.”—The keel of the battleship Paris was laid at La Seyne, Toulon, on November 30, but material for her construction had been collected in anticipation. It is expected that the ship will be launched in October, 1912. She has been built on a masonry and cement slip specially constructed, and suitable for the building of ships up to a launching weight of 10,000 tons.
Battleships.—The French battleships Mirabeau and Vergniaud, built respectively at L'Orient dockyard Bordeaux, have just completed a series of comparative boiler trials, which may have some influence on future naval machinery in France. The former vessel is fitted with Belleville boilers, and the latter with the Niclausse type. A good deal of uncertainty prevails in the navy as to which is the more suitable for large warships, and many engineers are agitating for a return to the small tube type, which was fitted in some of the earlier vessels, notably in the Jeanne d'Arc, Chatcaurcnault, and Montcalm.—The Engineer.
Speed of the “Dantons.”—The belated Vergniaud having at last completed her acceptance trials off Toulon, it is now possible to compare the speed performances of the six new French battleships of 18,400 tons, three of which are fitted with Belleville boilers and the others with the Niclausse type:
Ships | Boilers | 3-hour trial. Knots. | 10-hour trial. Knots | 24-hour trial. Knots. |
Voltaire | (B.) | 20.66 | 19.78 | 18.63 |
Danton | (B.) | 20.18 | 19.44 | 18.16 |
Mirabeau | (B.) | 20.18 | 19.73 | 18.27 |
Diderot | (N.) | 19.9 | 19.48 | 18.4 |
Condorcet | (N.) | 19.7 | 19.31 | 18.02 |
Verginaud | (N.) | 19.63 | 19.2 | 17.74 |
As only 19.25 knots at full power and 17.5 for 24 hours had been stipulated, the results obtained must be pronounced satisfactory, all the more so as the Dantons proved, during the summer maneuvers, their aptitude for easy steaming at 17 and 17.5 knots. The ships fitted with Belleville's have been specially successful, the Voltaire, for instance, developing up to 29,657 horse-power, and reaching 21.2 knots. These performances afford good ground for hope that the Bart (Belleville) and Courbet (Niclausse boilers), now completing, will substantially exceed their stipulated speed of 20 knots, and rival the German Helgolands that have just done from 21 to 22 knots.—Naval and Military Record.
The French Destroyer “Bouchlier.”—The French destroyer Bouclier was recently handed over to the French Admiralty by the firm of A. Normand & Co., which built her. This vessel is the first among the numerous craft built at the Normand yard to be fitted with Normand boilers fired only with liquid fuel. The burners employed are of a type patented by the firm. The Bouclier, which was engined by the Cie. Electro Mecanique, of Le Bourget, near Paris, has the following particulars:
Length over all. 233 ft. 4 in.
Length between perpendiculars 23 ft. 4 in.
Extreme breadth outside plating 24 ft. 10 in.
Depth 16 ft. 5 in.
Mean draft 12 ft. 6 in.
Displacement on trials 660.44 tons.
The hull is of high tensile steel, galvanized in the upper works. It is divided into ten water-tight compartments. The hull is clincher riveted, the stem is of forged steel, and the sternpost, etc., of cast steel. The vessel is divided as follows: From forward aft: Collision compartment, crew's quarters with chain locker underneath, ammunition room and storeroom, boiler-rooms, engine-rooms, officers' quarters, petty officers' quarters, and store-room. The deck is covered with linoleum and wooden battens.
The Bouclier has a high freeboard forward, and owing to this the men are better berthed than in other French destroyers, while the vessel is able to maintain a good speed even in a rough sea. The navigating officer and the man at the wheel are also better protected than is the case in previous boats.
Steam is supplied to the main engines and auxiliaries by four Normand water-tube boilers. The liquid fuel is, before being used, heated in a form of heater which has been newly patented by the Normand firm. The boilers have a heating surface of 5277 square feet and a combustion chamber of 386 cubic feet capacity. The safety valves are set at 228 pounds per square inch, and at full power an air pressure equal to that of no mm.—about 4 inches of water—is permitted in the stoke-hold. The boilers have been designed each to burn 3300 kilos (=7273 pounds of fuel) per hour, but as a matter of fact this consumption was not reached during the trials even at full power when the speed attained was actually about 4 1/3 knots in excess of that contracted for.
The main engines consist of Parsons' turbines driving three shafts. There are a high-pressure ahead turbine on the center shaft and two low pressure ahead turbines -on the wing shafts. Astern turbines are incorporated in the casings of the two latter turbines. Each shaft carries one propeller, 5 feet 3 inches in diameter and 4 feet n inches pitch, designed to work at 1000 revolutions per minute at full power. The condensers Have a cooling surface of 11,682 square feet, and a vacuum of 700 mm. was guaranteed. The four Normand boilers have a heating surface of 21,108 square feet, and the cubic capacity of the furnaces is 1544 cubic feet. Each boiler has nine burners.
The following are the results of the official trials:
Six Hours' Full-power Trial.
Displacement at start 650.44 tons
Average mean steam pressure 217 lb.
Average mean steam-chest pressure 183 lb.
Average air pressure in stokeholds 109 mm.
Pressure in liquid fuel burners 143 lb. per square inch
Revolutions per minute, mean 1034.2
Mean speed for six hours 35.334 knots
Contract speed 31.0 knots
Six Hours' Full-power Trial.—Continued.
Shaft horse-power 15,000
Vacuum at condenser 700 mm.
Consumption of fuel per hour 21,912 lb.
Consumption permitted by contract 29,193 lb.
Consumption per square foot of heating surface. 1.038 lb.
Consumption per horse-power hour 1.46 lb.
Eight Hours' Consumption Trial.
Displacement before trials 659.446 tons
Mean draft 1.6 ft.
Mean steam pressure at boilers 2.4 lb.
Revolutions per minute, mean 325.19
Mean speed for eight hours 14.06
Mean speed as per contract 14.00
Shaft horse-power 1400
Vacuum at condensers 730.3 mm.
Consumption of fuel per hour 1915 lb.
Consumption of fuel per horse-power hour 1.37 lb. (nearly)
The shaft horse-power was ascertained by means of a Hopkinson-Tring tortiometer.
The Bouclier has up to the time of writing proved herself to be the speediest and most economical vessel of her class, and her performances are certainly excellent. Her armament consists of four i8-inch torpedo tubes. Six torpedoes are carried. There are two 4-inch quick-firing guns, one forward and one aft, and two 2.5 quick-firers, two forward and two aft, one on each side. Four hundred and fifty shells are provided for each gun.
The fuel-bunker capacity is of such dimensions that the fuel which can be carried permits of a radius of action at 14 knots of 1950 miles.—The Engineer.
Submarines.—The only new particulars which appear in the annex as to vessels to be constructed in the dockyards concern the submarines, which are to be designated Q 94 to Q 101. With the exception of the last, all will displace 410 tons, and will be 181 feet long, with 16 feet 9-inch beam; they will have 1300 horse-power, a speed on the surface of 15 knots, and a complement of three officers and 24 men. Q 102 will be a little larger, the intended displacement being 520 tons, the length 106 feet 9 inches, the beam 17 feet 9 inches, the surface speed 17 ½ knots, and the complement numbering two additional men. The Gustave Zede and Nercide, which are under construction, are larger vessels—797 tons, 4800 horse-power, and 20 knots on the surface.—Army and Navy Gazette.
On September 22 there was launched at St. Nazaire a submarine salvage vessel for the French Navy. This vessel is 328 feet long, 87 feet 3 inches in extreme width, and displaces 1500 tons. For the greater part of its length the hull is divided into two parts, with a space of 42 feet 8 inches between them, and over this are erected ten girders with the necessary electrically operated machinery for raising a submarine up to 1000 tons. A very serious drawback to the vessel's utility is that she will have no motive power, and will thus be exceedingly difficult to manage in a seaway.—Journal of the Royal Artillery.
Program for 1912.—The budget recently submitted to parliament carries a total appropriation of $88,364.302 and provides for laying down two battleships, nine submarines, and one transport. It is likely that a proposal to authorize a third battleship, to replace the Liberte, will meet with favorable consideration.—Army and Navy Register.
Germany.
The German Navy Estimates.—These have now been published in the German Press, and show that provision has been made for the second installment of the cost of three battleships and one cruiser which belong to the financial year 1911, for the third installment of the cost of three battleships and one cruiser which belong to the 1910 financial year, and for the fourth installment of the cost of three battleships and one cruiser which belong to the financial year 1909. The program for which a first installment is to be provided in 1912 includes one battleship, the Ersatz Brandenburg, and one cruiser, the Ersatz Kaiserin Augusta. Provision is also made for two small cruisers, and for the first installment of the cost of a torpedo-boat flotilla. The sum for submarines remains the same as last year—i.e., £750,000. A sum of £150,000 will be provided towards the cost of the new Admiralty building, Berlin. For keeping the ships in commission a sum of £175,850 in excess of last years' amount is provided, an excess which is said to be due to a more extensive commissioning of large units; this leads also to an excess of £118,150 in the provision for ammunition as compared with last year.
The total naval estimates for 1911-12 amount to $107,232,000, as compared with $106,320,000 for the preceding year.
The naval appropriation bill for 1911-12 authorized the following new construction: Three battleships, one armored cruiser, two scout cruisers, 12 torpedo-boat destroyers, three surveying vessels, and $3,570,000 for submarine-boat construction and experiments.
During the year 1911 there were completed the battleships Ostfriesland, Helgoland, and Thuringen, having a displacement of 22,440 tons and carrying twelve 12-inch guns; also the armored cruiser Moltke, of 22,640 tons displacement and carrying ten n-inch guns.
Data on German Battleships.—The following table gives the classes and principal features of German battleships and armored cruisers designed so far.
German battleships are now divided into classes of four each, and at present there are sixteen Dreadnought battleships completed, under construction, or preparing to build. In spite of the large armament of the first eight ships of the Nassau and Helgoland types, it is true that out of twelve heavy guns, only eight can be brought to bear on each broadside. In the Nassaus the 11-inch 45-caliber weapons are mounted in six turrets, one forward and one aft and four at the corners of the superstructure. Thus the ahead and astern fire is from six guns, and if attacked on both sides at once these ships would be able to reply with six guns on each broadside, which is very satisfactory—provided that the enemy obliges by making such an attack.
Associated with the heavy main armaments, these ships, like all the German Dreadnoughts, carry a battery of 5.9-inch quick-firers on the main deck behind armor, the Nassaus mounting ten, and the Helgolands twelve. In addition, for beating off destroyers there are sixteen 24-pounders, disposed in pairs in the superstructures, and on the main deck forward and aft, in the Nassau class; two less in the Helgolands. The displacement of the Nassau and her three sisters is 18,500 tons; their length is only 470 feet, but the beam—characteristic of German Dreadnought battleships is as large as 89 feet. That of the Helgoland is 93 ½ feet, and the increase of length is 76 feet, the resulting large displacement of 22,800 tons being necessary to carry the armament of 12.2-inch guns with which these ships are equipped. These guns fire a heavy shell of 981 pounds with much the same degree of penetration as the British 50-caliber 12-inch. They will probably be superseded in the Ersatz Odin and later ships by the new 14-inch weapon, and so only one division of eight ships will be armed with them. The Kaiser class, of which two have already been launched this year, will almost certainly have their guns disposed in five turrets, as in the Neptune and Moltke. There is some doubt as to whether there will be ten or twelve, but it is possible that the forward and aft turrets will be triple, enabling twelve guns to be mounted as in previous ships. This disposition is most praiseworthy, as one of the objections to 12-gun ships has been overcome by having only five turrets, and so avoiding undue interference. Again, the employment of the triple turret, which presents a large target and if disabled involves a considerable loss of offensive power, is not overdone to the extent of some foreign designs. The Kaiser class, which displaces about 24,000 tons, are credited with the same secondary and mosquito armaments as the Helgolands. Moreover, the fourteen 5.9-inch of the main-deck battery appear to be somewhat higher above the water than in previous ships, and so less likely to be made unserviceable in a seaway. The design of the first ships to mount the 14-inch gun shows that the ten guns are apparently disposed in two triple and two twin turrets, arranged as in the Michigan, with the latter naturally superposed. Included in the armament, however, in addition to the main deck battery of twelve 5.9-inch, is a medium armament of eight 8.2-inch in four twin turrets at the corners of the superstructure. It is difficult to see the reasons for the adoption of these weapons. Presumably they are intended for the attack of armored ships, as at 5000 yards the 8.2-inch of 45 calibers can penetrate about 9 inches of Krupp armor, and at longer battle ranges they might, with their comparatively rapid rate of fire, be effective against lightly protected armored cruisers. Their use against large destroyers seems unnecessary owing to the presence on the same ship of quick-firing 5.9-inch of much greater handiness.
The German battleship-cruisers are of three types, and so far those completed or under construction number five. The Von der Tann is in a class by herself, and is a fine vessel of 19,000 tons and 28 knots trial speed, carrying an armament of eight ii-inch 45-caliber and a secondary battery of ten 5.9-inch, supplemented by sixteen 24-pounders, mounted as in the Nassau class of battleships. Her main armament is arranged like that of the Indefatigable, but the starboard turret is echeloned forward, instead of the port turret as in that ship; the only criticism against the German ship is that the main-deck battery is too near the water, a defect which could have been remedied by prolonging the forecastle deck as far aft as the port turret, and so having three out of the four turrets on the same level. In the design of the Moltke and her two splendid sister ships, the Goeben and J, which has only lately been begun at Hamburg, the design is much improved. The ten 11-inch are arranged so that the additional turret fires over the stern guns, four of the turrets being on the level of the forecastle, so that the dozen 5.9-inch of the secondary battery are well clear of the water. The four 24-pounders carried in the Von der Tann on the main deck astern have in these ships been suppressed, leaving only twelve. The design of the 14-inch-gunned cruiser K is similar to that of the battleships which mount the new gun, with the exception that all four turrets are twin mountings. As in the Ersatz Odin class, the 8.2-inch appears, and the customary battery of 24-pounders is abandoned. It is noteworthy that in the interests of homogeneity the 12.2-inch has not been adopted for armored cruisers.—Naval and Military Record.
New Battleships.—The German battleship Ersatz Hagen, laid down in November, 1910, was launched at the Howaldt yard, Kiel, on November II. The vessel was named Kaiserin, and will form a homogeneous group with the Kaiser, Friedrich der Grosse, and Konig Albert (Ersatz Aegir).
Orders for the German armored ships of the 1911 program have been placed, but there is as yet no information as to the date of laying down. One battleship will be built at Wilhelmshayen, at the Weser yard, Bremen, and at the Vulcan yard, Hamburg; while the cruiser K will be built by Messrs. Blohm & Voss, at Hamburg. The last-named firm has built all Germany's cruiser-battleships and seven of the thirteen armored cruisers built and building.—Journal of the Royal Artillery.
Delivery of Ships.—The ships of the program of loot) to be delivered in 1912 are three battleships: the Oldenburg, the Kaiser, the Friedrich der Grosse; the cruiser-battleship Goeben, and two small cruisers, Breslau and Magdeburg. During the year 7911, five ships were delivered the last being the Moltke.
Results of Speed Runs.—The battleship Helgoland has proved to be the fastest in the fleet. She has maintained a speed of 22 knots, while her sister ships, the Thuringen and Ost Friesland, have done 21.1 and 21.3 respectively.
The cruiser-battleship Moltke. fitted with Parsons' turbines, made, over the measured mile at Danzig, a speed of 29.7 knots.
New British and German Battleship Cruisers—“Lion” and “Moltke.”—To compare the Lion with the Moltke is very much like drawing a comparison between the Dreadnought and Lord Nelson—the ships are contemporaries only in name, and really belong to two different eras of warship design. That this should be the case reflects both credit upon our construction staff and saddles the Wilhelmstrasse authorities with distinction of a somewhat opposite order, for while the Lion may be regarded as a cruiser edition of the Orion, the Moltke is more or less related to the Neptune class which preceded the 13.5-inch gunned ships, and is more comparable to the Indefatigable.
Both ships are, however, entering into service about the same date, and as examples of the latest work in battle-cruisers on both sides of the North Sea, make a comparison reasonable.
In design the ships represent totally different schools of thought, for whereas the British ship carries all her guns along the center-line and mounts 13.5-inch and 4-inch guns, her German "opposite number" follows the en echelon example of distribution—now almost universally abandoned—plus center-line, and carries 11-inch, 5.0-inch and 34-inch pieces. The pros and cons of each can best be discussed separately, and we will therefore first examine the characteristic features of the Lion.
The general outline of the ship can be seen from the plan and illustration. She is an Orion with the super-firing guns aft sacrificed, and her protection decreased for the gain of probably eight knots in speed. In order to accommodate the immense engine and boiler power her dimensions show a great increase over previous battle-cruisers, being: Length over all, 720 feet; beam, 88 ½ feet; and draft, 27 feet; giving her a displacement of 26,360 tons against the 18,750 tons of the 580 feet X 80 feet X 26 ½ feet Indefatigable. Her main armament consists of eight 13.5-inch guns, those in the second turret forward firing over the first pair, with a couple amidships, and also upon a lower deck level aft. These immense guns fire a I2so-pound projectile with a muzzle velocity of 2821 foot second, and exert an energy of 69,000 foot-tons, are 45 calibers in length and weigh 76 tons.
The disposition of the Lion's guns is perhaps not the best that might have been adopted. The amidship guns certainly have wide angles of fire, but by bringing them aft as in the Japanese Kongo, the concentration in the astern axial line could have been increased. This alternate arrangement is the one which has probably been utilized in the Queen Mary class.
The structures around the funnels are 2-inch blast-screens, which are designed to protect them from the firing effects of this pair of guns, and, from the angle at which they are set, to deflect small projectiles which might otherwise hole the uptakes, and so reduce speed, and enveloping the decks with smoke, make gun-setting difficult. Being clear of the quick-firing guns they have also been fitted to carry searchlights, the old idea of grouping guns and projectors on to bridges, etc., having been discarded in favor of keeping the latter well away from the shock and smoke of the 4-inch quick-firing pieces.
The anti-torpedo-boat armament of the Lion consists of sixteen 4-inch guns, firing a 31-pound projectile. Eight of these are up forward in the superstructure, and eight aft along the boat-deck, being so arranged that a good fire can be brought to bear on any given quarter. Compared with the Moltke's secondary batteries of twelve 5.9-inch and twelve 34-inch weapons, the Lion appears under-gunned as regards this portion of her equipment, and apart from any official assurances to the contrary, we have always regarded the secondary armament of our Dreadnoughts as their most unsatisfactory feature.
The Lion's 4-inch guns are unprotected except by thin screens and will obviously be all put out of action during the first half-hour of big-gun engagement, leaving the ship defenceless against the torpedo attack during the night following—a course adopted by the Japanese with the most disastrous results to the remnants of the Russian fleet which remained after Tsushima. It may, therefore, be argued that unless secondary guns are going to be protected by armor sufficiently thick to keep out the biggest projectiles, they may as well remain unprotected, medium plates such as the Moltke carries along her main deck being very little better than our own shields. This must be granted, and the question therefore arises "what constitutes an efficient secondary armament and how can it be economically protected?" If destroyers had not grown to the size of small cruisers, the 4-inch gun carried on a disappearing mounting so that it could be stowed away during action in an armored tube running down to behind thick armor would nave been sufficient. But in these days of 1000-ton boats, a 5-inch or 6-inch gun seems the only practicable defence, and these must be so disposed that the normal armor of the main or upper decks can be utilized to protect them, and this must have a thickness of at least 9 inches to 10 inches. That some such arrangement will be embodied in the ships of the forthcoming estimates is practically certain.
At the time of writing the Lion has not yet been on trial, so that the palm of being the fastest large ship afloat must be retained by the Moltke pro tern, she having reached 29.5 knots on trial. That the British ship will reach 30 seems taken for granted, and with engines of 70,000 horse-power capable of developing probably 100,000, it is more than likely that the German figures will be substantially improved upon.
Great secrecy has been maintained over the protection and armor distribution, so that the following figures cannot be regarded as absolutely "officially" correct, although given by the most recent text-books. The main belt extends to about 20 feet of the extremities and has a maximum thickness of 9 ¾ inches, while the strake along the lower deck side is 7 inches—8 inches amidships, both belts tapering fore and aft to 4 inches. The entry forward is so fine that the continuation of the belt right up to the bow would have imposed too much strain on the structure; the hull is therefore subdivided fore and aft into many water-tight cellulose compartments constituting a thoroughly efficient substitute for the armor. The big gun turrets have lo-inch protection, and a 3-inch deck encloses the vitals of the ship.
In appearance the Lion is quite distinct from any other ship afloat. Her three funnels are all of different dimensions, the foremost being raised well above the bridge, while the third, although of the same height as the second, is thinner and rounded instead of oblong.
The water-tight aerials are suspended from the flying topmast of the tripod to the pole mast aft. Unlike the Orion there is no armor wall round the boats, although amidships they are partially stowed behind the funnel screens.
The Lion was laid down at Devonport on November 29, 1909, and launched on August 6 the following year. Her sister, the Princess Royal, was commenced at Barrow on May 2, 1910, launched on April 29, 1911, and is now completing for sea. The machinery (Parsons') for both ships was supplied by Messrs. Vickers.
The Moltke is an enlarged Von der Tann, with an extra pair of n-inch guns aft, a couple more 5.9-inch in the battery, a higher free-board amidships, and some two knots more speed. Her design opens up a wide field for conjecture, for the retention of the en echelon placing of the second and third turrets is contrary to the general trend of gun distribution. If the idea finds so much favor, why was it not adopted for the Helgoland class? The most probable explanation is that some attempt at homogeneity with the Von der Tann was sought after, so that that ship, with the Moltke and Goeben, should form a tactical unit, an excuse, also, for the mounting of 11-inch instead of 12-inch guns. Whatever may have been the reasons that led to the construction of two ships carrying a main armament of n-inch guns when rivals were putting 13.5-inch into their ships, the fact remains that the German Navy will have no battle-cruisers capable of tackling the Lion for some years to come.
The dimensions of the Moltke are as follows: Length 610 feet, beam 96 ¾ feet (the widest that has yet been given a warship), and draft 27 feet, giving a displacement of 22,632 tons. Her five turrets are placed: one forward, on the forecastle, two en echelon amidships, the starboard being the foremost, and two astern, super-firing—an arrangement practically identical to that of the Neptune. The twelve 5.9-inch are disposed along the main deck, the grouping on the two sides being two forward of the starboard turret and four abaft it, and five forward and one abaft the port. These are behind 5-inch armor. The twelve 3.4-inch are carried in the bows and on the two superstructures, one being placed just below the super-imposed turret. Incidentally, this gun does not show up well in current photographs of the ship, but the port is quite a large one, and when the writer inspected the ship at Hamburg last July, the first impression was to regard it as a 5.9-inch emplacement, and credit the Moltke with fourteen of these guns. These 34-inch throw a 24-pound projectile at the rate of twelve a minute, and although mounted to repel anti-torpedo-boat attack, will probably be of little use except against small craft.
With a designed horse-power of 50,000, the Moltke has already reached over 29.5 knots, her power having worked up to somewhere in the region of 85,000 horse-power. Her lines are particularly fine despite her huge beam, the bow flare being very pronounced. It will be noted that the 34-inch guns there are not sponsoned as in Von der Tann, an amelioration that has improved the "dryness" forward.
Details of her protection can be gathered from the plan. The belt is 7 ½ to 8-inch amidships, tapering to 4-inch bow and stern, the lower deck side 5 inches and battery ditto, while the turrets have 8-inch walls.
A prominent feature of the ship is her immense funnels, with their wide, sloping bases—probably armored, although details on this point are lacking. Like the new battleships, she carries torpedo-nets along the main deck.
The Moltke was laid down in April, 1909, launched April 7, 1910, and is now entering service. Comparative features as follows:
| Lion | Moltke |
Displacement | 26,360 tons | 22,632 tons |
Torpedo-tubes | 5 21-in | 4 19.5-in |
Armament | 8 13.5-in. 16 4-in. | 10 11-in. 12 3.4-in. |
Cost | £2,100,000 | £2,380,000 |
Cost per ton | £79.5 | £105.1 |
Coal supply | 1000/3500 | 1000/3100 |
— The Marine Engineer and Naval Architect.
The German Navy.—The German Navy League seems to complain that it has been misunderstood. It has issued a statement in which it defines its policy. Its pronouncement appears to have been issued with the object of correcting some misapprehension or perhaps modifying the policy already declared. The Navy League states that it advocates adherence to the terms of the Navy Law in regard to the complete constitution of the reserve fleet. This provision would not affect the program so far as it relates to the building of battleships, and is probably intended to ensure better training for men. The only change proposed by the League has relation to the construction of the large cruisers or battle-cruisers, of which the legal establishment is 20. Of these n are now completed, including two of the Dreadnought class, three others are in hand, and a fourth will be provided for in 1912. This would leave five others to be built, which would be laid down under the law at the rate of one each year. The proposal of the Navy League is that they shall be built in half the time, by laying down two each year instead of one. Thus the last pair of the series would be laid down in 1914. The German League adds that a policy of two-keels-to-one, if adopted by this country, would not be alarming, because 20 ships to 40 would be more powerful than four ships to eight. The proportion would be the same, but, according to the German critics, the effect would be greater.
New Program.—The estimates for 1912-13, recently submitted to the Reichstag, amount to $111,254,589. The provisions for new ships are exactly according to the program laid down in the fleet law and provide for the laying down of one battleship to replace the Brandenburg and one battle cruiser to replace the Kaiserin Augusta, two scout cruisers, twelve destroyers, one submarine salvage ship, and a sum of $3,570,000 (same as last year) for submarine-boat construction and experiments. There is an increase in the estimate for maintenance for ships in commission, due partly to the increased size of units and to larger crews and partly to the proposal to establish a third battleship squadron in full commission. This means the keeping in commission of a battleship fleet composed of one fleet flagship and three squadrons of eight ships each, or twenty-five battleships.
A proposal much voiced in the press of late and meeting with popular approval is to accelerate the replacement of the six older large cruisers, laying down their substitutes at the rate of two per year instead of one, as provided in the fleet law.
As usual, there is an increase in personnel to meet the increased needs of the service. Provision is made for 145 additional officers and 3549 enlisted men.—Army and Navy Register.
Speed of Small Cruisers.—The German cruiser Stralsund, which was launched recently, is expected to attain a speed of "nearly 30 knots," and her reported horse-power of 30,000 is 5000 units greater than that for which the Chatham has been designed. But then the Stralsund is smaller by nearly 1000 tons, and carries a less powerful armament of two 5.9-inch and ten 4.i-inch guns. She is the fourth German protected cruiser to be launched during the present year, the others being the Magdeburg, on May 13; the Breslau, on May 16; and the Strassburg on August 24. The two first named belong to the 19x19 program, and the others to that of 1910, but all four are being built simultaneously and are understood to be of the same type.
Floating Dock.—The German Navy Estimates for 1912 provide, inter alia, for a floating dock for Wilhelmshaven, the dimensions to be similar to those of the dock recently installed at Kiel. This dock is so immense that ample room remains even when one of the Helgoland or the Moltke is in position. This addition will bring the number of large ship docks at the North Sea yard up to seven, in addition to which the two locks of the new harbor entrance are convertible into dry basins for the very largest vessels. Yet another enormous floating dock is to be built for Brunsbiittel, at the North Sea end of the Kiel Canal, an establishment which is steadily growing in importance. Other floating docks, capable of accommodating Dreadnoughts, are to be found at Hamburg, and would be available for war purposes When the present program has been completed Germany will possess at least twelve so-called Dreadnought docks on the North Sea coast.—Naval and Military Record.
Great Britain.
Building Program.—Now that orders have been placed for two of the three contract-built ships provided for under the current program there are no fewer than 21 ships of the Dreadnought type under construction in this country. Seventeen of these are British, and among them are included three ships which are engaged on or have completed their trials— the Orion, Lion, and Monarch—and four which have not yet been laid down. A fifth vessel remains to be ordered under the 1911 program. Four foreign ships increase the total considerably, one being under construction for Japan, Brazil, Chili, and Turkey, while each of the two last-named powers has a ship on order. The total number building and ordered, or about to be ordered, is therefore 24, but no fewer than six of these will have been completed by the end of March next, another two (the colonial cruisers) by the summer, and four of the five ships of the 1910 program early in January, 1913, in addition, probably, to the Japanese cruiser Kongo and the Brazilian battleship Rio de Janeiro. By the spring of 1913, therefore, only nine of these 24 ships will remain in the builders' hands. As opposed to this, however, there are factors on the other side to be taken into consideration. In the first place there is our own program for the coming financial year, which, according to the various "forecasts" that are now the fashion, may include anything from three to six armored units. Further, it has recently been announced that the Spanish Government, not altogether satisfied with the 16,000-ton ships building at Ferrol, intends to order some larger vessels to be built in this country; Portugal is considering a program of three 20,000 or 22.ooo-ton ships, and in this our own builders should stand more than equal chance with those of foreign countries. China is another nation that may enter the Dreadnought lists, with outside assistance, during the year; and, finally, 1912, may see an order placed for a fourth Brazilian ship, the Riachuclo, which has been talked of for a long time. Altogether, therefore, the outlook for the British shipbuilding industry for the next two or three years is far from discouraging.—Naval and Military Record.
Program for 1912.—The program for 1912 has not yet been published. There is, however, no indication that England's two-to-one policy will not be sustained; this will involve the laying down of at least five large armored ships, several scout cruisers, and a suitable number of destroyers and submarines.
The total naval estimates for 1911-12 amount to $216,036,101, as compared with $197,597,906 for the preceding year; while for 1909-10 the amount was $170,361,950.
The shipbuilding program authorized for 1911-12 provides for the following new construction: Five large armored ships, three protected cruisers, one unarmored cruiser, 20 destroyers, six submarines, two river gunboats, one depot ship for destroyers, and a hospital ship. An increase of 3000 in the personnel for manning the fleet is also provided.
During the year there were completed the battleships Neptune, Hercules. Colossus. Orion, and Monarch, as well as the armored cruisers Indefatigable and Lion. Of these the Orion, of 22,500 tons displacement, 21 knots speed, and the Lion, of about 26,350 tons displacement, 29 knots speed, are the first vessels to be completed by any navy carrying modern 13-5-inch guns and, therefore, mark a new step in the development of the all-big-gun type of ship.
The four battleships which were laid down this year, authorized in 1910, have been given the names of Ajax, Audacious, Centurion, and King George V. They will have a displacement of about 24,000 tons.
An armored cruiser, to be called Queen Mary, authorized at the same time, which was also laid down this year, will have, according to the newspapers, a displacement of 26,850 tons.
The displacement of the 20 destroyers for which contracts have recently been awarded is reported to be of about 920 tons. Press reports state that some of these will use internal combustion engines in connection with turbines.
The E class of submarines at present under construction are reported as having a submerged displacement of about 800 tons, and a new class of still greater displacement is said to be contemplated.—Army and Navy Register.
H.M.S. “Orion” Commissioned.—The battleship Orion, the first ship completed with 13.5-inch guns, was commissioned recently at Portsmouth. This event had been delayed a few days owing to the accident in the dynamo room, regarding which inquiry will be made when those injured have completely recovered. In view of the fact that the Orion is the largest and most powerful ship to be commissioned, remarks the Times, and as she has been completed in a remarkably short time without resorting to extraordinary hours of labor, it is interesting to note the chronological course of events. The first keel plate was laid at Portsmouth dockyard on November 29, 1909. and the vessel was launched on August 20, 1910. Part of the armor was then fitted in position on the hull, and the vessel was put in one of the docks at Portsmouth yard and the fitting of the armor completed by June, 1911. The guns and mountings, which were constructed by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., were fitted on board between April and June of last year. The Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Co., Ltd., received the contract for the propelling machinery, on December 3, 1909, and the whole of the work was completed in their works by November 29, 1910. As the engines were of 29,000 shaft horse-power, this is a highly creditable performance. The machinery was delivered at the dockyard on December i. 1910, and completed on board and tried alongside the wharf on August 25, 1911.
Details of Steam Trials.—The official steam trials began on September II and concluded on September 18. On a 24-hours' trial at cruising speed the power developed was 18,066 shaft horse-power, with a coal consumption of 1.8-pound per shaft horse-power per hour, and the speed of the ship was 19.5 knots, while on the eight-hours' full-power trial the turbines developed 29,108 shaft horse-power, the fuel consumption was equivalent to 1.6-pound of coal per shaft horse-power per hour, and the speed of the ship 21.02 knots. The machinery acceptance trial was run on November 25 last, and the ship was ready for commission on December 29 last. When it is remembered that the ship is 545 feet long between perpendiculars, 88 feet 6-inch beam, and of 22,500 tons displacement at 27 feet 6-inch draft, it will be accepted that the completion in exactly two years from the laying of the keel establishes the efficiency of the dockyard alike in its equipment and in the organization, for which Sir James Marshall, the Director of Dockyards, is responsible.
H.M.S. “Lion.”—The Lion was built at Devonport, and throughout her history the greatest secrecy has been maintained concerning her. It is understood, however, that her displacement is in the neighborhood of 26.350 tons, her overall length 680 feet, and her beam 88 feet 6 inches. She carries eight 13.5-inch guns and sixteen 4-inch guns. Reports concerning her speed are that it is expected to reach 33 ½ knots, and her turbines are stated to be of 70,000 horse-power.
In former issues we have given reports of this vessel as they were then current. The greatest divergence in any one case has been in the length. It is not even now known to the outside public what the exact length is, but probably 680 feet is not far from the truth. The beam, we believe to be correctly stated above, and the displacement given is probably not far from the truth.
In the early part of 1910 we endeavored to give in a drawing a forecast of this fine vessel. When this was prepared it was reported that there were only to be two funnels. According to our calculations it would have been impossible satisfactorily to dispose of the products of combustion with only two funnels of such a size that they could be conveniently mounted. We therefore gave the vessel four funnels. It will be observed that actually there are only three funnels, but that that in the center is of very large size, probably as great in area as two ordinary funnels. Moreover, the positions are such that the convenient arrangement of boilers possible with four funnels, to which we drew attention when referring to our picture, has no doubt been taken advantage of.
The substitution of I3.s-inch for 12-inch guns has already been remarked upon.—Engineering.
The “Lion.”—The British battle-cruiser Lion had her eight-hour full-power trial, in the English Channel, on January 8. The contract called for development of the designed horse-power, rather than for a given speed on this trial. The vessel's turbines developed the required horsepower, with coal only, though the weather was so bad that the Lion did not return to Devonport till the morning of January 9.
The Lion will be the flagship of the first cruiser squadron, commanded by Read-Admiral Lewis Bayly. She was laid down at Devonport, November 29, 1909, launched on August 8, 1910, and completed in November, 1911. She is fitted with Parsons' turbines and forty-two Yarrow water-tube boilers. The length of the vessel is 660 feet; beam, 88.5 feet; displacement, 26,360 tons; designed horse-power, 70,000; designed speed, 28 knots, though it is reported that she made over 29 knots on her trials. Her main armament is eight 13.5-inch guns, mounted on the center-line and so arranged that all can fire on either broadside. She has sixteen 4-inch guns, and three 21-inch submerged torpedo-tubes. The armor extends from the upper deck to about 7 feet below the water-line.
The development of the British armored cruiser has been rapid in recent years. The Invincible class (Invincible, Inflexible, and Indomitable), laid down in 1906, were 560 feet long, 78.5 feet beam with a displacement of '7.250 tons. Then came the Indefatigable, laid down in 1909 and completed in 1911, 578 feet in length, 79.5 feet beam, with a displacement of 19.200 tons. This was followed by the Lion and the Princess Royal, the latter of which was laid down in April, 1910, and is to be completed this year.—The Navy.
New Type of Submersible Boat for the British Navy.—The Admiralty have placed an order with the Scotts' Shipbuilding and Engineering Co., Limited, Greenock, for the building of a submersible boat of the Laurenti type, as constructed by the Fial San Giorgio Co., of Spezia. The Admiralty in ordering a vessel of the Italian type, the license for constructing which in this country has been acquired by Scotts Company, again prove their desire to acquire experience of all forms of munitions of war. A feature of the Laurenti design is the construction of an outer hull to give the highest propulsive efficiency and reserve buoyancy on the surface, with the minimum of draft, and an inner hull to minimize the internal cubic capacity while ensuring satisfactory conditions when submerged. The double skin, which is braced with stays to ensure the maximum of structural strength, is confined largely to the central part, and the space between the shells up to the water-line on surface displacement is utilized to form water-ballast tanks for submergence. Kingston valves are fitted at the turn of the bilge on each side for the flooding of the compartments, and the structure is made sufficiently strong to enable the water to be pumped out without danger of collapse due to the pressure of the sea water on the outer skin; but compressed air can be, and is normally, used for expelling the water when the boat is to return to the surface. Over the central part of the ship there is a double decking, with lattice bracing, and valves are fitted on each side above the water-line, through which water automatically enters and leaves respectively for the submergence or emergence of the vessel, which is effected on an even keel. This double decking extends practically from bow to stern. Vertical bulkheads divide the interior into several compartments. The new British submersible boat will be of the twin-screw type, with twin six-cylinder Fiat engines in one engine-room, and electric motors, the latter for propelling the boat when submerged. The torpedo-tubes will be forward, under the bow, and the storage-tubes above. Italy, Sweden, Denmark, and the United States have had submersible boats of this design. The Swedish boat is the more notable, as she made a voyage from Spezia to Stockholm without escort. She is 139.4 feet long, 14 feet beam, and 8.2 feet draft, and the voyage was made in stages respectively to Carthagena, Gibraltar, Lisbon, Oporto, Vigo, Ferrol, Brest, Portsmouth, Ymuiden, Kiel, and Stockholm, the longest non-stop run—from Spezia to Carthagena—being 790 sea miles. It is appropriate that the Scotts' Company should be the first of the Clyde firms to build a British Navy submersible boat, since they were the first on the northern river to construct a battleship of the Dreadnought type, and have a century-old connection with the Admiralty. They are to be commended for their enterprise in entering upon a new industry.
The "surveying trawler" Daisy, which is about to be taken over by the Admiralty from the John Duthio Torry Shipbuilding Co., is the first vessel of the type to be built for the navy. The Daisy is in reality a minesweeper of some 600 tons displacement.
Town Cruisers.—Completion of the Group.—IT. M. S. Yarmouth, which is on trials on the Clyde, is the last of the four British cruisers of the Town class which were ordered under the 1900-10 program. The other three are now in commission. The Yarmouth was built by the London and Glasgow Shipbuilding Co., Govan; the Falmouth. which is attached to the second battle squadron of the home fleet, by Messrs. Wm. Beardmore & Co., Dalmuir; the Dartmouth, now at Devonport with defects, by Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Barrow-in-Furness; and the Weymouth, which has just relieved the Doris in the Atlantic fleet, by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Elswick. The Dalmuir and Barrow vessels have turbine machinery by their builders, the Elswick ship was engined by the Parsons Co. and the Yarmouth has been supplied by Messrs. John Brown & Co., Clydebank, with Brown-Curtis turbines.
The vessels are "improved Bristols," being of greater displacement and having more powerful armament. With a length of 450 feet on the waterline and a beam of 48 ½ feet, they displace 5250 tons at 15 ½ feet draft. Compared with the Bristols, the freeboard has been increased, especially forward, and the increased stability resulting from the greater width enables them to carry a comparatively heavy armament of eight 6-inch guns and four 3-pounders. The 6-inch guns are mounted on the latest type of carriage, which enables the centres to be carried out quite close to the ship's side, thus securing almost end-on fire for the broadside guns. Five out of the eight guns can be fired simultaneously on either broadside, and three ahead and astern. The vessels are fitted with two torpedo-tubes for the latest 2i-inch torpedoes.
The Falmouth was the first of the three vessels to be completed and to be commissioned. On trial she attained a speed of 27.1 knots. Her machinery is of the Parsons' turbine type, with four ahead and four astern turbines—one ahead and one astern on each of four shafts, and the turbines working in series on two shafts on each side of the center-line of the vessel. Cruising turbines were dispensed with, the high pressure ahead turbine being extended at the high pressure end, so as to increase the range of expansion when running at less than full power, with a by-pass to admit steam at an intermediate stage for the higher speeds.
The Dartmouth attained a speed of 25.9 knots while developing 23,500 shaft horse-power. It was anticipated, in consequence of the increased displacement over the Bristol class, that the speed would be somewhat less for a given expenditure of power, but a comparison of the trial results of the Dartmouth with those of the Gloucester of the earlier class show a great similarity of performance. The Gloucester obtained a speed of 23.45 knots, with 13,970 shaft horse-power, and the Dartmouth 23.49 knots, with 14,290 shaft horse-power. The Gloucester at 25.08 knots expended 18,980 shaft horse-power, whilst the Dartmouth at 24.97 knots required 18,840 shaft horse-power.
The trials of the Weymouth were also most satisfactory. These three vessels have machinery similar in type. In the Yarmouth, however, turbines of the Brown-Curtis type are fitted by Messrs. John Brown & Co., Clydebank. They are similar in design to those so successfully adopted in the Bristol, which was built at Clydebank. With this type of turbine two shafts only are required, and a lower rate of revolutions is maintained than with the Parsons, thus enabling a higher propeller efficiency to be obtained.—Naval and Military Record.
H.M.S. “Chatham.”—The launch of the new cruiser Chatham recently was naturally an event of importance for the eastern yard, at which no large vessel has been built since the Shannon was put afloat in 1906. For reasons which are well known the only new vessels whose construction has been allotted to Chatham since that year have been submarines, but that the yard is quite able to build larger ships expeditiously is shown by the case of the Chatham. From the particulars given of the new cruiser it is evident that her design shows an advance over that of the Dartmouth, but not so great as was that of the last-named over the Bristol. Whereas the displacement of the Bristol was 4800, and of the Dartmouth 525o tons, that of the Chatham has gone up to 5400 tons. There will also be no change in the armament from that in the Dartmouth—viz., eight guns of 6-inch caliber. On the other hand, there is to be noted a great increase in length and also in horse-power, which rather indicates that the speed of the Chatham, which has not been stated officially, will be higher than that of the predecessors, of which the Bristol was designed for 25 knots and the Dartmouth for 24 ¾ knots. This would not be surprising, considering that some very fast small cruisers have recently been built abroad.—Army and Navy Gazette.
The unarmored cruiser Amphion, which was launched at Pembroke dockyard, is a third-class cruiser of the improved Boadicea type. Like her sister ship, the Active, she belongs to the 1910-11 Navy Estimates; but the two ships are not being built simultaneously. The Amphion was laid down on March 15 last, the day following the launch of the Active, which has passed through her trials, and is now preparing for commission; the Amphion will, it is expected, be ready for the pennant in September, 1912, ships of this class taking rather less than 18 months to build, from laying down to completion. The Amphion is the sixth of the modern third-class unarmored cruisers, and the estimates for the current year provide for the construction of a seventh, which was laid down at Pembroke on November 15. The duty of these ships is to serve, like the older "scouts," as stiffeners and supports to the destroyer flotillas, to which they are attached.
The first keel-plates of a new unarmored cruiser of the Boadicea class have been laid down at Pembroke dockyard. She will be the seventh vessel of the type, and will differ from the earlier ships as regards her armament and the type of her turbine machinery.—Page's Weekly.
H. M. S. Archer, one of the five special destroyers building for the British Admiralty by Messrs. Yarrow, of Glasgow, has had a very successful official full-speed trial on the Skelmorlie deep water measured mile at the mouth of the Clyde. Although the weather was exceptionally bad, a mean speed of 30.3 knots was attained during a continuous run of eight hours, thus exceeding the contract speed of 28 knots by 2.3 knots.
Throughout the trial the whole of the machinery worked perfectly. The special feature of interest was the boiler installation, the boilers being fitted with Yarrow's patent system of superheating; the average superheat during the trial was 94 degrees Fahrenheit, from which a very appreciable gain in economy was obtained.
Battleships—England and Germany.—The following table shows the number of battleships maintained in full commission by Great Britain and Germany each year from 1904 onwards:
| Great Britain | Germany | ||
Home | Foreign | Total | Home (total) | |
1904 | 16 | 17 | 33 | 8 |
1905 | 20 | 13 | 33 | 12 |
1906 | 24 | 8 | 32 | 15 |
1907 | 26 | 6 | 32 | 16 |
1908 | 26 | 6 | 32 | 16 |
1909 | 22 | 6 | 28 | 16 |
1910 | 22 | 6 | 28 | 16 |
1911 | 22 | 6 | 28 | 17 |
In seven years, therefore, the fully commissioned battle fleets of Great Britain have been reduced by five units, or 15 per cent, while that of Germany has been increased by nine units, or 112.5 Per cent.
Speed of Construction of Battleships.—The battleship Centurion, launched at Devonport on November 18, is the twenty-eighth all-big-gun ship launched this year. The following table of launches shows the rate at which the building of Dreadnoughts is spreading.
Power for whom launched | Year of launch and number | |||||
1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | |
Great Britain | 1 | 6 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 8 |
Germany |
|
| 4 | 4 | 2 | 4 |
United States |
|
| 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
Brazil |
|
| 1 | 1 |
|
|
Japan |
|
|
|
| 1 | 1 |
Italy |
|
|
|
| 1 | 3 |
Russia |
|
|
|
|
| 4 |
France |
|
|
|
|
| 2 |
Argentine |
|
|
|
|
| 2 |
Austria |
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
Spain |
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
Totals | 1 | 6 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 28 |
—Journal of the Royal Artillery.
Battleship Floating Dock.—An immense floating dock for the British Admiralty was successfully launched on Thursday, January 4, from the Wallsend shipyard of Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson, Ltd. Some idea may be gained of its size when it is known that the ground area it covers is no less than two and a quarter acres, while the total height of the side walls is 66 feet. This is one of three docks that Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson, Ltd., are constructing at present for the British Admiralty, for whom they also built a battleship dock several years ago. This last named was designed for accommodating vessels displacing 17,000 tons, and is stationed at Bermuda. The dock that has just been launched has nearly twice that lifting capacity, namely, 32,000 tons. In addition to the docks built for the British Admiralty, others have been constructed at the Wallsend shipyard for various other governments. The way in which these immense structures can be towed to distant parts is most remarkable. The British Admiralty dock for Bermuda was towed nearly 4000 miles to its destination. The floating dock for the Natal Government was towed over 8000 miles to Durban, and a 7OOO-ton dock was safely delivered a year or two ago at Calao, the port of Lima, in Peru, the distance from the Wallsend shipyard being about 11,000 miles. Other docks built by the same firm have been towed to various European ports, and also to more distant ones, such as Para in Brazil, Port of Spain in the Island of Trinidad, Egypt, and the west coast of Africa.
The dock that has just been launched is double-sided, and in designing it the builders have been closely associated with Messrs. Clark & Standfield, of Westminster. At the bow end of the dock there is a pair of pivoted flying gangways, to give access from one wall of the dock to the other. In the walls of the dock is living accommodation for a number of officers and men. A complete telephone system is also installed to give communication between engine and boiler rooms and different parts of the dock. There are eight steam boilers, which have been constructed at the Neptune Engine Works of the builders. The pumps have been supplied by Messrs. Gwynnes, Ltd. There is also a very complete outfit of steam and hand capstans placed on the walls of the dock to warp vessels into position. The dock is lit by electricity throughout and on the walls are two electric travelling cranes. In order to facilitate rapid repairs, a commodious workshop is provided in one of the walls with an equipment of machine tools and all necessary plant and appliances. Preservative bituminous enamel and solution by Messrs. W. Briggs & Sons, Ltd., of Dundee, has been applied to the dock externally and internally.
Altogether the dock will represent the most complete and efficient means of overhauling and repairing the largest type of modern battleship yet designed or constructed. It is a worthy product of the famous Wallsend shipyard and a fitting addition to the greatest navy the world has known.—The Marine Engineer.
Fast Building.—The trials of H. M. S. Monarch, the first of. the Contingent battleships, have commenced, and the vessel, which has just left Elswick, has proceeded to Devonport to be dry docked prior to the full-power trials. Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co. have created a record in battleship construction in this case, for the vessel was only ordered in April, 1910, and, in spite of the delay occasioned by the shipbuilders' strike last year, was launched in exactly twelve months and completed for trials in the following six. With the Brazilian and Chilian battleships also in hand, Elswick has over 80,000 tons of battleship work under construction at the same time.—Engineering.
Coaling at Gibraltar.—Another coaling record has just been achieved, and by the same ship—the Triumph. She has made a record for the British Navy, and the Mediterranean fleet in particular have good reason to be proud of her. In one morning she took in 640 tons in I hour 15 minutes, the average working out at 512 tons per hour! This is splendid, and to much praise cannot be given for the wonderful organization and the extraordinary energy that must have been forthcoming to produce such result.—Naval and Military Record.
Speed in Battle-Cruisers.—It is a matter for extreme gratification that our latest battle-cruisers are likely to obtain a speed of close on 30 knot to the hour; although the contractor speed for the Lion group was 2 knots, which in itself was a considerable advance on the Invincibles which were designed for 25 knots and only attained 28.6 knots as an "extra." Now the Lions are designed for 28, and will probably reach and even exceed 30 knots on trial. The two new battle-cruisers provided by the Colonic and named, respectively, the Australia and New Zealand, were designs; for 26 and will steam over 29 knots. The Queen Mary and her sister although over 1000 tons larger than the Lion group, are designed to steam 28 knots only, but will probably exceed 30 at their best. The gratification regarding these speeds comes in when we consider that the ships name will have the heels of nearly every class of destroyer in our own am what is much more to the point, also in foreign navies. The German have 33-knot sea-going destroyers, but this speed could only be attained when the surface of the sea is as smooth as a mirror, and even at sue times the necessary current of air in the stokehold to make the boiler do their best, is not forthcoming except such light airs as come from that quarter of the world towards which the vessel is wending her way. The fast battle-cruiser, therefore, will be able to overtake a destroyer or escape from a group of them with comparative ease, in nine cases out of ten. Speed has hitherto been on the side of the destroyers, but this advantage will now he lost unless rapid developments take place in increasing the speed of these torpedo craft.—United Service Gazette.
Detective “Dreadnoughts.”—Lord C. Beresford asked the First Lord of the Admiralty, on November 30, whether he was aware that some modification was necessary in the control positions of His Majesty's ship Orion. Conqueror, Thunderer, Lion, Princess Royal, Colossus, and Hercules; whether he knew that the spotter was stationed abaft the for funnel and almost over it, and was liable to be suffocated: whether the heat from the funnel often produced a temperature of 220 degrees at the locality where the spotter was stationed: and whether any proposals would be made to remedy this state of affairs.
Mr. Churchill replied: Inconvenience has been experienced in the control positions in the ships named in the question, and modifications are now under consideration.—United Service Gazette.
An explosion occurred on the morning of December 12 on board Hi! Majesty's ship Orion, at Portsmouth, and the following were injured Commander Herbert N. Garrett, R. N., Admiralty; Lieutenant (T.) Brian Edgerton, R. N., His Majesty's ship Orion; Engineer-Lieutenant Henry S. Brockman, R. N., His Majesty's ship Orion; Mr. Charles Davidge, gunner (T.), His Majesty's ship Orion; Mr. Patrick P. Cole man, boatswain (T.), Admiralty; Albert Hudson, stoker, O. N., D. K 4817, His Majesty's ship Orion; Mr. James Pringle. electrical engineer Admiralty; Mr. Albert Franklin, assistant electrical engineer; Mr. William Green, inspector of electrical fitters; Thomas Metcalfe, chargeman of electrical fitters, No. 6772: Henry Driver, electrical fitter. No. 8084 William Richards, electrical fitter. No. 8677; John Willis, electrical fitter No. 6659; William Rycroft. electrical fitter's apprentice, No. 6660; William Ward, electrical fitter's apprentice, No. 8676; Charles Irish, skilled laborer No. 8695; George Marder, laborer, No. 794; Alfred Goldfinch, laborer No. 722. All the injured are doing as well as can be expected. Later information added the names of Lieutenants Grant and Parker to the injured. Lieutenant Egerton is a son of Vice-Admiral Sir George Egerton, until recently the Second Sea Lord.
The battleship Orion, which is completing for commission at Portsmouth, where she has been built, has already passed her speed, gunnery, and torpedo tests very satisfactorily, and lies in No. 15 dock. A number of experts from London and Portsmouth were assembled on board to see the electrical machinery under full working conditions, and they were accompanied by some of the executive officers attached to the ship. All of them were watching the working of the second dynamo, the first having worked very satisfactorily; the second appeared to be acting very smoothly, with its principal bearings running in an oil-bath, when there was a sudden, sharp explosion, the cover of an oil-tank or bath was blown away, and the compartment was filled with flames.
It is supposed that the dynamo in some way got overheated, while another suggestion is that an electric spark was emitted and ignited inflammable vapor from the oil, but in the absence of any official statement the exact cause is difficult to ascertain. From all parts of the naval establishment medical aid was rendered. Staff Surgeon Nimmo, of the Royal yacht Alexandra, was one of the first to arrive, and then came the dockyard surgery doctors and several fleet and staff surgeons. The surgeons, after attending first to the more serious cases, devoted their zeal to those whose injuries were not so severe. After temporary dressing on the ship the men were conveyed to the dockyard surgery. The condition of 14 of the injured necessitated their removal to Haslar Hospital.—United Service Gazette.
Orion (battleship, Capt. A. W. Craig), flagship of Rear-Admiral H. G. Hing-Hall, C. V. O., C. B., D. S. O., Second Division, Home Fleet.— The damage sustained by the vessel coming in contact with the battleship Revenge, when the latter broke from her moorings in Portsmouth harbor, was not considered sufficiently serious to warrant her detention for docking and repairs. After the present cruise of the division for exercises off the coast of Spain, the vessel, it is understood, will be despatched to Devonport for repairs to be effected.—Army and Navy Gazette.
Loss of British “A-3.”—The collision of the British submarine A-3 with the British gunboat Hazard, at the entrance to Spithead, on February 2, resulted in the death of four officers and ten men of the A-3 and the total loss of the vessel. Salvagers have raised what is left of the submarine, in order to recover the bodies and for the purpose of investigation from naval construction points of view.
The collision occurred as the A-3 was engaged in practice with a flotilla of sister ships. The Hazard, passing over the water where the submarine was just coming to the surface, struck her from above and on her side, causing her to sink.
The A-3 belonged to the earlier type of British submarines, these vessels having been used during the past year for harbor and coast defence maneuvers.
Although no detailed information as to the particular case of the A-3 has been given out by the British Admiralty, this, like similar accidents to other submarines, in both the British and French Navies, was undoubtedly simply an accident.—The Navy.
The Admiralty War Staff.—On January 1, 1912, the First Lord (Winston Churchill) of the British Admiralty created the Naval War Staff, and, in a memorandum, explained its character and duties, the reasons for the same, and that the additional expense involved is to be compensated for by abolition of four of the Admiralty yachts.
The appointments made all date from January 8, and were as follows: Chief of the Naval War Staff, Read-Admiral E. C. T. Troubridge; Director of Operations, Captain G. A. Ballard; Director of Intelligence, Captain Thomas Jackson.
A new office, that of an additional Civil Lord, was also created to look after Admiralty contracts, to be the buyer and business manager of the Admiralty, and to furnish the Third and Fourth Sea Lords with all that they may require in order to build, arm, equip, and supply the fleet.
Additional Civil Lord, Sir Francis Hopwood.
The title of Private Secretary to the First Lord is changed to Naval Secretary, and Rear-Admiral David Beatty had been appointed to this post.
In the United States the Naval War Staff is known as the General Beard. The latter has more members than the former, but its duties correspond.
The diagram above is to show graphically the similarity of the present organization of the British Admiralty, and our own Navy Department. The words in parentheses indicate the titles of American positions similar to the English positions.
The duties of the members of the Admiralty and Staff are laid down as follows in the memorandum:
Each of the Sea Lords on the Board of Admiralty has a special sphere of superintendence assigned to him by the First Lord in pursuance of the Order in Council. The First Sea Lord is charged with preparations for war and the distribution of the fleet. The Second Sea Lord, who is to be kept in close relation to the First Sea Lord, mans the fleet and trains the men. The Third Sea Lord directs the military construction of the fleet; and the Fourth Sea Lord is responsible for furnishing it with adequate and suitable stores and ammunition. All these heads of large departments will have occasion, in the discharge of their respective duties, to recur to the War Staff or its various branches for general information or for working out special inquiries.
Since, however, under the distribution of Admiralty business on the Board, the First Sea Lord occupies for certain purposes, especially the daily distribution of the fleet, on which the safety of the country depends, the position of a Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, with the First Lord immediately over him as the delegate of the crown in exercising supreme executive power, it follows that the War Staff must work at all times directly under the First Sea Lord. His position is different in important respects from that of the senior member of the Army Council as constituted. The First Sea Lord is an executive officer in active control of daily fleet movements who requires, like a general in the field, to have at his disposal a chief of the staff, but who is not the chief of the staff himself.
A proper staff, whether naval or military, should comprise three main branches—namely, a branch to acquire the information on which action may be taken; a branch to deliberate on the facts so obtained in relation to the policy of the state, and to report thereupon; and thirdly, a branch to enable the final decision of superior authority to be put into actual effect. The War Staff at the Admiralty will, in pursuance of this principle, be organized from the existing elements, in three divisions: the intelligence division, the operations division, and the mobilization division. These may be shortly described as dealing 'with war information, war plans, and war arrangements respectively. The divisions will be equal in status, and each will be under a director who will usually be a captain of standing. The three divisions will be combined together under a chief of the staff.
The chief of the staff will be a flag officer. He will be primarily responsible to the First Sea Lord, and will work under him as his principal assistant and agent. He will not, however, be the sole channel of communication between the First Sea Lord and the staff; and the First Lord and the First Sea Lord will whenever convenient consult the directors of the various divisions or other officers if necessary. This direction is essential to prevent that group of evils which have always arisen from the "narrow neck of the bottle" system. The chief of the War Staff will guide and coordinate the work of the staff in all its branches. He will, when desired, accompany the First Lord and the First Sea Lord to the Committee of Imperial Defence.
Although the methodical treatment of the vast number of subjects to be dealt with by the staff requires that there should be divisions and subdivisions, yet it is imperative that these should never be permitted to develop into "water-tight" compartments. It will be found that there is so much overlapping between divisions, that a constant, free, and informal intercourse between them is indispensable. To promote this, the chief of the staff will be enjoined to hold frequent meetings—to be called "staff meetings"—with the heads of three divisions, and each of the directors will be kept fully acquainted with the work of their two colleagues. Each one of the directors will be ready at any moment to act for the chief of the staff in the latter's absence from whatever cause. In times of profound peace, action has often to be taken immediately on the receipt of some telegraphic report or a request from one of the other departments of state; one of the three directors will therefore always remain within prompt call by messenger, night and day.
The functions of the War Staff will be advisory. The chief of the staff, when decision has been taken upon any proposal, will be jointly responsible with the secretary for the precise form in which the necessary orders to the fleet are issued, but the staff will possess no executive authority. It will discharge no administrative duties. Its responsibilities will end with the tendering of advice and with the accuracy of the facts on which that advice is based.
Decision as to accepting or rejecting the advice of the staff wholly or in part rests with the First Sea Lord, who, in the name of the Board of Admiralty, discharges the duties assigned to him by the Minister. In the absence of the First Sea Lord for any cause the Second Sea Lord would act for him.
The selection of officers to be appointed to this War Staff is to be made in this wise: The president of the college will be entrusted with this important duty, and, in order that it may be carried out to the best effect, he will at all times be in close touch and association with the chief of the staff. In course of time the appointment will be held by a flag officer who has been a staff officer himself. Candidates for the staff will be selected from volunteers among lieutenants of suitable seniority as well as officers of other branches throughout the service, irrespective of their previous qualifications as specialist officers or otherwise, and those who pass the necessary examinations at the end of or during the war college course will he eligible to receive appointments either at the Admiralty or on the staff of flag officers afloat as they fall vacant. In all cases, however, regular periods of sea-going executive duty will alternate with the other duties -of staff officers of all ranks, in order that they may be kept up to the necessary standard as practical sea officers. All appointments on sea-going staffs will ;n the course of time be filled by these officers, and form the proper avenue to eventual employment in the highest staff position at the Admiralty.
The Initiation of a Naval War Staff.—Perhaps the first question which the ordinary intelligent man will ask with regard to the Admiralty memorandum on a Naval War Staff is—What is the Naval War Staff to do? What is its precise function. Its function will he to make a special study of the operational side of war in contradistinction from its technical and material side. One of the great defects of the navy at present is the lack of thought and of continuity of thought in tactics, strategy and war operations. An admiral is appointed to the command of .the home fleet. During his first year he is absorbed in administrative work, and it is probably not till his second year that he begins to pay attention to tactical and strategical problems. But he has no body of doctrine to assist him; nor has he any assistants specially trained in such work. He probably reflects what his predecessor has already done. Then comes his successor and does it all over again. There is the same lack of continuity with regard to the study of war operations, and there are no systematized methods of war direction. The machinery of a staff organization has been framed in order to supply this deficiency, but it must not be considered as anything more than a framework. The real problem is the collection and training of a body of staff officers. Still the appointment of a chief of staff responsible for the study of war problems and unhampered by administrative work will tend towards a coordination of thought and effort. But the gunnery and torpedo schools were not created in a day, and it will take some years to create a true staff, though its function is clear enough. It is really an expression of the growing complexity of modern warfare and modern industry. In the last forty years, the enormous strides made in things technical and material have absorbed a large part of the mental energy of the service, with the inevitable result that while great attention has been paid to the mechanism and construction of guns and ships, the science of their actual application—for this knowledge is big enough to make an entirely separate science—has been largely neglected. The navy and army differ from every other big business in that they only occasionally perform their business. It is the work of a staff to study just exactly what that business will be, and to ensure its intelligent direction in time of war.
The war college has certainly done something in this direction, and its work must not be depreciated. It is in fact a very essential part of a staff system. But its work is greatly discounted by the shortness of the course (only three months) and the mature age of those who attend it. A number of the officers (most of them post captains) who go there simply look upon it as a full-pay oasis in the arid plain of half pay. This reacts on the spirit of the place, for one dare hardly be intelligent for fear of being called a dreamer by the unintelligent "bloc." It is almost impossible for those outside the service to appreciate how the study of war and of war direction has been neglected in the past. Up to 1900 the word tactics was attached to the performance of certain quadrille movements which had no earthly relationship to the realities of battle. A good deal has been done to improve matters, but the navy lacks original thinkers to sift its work and embody it in clear and simple principles. Or if we have such men, they lack time and leisure. The name and mechanism of a War Staff are only the first step on the journey. We have not yet got a real staff, and the first duty of the staff, when we have it, will be to evolve itself by a process of gradual evolution. We must endeavor to create a certain type of mind—keenly critical and outspoken, but honest and loyal. But the genius of the British officer lies not in criticizing and investigating but in action—in doing things and not in thinking. The naval mind is severely practical, and the practical mind is often an unresilient mind which not only has no desire to investigate things, but is perfectly incompetent to perform such work. Again, much of our best talent has been switched on to technical lines, and, working constantly amongst things material, it seems to find difficulty in moving easily in immaterial spheres of abstract thought and expression. The first business then of the War Staff will be to switch a certain proportion of the younger talent on to the subjects of war, tactics and strategy.
The first paragraph of the memorandum where a comparison is drawn between war on sea and war on land is weak because it confuses the routine work of a staff with its higher functions. Transport problems are of course radically different on land and sea; but transport problems are largely matters of routine calculation. It is true that these matters do not require so much calculation in the navy, for every ship is self-contained, and transport by water is simpler than transport by land. But so far as higher problems such as commerce-defence and invasion are concerned, the navy has just as much to do as the army. The naval staff officer certainly does not need to worry his head over long march tables, but on the other hand the technical problems he has to solve are more numerous and more varied. Looking at the organization of the staff, the principal relationship to consider is that of the chief of staff to the First Sea Lord. The former is to be directly subordinate to the latter, and his duties will be advisory and not executive. This is as it should be; but it must be clearly understood by the First Sea Lord that the chief of staff is a real and important entity, and not a mere figurehead to supply arguments for preconceived ideas. The relationship of the chief of the staff to the president of the war college is to be one "of close touch and association." This is somewhat nebulous, and is made still more so by the fact that the present holder of the war college appointment is a vice-admiral, while the chief of the staff is a rear-admiral. The memorandum makes it clear that staff officers will be a branch of specialists and will be on the same footing as other specialists. A great number of naval officers look with suspicion on the word "staff." because they imagine it will be used as a kind of "open sesame" to command.
A careful distinction must be made at the very outset between "staff" qualities and "command" qualities. Staff qualities are intellectual, and include a critical scientific mind and a circumferential view of things. Command qualities are largely moral and include decision, common sense, energy and nerve. These latter qualities will just as often be found outside the staff as inside it, and staff officers must understand that their selection and training will give them no more claim to command or to promotion than any other form of specialism. In fact there is no great danger of their thinking it will, for presumably on attaining the rank of captain a staff officer would be merged once more in the line of general work. Again, staff officers must not be divorced from the sea. They must not be left too long ashore—a defect conspicuously evident in the case of many gunnery and torpedo specialists. The fourteenth paragraph of the memorandum discusses the selection and training of staff officers, and this is the crux of the whole question. What is wanted is a critical investigatory type of mind, and in the officers selected to be the first instructors this must be combined with real enthusiasm and interest in instructional work. The memorandum talks of "passing the necessary examinations at the war college," and here there seems a danger of the examination-fetish creeping into the system. An examination is at once the easiest and most fallacious method of testing ability. There should be as few examinations as possible. Problems should be set for investigation, principles explained and criticisms encouraged. Merit should be estimated by an officer's general work and by essay writing, not by examinations which are unsuitable for a staff training whose object is to equip with faculties, not to load with facts.
What is wanted in our staff officers is the critical mind, and the men whom the average captain, hating criticism, would be the last to recommend are possibly the very ones who ought to be selected. Officers who cannot think and write will never be able to initiate a staff. The First Lord has supplied the navy with a good staff house. It is now the business of the navy to fill it with a good staff type.—Naval and Military Record.
A Criticism.—A week's reflection on the Naval War Staff has shown that it meets with much approval. In summary, all that has been done is to graft on to the existing intelligence and mobilization departments another for working out war plans, and to place all three branches under the orders of a rear-admiral. The scheme leaves the Board of Admiralty supreme, with, however, this important difference—that a well-equipped War Staff will strengthen the hands of a strong Sea Lord and will probably dominate a weak Sea Lord. That the War Staff will compose all differences between naval officers on questions of strategy and tactics is impossible, and it would be bad for progressive naval opinion if it were possible. The scheme has many good points, but it is quite safe to say that at present the majority of naval officers have not come to any definite conclusion upon it. A great deal will depend upon the forthcoming decisions by the First Lord as to the distribution of business, showing exactly to what extent naval administration is likely to be improved by the two new elements at the Admiralty—the War Staff and the new Civil Lord.—Naval and Military Record.
A Danger in the Naval War Staff Scheme.—Under the system provided for selection of members of the Naval War Staff, only those who have been fortunate enough to have had a special course of training at the War College will know and feel that they can ever receive an appointment at the Admiralty, or on the staff of a commander-in-chief. or to a higher staff position. This follows because, judging by all appointments, service at the Admiralty is always required before such employment afloat.
Italy.
Building Program.—The naval appropriation for 1911-12 amounts to $.37.676.548.
In 1909 the Italian parliament passed a law which established the naval program for each year up to 1916. Recently parliament passed another law extending this program to include the years 1916-17 and 1917-18. A certain sum is allowed each year for new constructions and the maintenance of the fleet. The number and type of ships to be laid down each year is determined by the minister of marine; therefore, it is not possible to know what vessels are to he- built until the Navy Department has made its decision after the appropriation is made. According to press reports, three new battleships are to be laid down during the present fiscal year, and plans for new ships are known to be under consideration by the Navy Department, but no official announcement has yet been made.
During 1911 there were under construction the following: Four battleships, three scout cruisers, 10 destroyers, 32 torpedo-boats, and 13 submarines.—Army and Navy Register.
Program for Next Year.—The estimates for 1912-13 amount to $41,859,030. Of this amount $11.580,000 is for the maintenance of existing vessels and for new construction now in hand or to be commenced. Since the naval appropriation law does not specify the number or type of ships to be laid down—this being left to the discretion of the Navy Department —there is no official information at hand showing the new construction contemplated for the coming year.
In addition, however, to the four large battleships now building it is known that two were recently ordered to be built at government yards, on one of which work was begun in December, 1911, and it is reported that contracts for two more will be let in the near future.—Army and Navy Register.
The battleship Conte di Carour has the following characteristics: Displacement, 22,700 tons; length, 551 feet; breadth, 88.5 feet; draft, 27.22 feet. There will be 12 boilers fitted for burning both coal and oil, eight to burn oil only. Four Parsons' turbines. Horse-power, 24,000; speed, 22 knots; maximum coal supply, 2500 tons. Radius of action at highest speed, 1000 miles. Radius of action at economical speed, 3000 miles. Thirteen 12-inch guns in five turrets in same fore and aft line; Nos. 1, 3 and 5 turrets to have three guns each, Nos. 2 and 4 to have two guns each and five over the three gun turrets, giving a broadside of thirteen 12-inch, a bow or stern fire of five 12-inch. Eighteen 4.8-inch so-caliber guns in armored casemates; fourteen 3-inch; two field pieces; four automatic guns; and three under-water torpedo-tubes.
A battleship of 25,000 tons was put on the ways the last of October at Spezia.
The first of the 12 torpedo-boats ordered from the Odero shipyard of Sestri Ponente was launched October 17. It is named O. S. 13.
The submarine Medusa in October attained a speed of 14.57 knots, or 2.5 knots over her contract speed.
The captured Turkish ships, Thetis and Derna, have been placed in the Italian fleet, rechristened the Capitaine and the Benghazi respectively.
The Italian Fleet and Tripoli.—The Popolo Romano rebukes those excited journals which cry out against the supposed inaction of the Italian fleet, and expect it to bombard Salonica, to penetrate the Dardanelles, and to destroy Constantinople. The Popolo says that the fleet has anxious duties, and is ready to act, officers and men being full of patriotic zeal. But this is no reason why the government should be impelled to adopt a course of action based upon perilous delusions which might lead to serious consequences. In short, the Roman journal thinks the game would not be worth the candle. It says that it is folly to believe that active operations of the Italian fleet would induce the Turkish ships to come out from their shelter, and that no glory or credit is to be gained in the open sea. It appears to have been rumored that the fleet had cut the cable between Lemnos and one of the islands, but the Popolo says that the question of occupying any of the islands and of blockading the entrance to the Dardanelles or the coast of Syria must be left to the government.—The United Service Gazette.
Armament of “Dante Alighieri.”—In the Dante Alighieri, the first Italian Dreadnought now building, there will be four triple turrets, mounted on the center-line, all on the same level, a pair of turrets being placed amidships between the fore and aft superstructures. On a displacement of 19,000 tons, the Dante Alighieri will carry, in addition to her turret guns, an armament of twenty 47-inch guns, eight of which have been mounted in four small turrets placed well forward and aft on each side, in such position as to interfere as little as possible with the big guns. The placing of these eight guns in this manner is to increase the resistance offered to torpedo attack on the beam or quarter.—The Navy.
Japan.
Program for This Year.—The total naval estimates for the year 1911-12 amount to $42.044,329. This is an increase of $5,234,700 over the estimates for the preceding year.
The Japanese Diet has recently authorized the amalgamation of the existing shipbuilding programs or appropriations into one under the title of "expenses for maintaining naval preparations." The unexpended balance of the existing appropriations amounts to $82,892,305, to which was added a further sum of $40,947,130 for the purpose of enlarging ships already authorized but not yet commenced. The total sum available, therefore, amounts to $123,839,443, which is to be expended in six years—that is, up to and including the fiscal year 1916-17. Out of this there has been set aside for the construction of men-of-war the sum of $78,837,591.
An armored cruiser of about 27,500 tons displacement was laid down January 17, 1911, in England by Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Maxim. Three similar vessels have been ordered to be built in Japan. These vessels are reported as being designed for a speed of 29 knots and will carry either 13.5inch or 14-inch guns. A battleship which will probably be laid down in 1912 is also included in the present building program.
During 1911 there were completed the battleship Aki, of 19,800 tons displacement, and the armored cruiser Kurama, of 14,600 tons displacement. —Army and Navy Register.
Building Program.—Two very different reports have been received as to a new naval program which will shortly be placed before the Japanese Chamber. According to one statement a sum of £40,000,000 is to be demanded, to be spread over seven years; while the other states the sum to be £25.000,000 (in addition to £8,200.000 remaining from votes already made), to be spread over either six or ten years. The latter statement adds that the vessels it is proposed to build are three battleships, four battle-cruisers, three third-class cruisers, and a number of river gunboats and mine-layers.—Journal of the Royal Artillery.
Floating Dock.—A Renter's telegram from Tokio says: The new naval dry-dock recently launched at Nasebo Naval Yard is the largest in Japan. It has taken four years to construct, and will not be quite completed for another four months. It will lift warships up to 30,000 tons. It is 777 feet in length and in feet in breadth.
The Japanese Naval Department is arranging to commission shortly a squadron of ocean-going destroyers.—Naval and Military Record.
Financial.—There is nothing very surprising in the announcement which has been made by the Japanese Minister of Finance that owing to monetary difficulties it is impossible at present to carry out the government's naval expansion projects. Ever since the war with Russia Japan's financial position has been growing more and more unsatisfactory, and large sums have been borrowed. At the end of 1909 the debt stood at £229,718,821, but by the end of last year more than forty-two millions had been added to this. The actual expenditure on the navy does not appear to have increased very much in recent years. In 1901 the estimates were £4,485.892, and although this had been nearly doubled by 1908, they have since shown no decided tendency to increase, as the following figures will show: 1908, £8,094,885; 1909, £7,490,000; 1910, £7,695,647; 1911, £8,803,015. It is not quite clear what is meant by "the government's naval expansion projects." This year, as is well known, no fewer than five armored ships have been laid down or ordered for the Japanese fleet—one in this country and four in Japan—and although no definite news of the progress with the latter group is available, it is certainly more than likely that they have progressed so far that they cannot be retarded for two years (the suggested period of postponement) without necessitating a recasting of the whole design. The present crisis is the issue of a long conflict between the Minister of Marine, Admiral Saito, on the one hand, and M. Yamamoto. Minister of Finance, on the other; and the admiral must certainly have found it difficult to justify a five-ship program in one year. In all probability this ambitious program was embarked upon as the result of the wide-spread agitation of last year. If so, it is only one more proof of the wisdom of counting the cost before demanding standards or laying keel-plates.—Naval and Military Record.
Next Year’s Program.—The program for 1912 has not been officially announced. Press reports state that the current six-year program under which four battle-cruisers and one battleship were laid down or ordered in 1911 is to be still further augmented by several battleships during the coming year.
The appropriation for maintenance and construction of ships is a continuing appropriation laid down in the program, the allotment for the year 1912-13 being $24,144,446, as against $21,768,673 for the year 1911-12. This clearly indicates an increase in the amount of construction in hand, aside from any new program that may be introduced.—Army and Navy Register.
Russia.
This Year’s Program.—The naval estimates for 1911, ordinary and extraordinary expenditures, amount to $58,749,655. In addition to these estimates the sum of $15,463,390 was asked for the re-equipment of the yards and works under the Ministry of Marine and a further sum of $14,000,000 for new ship constructions, making a total of $88.633,045.
Russia at present has under construction four battleships of 23,000 tons displacement, all of which were launched this year. Contracts were recently awarded for the construction of the following ships, intended for the Black Sea fleet: Three battleships of 22,000 tons displacement, nine destroyers of 1050 tons displacement, and six submarines. The strength of the naval personnel will be increased by 5000 men in 1912.
The Russian Admiralty has proposed a new naval program which provides for three fleets—the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Pacific; the Baltic to consist of 16 battleships, eight armored cruisers, 16 cruisers, 36 destroyers, and 12 submarines; the Black Sea fleet to consist of a single division, intended to be one and a half times as strong as the naval forces at the disposal of powers in those waters; the Pacific fleet to consist of two cruisers, 18 torpedo vessels, 12 submarines, and three mining vessels. This program has not yet been authorized by the Duma.—Army and Navy Register.
Next Year’s Program.—The new program of construction for the Baltic soon to be discussed by the council of ministers, covers a period of five years and includes the establishment of new naval bases in the Baltic, besides the refitting of existing bases. Besides the vessels now under construction it is proposed to lay down four battle-cruisers in addition to a considerable number of destroyers and submarines.—Army and Nary Register.
The New Battleships.—On October 30, 1912, the following battleships were laid down: Alexander III and Empress Marie at the John Brown works, and the Catharine II at Vickers. These ships have the following characteristics: Displacement, 22,500 tons; length, 551 feet; beam, 89.5 feet; draft, 27.5 feet; speed, 21 knots; four turbines; 20 boilers; fuel capacity, 3000 tons. There are four triple turrets for the twelve 12-inch guns, twelve 6-inch guns; two under-water torpedo-tubes. The substitution of 14-inch guns for the 12-inch is under consideration.
The four Russian battleships of the Gangut class are now afloat, and it is stated that their places will be taken on the stocks in the Baltic yards by four battle-cruisers of 27,000-28,000 tons and 24 knots, armed with 14-inch guns, probably ten in number. The cost of each vessel is not to exceed £3,000.000. It is also stated that twelve large destroyers and a number of submarines are to be built, the total cost of the whole program being £16,000,000.—Journal of the Royal Artillery.
Mine Layer.—The cruiser Bogatyr has been fitted as a mine layer.
Torpedo Vessels.—The new North Sea torpedo vessels will displace mo tons, and be 316.5 feet long; 30.5 feet beam; drawing 9.1 feet; 22,500 horse-power; three shafts, Parsons' turbines, five boilers; speed of 35 knots; three 4-inch guns; five i8-inch torpedo-tubes; and have a crew of seven officers, six petty officers, and 80 men.
In the Baltic, nine torpedo-boats and four submarines are under construction.
Black Sea Fleet.—Vice-Admiral Bostvem, former commander of the Black Sea fleet, has been dismissed from his post, by verdict of the court-martial which has been investigating the circumstances of, and trying him for, the grounding of the battleships Pantcleimon and Evstafi, off Kustenji, in October.
Vice-Admiral Bostvem was found guilty of neglect of duty in not taking proper precaution or issuing proper orders to prevent the grounding of the ships.—The Navy.
Spain.
The new Spanish Navy, for which a British syndicate is acting as sponsor, will consist of three battleships of the Dreadnought type, three destroyers, 24 torpedo-boats, and three submarines. On the moderate displacement of 15,700 tons an excellent and powerful type of battleship has been evolved. The Espana has not yet been launched, but is due for completion towards the close of next year; the Alphonso XII is on the stocks, and the Jaime I, which will not be completed until 1915, is preparing to build. The main armament of eight 12-inch so-caliber is mounted as in the Invincibles, with the two amidships turrets en Echelon, so that the broadside is from eight and the axial fire fore and aft from six guns. As in normal British practice the torpedo-repelling guns are 4-inch 3i-pounders, but they are arranged, owing to the absence of superstructures, in a main-deck battery consisting of ten guns a-side. Unfortunately, since the average freeboard is only 17-18 feet, these weapons will probably be very difficult to handle in bad weather. The usual Parsons' turbines of 15,500 horse-power will enable these ships to maintain a speed of 19.5 knots or more. Adequate protection, in spite of the slight displacement, is afforded by a complete 8-inch belt, the battle guns being protected by the same thickness, and the secondary battery by 3-inch armor.—Naval and Military Record.
Smaller Craft.—Spain has contracted with a British syndicate for three destroyers, 24 torpedo-boats, and three submarines.—The Navy.
Turkey.
Orders for Battleships.—Official confirmation is given of the order to Messrs. Vickers, of Barrow-in-Furness, for one of two super-Dreadnoughts, for the Turkish Navy, the other order going to Messrs. Armstrong, of Newcastle. These vessels will be of about 23,000 tons displacement, and will have a speed of 21 knots. Parsons' turbines are to be used. The guns of each ship will include ten 14-inch weapons, the largest yet placed in any warship, and a secondary armament of sixteen 6-inch guns.—Naval and Military Record.
Although her navy has presented a pathetic spectacle during the present disagreement in the Mediterranean, Turkey will one day be able to boast of two magnificent fighting units of the best type. These ships, destined to be known as the Reshad-i-Hamiss and Reshad V, have been ordered from the firms of Vickers and Armstrong's respectively, and from particulars which have been made known they will be similar in most respects to the British Orions, with the exception that the secondary armament is believed to consist of sixteen 6-inch, mounted in a well-protected maindeck battery and reinforced by a large number of machine guns.—Naval and Military Record.
United States.
Bids for U.S. Battleships.—Bids were opened at the Navy Department January 4 for the construction of the battleships Nevada and Oklahoma, authorized by the last Congress. The vessels are to have a displacement of 27,500 tons, a speed of 20.5 knots, and the cost, exclusive of armament and armor, was fixed by Congress at not more than $6,000,000 each. The bids were as follows:
Fore River Shipbuilding Co., Quincy, Mass., one vessel, with hull and machinery according to plans of the Navy Department, $5,980,000 for one vessel with Curtis turbine engines, $5,935,ooo; one vessel with reciprocating engines of the bidder's design, $5,955,000.
New York Shipbuilding Co., Camden, N. J., hull, equipment and machinery, according to the Department's designs, but with the substitution of nickel-steel for special treatment steel in portions of the ship,, $5,926,000 and $5,965,000.
Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co., Newport News, Va., one ship with hull and machinery according to the Navy Department plans, $6,450.000; two ships at $6,350,000 each.
William Cramp & Sons, Philadelphia, sent a letter announcing that because the eight-hour restriction imposed by Congress would require putting their whole plant on an eight-hour basis they would not make any proposals for either of the two battleships.
The Bethlehem Steel Co., Bethlehem, Pa., proposed to furnish 13,104 tons of Class A armor at $420 a ton and 1674 tons at $480 a ton; Class B armor at $470 per ton for 445 tons, and Class C armor at $508 per ton for 130 tons.
The Carnegie Steel Co., Pittsburgh, Pa., offered to furnish 13,104 tons at $420 per ton; 1674 tons for $480; Class B at $460 for 445 tons, and Class C at $508 per ton for 130 tons.
The Midvale Steel Co., Philadelphia, Pa., offered to furnish 1674 tons at $480 per ton; 13,104 tons at $420 per ton; Class B at $470 per ton for 445 tons, and Class C at $508 per ton for 130 tons.
The Oklahoma and Nevada will displace 500 tons more than the largest battleships now under construction. The port armor plates of the two three-gun turrets will be 18 inches in thickness, and as far as known the heaviest armor plate of modern construction afloat. The port plates on the two two-gun turrets will be 16 inches in thickness, and thicker than any armor plate on any other vessel under construction by the navy.
By the specifications under which the bids were let the Nevada and Oklahoma will carry heavier armor throughout than any ship afloat or under construction. The side armor will be 13 inches in thickness, as compared with n inches on the New York and Texas, which are the heaviest armored ships under construction. There will be about a thousand more tons of armor plate on the Nevada and Oklahoma than on the New York and Texas.
In a number of other respects the Nevada and Oklahoma will be a radical departure in naval construction. They will have only one funnel, with three-gun turrets fore and aft and will be oil burners.
Battleship Contracts Awarded.—The Navy Department has awarded to the Fore River Shipbuilding Co., at a cost of $5,935,000. a contract for one of the two new battleships authorized at the last session of Congress, and to the New York Shipbuilding Co., at a cost of $5,926.000, the contract for the other. These contracts are for the vessels exclusive of armor and armament.
The Nevada (No. 36), the ship to be built by the Fore River Co., will have Curtis turbines, and the Oklahoma (No. 37), to be built by the New York Shipbuilding Co., will have reciprocating engines.—The Navy.
A 30,000-Ton Battleship.—There are statements in the American press seeming to show that the Navy Department intends to ask Congress for authority to build a battleship of 30,000 tons. It is argued that it will be well to take a bold step, and to place in a ship of large displacement all the offensive and defensive power, and the best speed attainable. The limiting condition, so far as the United States fleet is concerned, is the depth of the Panama Canal, but 30,000 tons is a possible displacement. American papers say that there is a moral advantage in leading the world. The objectors argue that such a ship as is mentioned would cost too much, but the same reason is advanced against building two battleships instead of one, and, if pushed to a logical extremity, it would lead to provision being made for no battleships at all. The characteristics of heavier armament, better protection, higher speed, longer range of action, and greater endurance are held to increase over the best existing type with every additional ton of displacement.—Army and Navy Gazette.
The new torpedo-boat destroyers ordered by the United States Navy Department are distinctly larger than those of last year's program, being 1010 tons total displacement and 300 feet long. The speed is to be 29 knots with 16,000 shaft horse-power, though it is probable that this will be largely exceeded, as was the case with the earlier boats. The time required to build was in all cases 24 months, while the prices quoted for the boats without armament varied from £148,000 to £164,000, several contracts being placed at £152,000. These prices and time to construct are both distinctly greater than obtain in this country. In the boats ordered from Messrs. Cramp, Zoelly turbines will be found.—The Engineer.
The “Fanning.”—The torpedo-boat destroyer Fanning, authorized by Act of Congress of June 24, 1910, was launched at the yards of the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co., on January n, 1912.
The destroyer's normal displacement is 742 tons; full load displacement, 883 tons; highest speed on trial (estimated), 29.50 knots; length, over all, 293 feet 10 inches; breadth on load water-line, 26 feet 1 ½ inches; mean hull draft, 8 feet 4 inches; estimated bunker capacity for fuel oil, 65,974 gallons. She will have three masts and two funnels. The contract price was $630.500.
The Fanning has Parsons' turbines, with four Thornycroft boilers. Her generating sets were built by the Terry-Diehl Co., and are 2 kilowatt 5-volt sets. She is armed with five 3-inch so-caliber rapid-firing guns, and three twin i8-inch torpedo-tubes, carrying six torpedoes; and will have a complement of four officers and 79 men.
The Fanning is named for Nathaniel Fanning, of Stonington, Connecticut. He was appointed lieutenant in the United States Navy, December 5, 1804; died October 24, 1805.
Fanning was a midshipman on the Bonhomme Richard, and was commended by John Paul Jones for his bravery and prompt obedience to orders; captain of the maintop in the engagement between the Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis, September 23, 1779. When the most of his men had been killed, he took a fresh gang into the top and succeeded in clearing the tops of the Serapis of her men; passed, with his men, when the yards of the ships were locked, from the Bonhomme Richard to the Serapis; and, directing the fire of his men with hand grenades and other missiles, drove the British seamen from the stations. When recommending Fanning for promotion, Jones said, "He was one cause among the prominent in obtaining the victory."
He accompanied John Paul Jones from the Bonhomme Richard to the Serapis, and, when Jones was obliged to give up that ship, to the Alliance. Jones obtained a position for him on one of the French privateers.—The Navy.
Submarines “F-3” and “F-4.”—The submarine torpedo-boats F-3 and F-4 (formerly known as Nos. 22 and 23, respectively), were launched by the Seattle Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., at Seattle, Wash., on January 6, 1912.
These boats were authorized under the Act of May 13, 1008. The contract price for each is $455,740.—The Navy.
Notes on Shipbuilding Programs.
The following is the warship tonnage in case vessels now building are considered as completed:
Nations | Tonnage |
Great Britain | 2,324,579 |
Germany | 1,087,309 |
United States | 885,066 |
France | 741,425 |
Japan | 590,119 |
Russia | 473,879 |
Italy | 312,122 |
Austria | 267,442 |
An examination of the shipbuilding programs of the principal naval powers shows that great activity in warship construction is everywhere manifest at the present time. The manner in which the policy of the all big-gun battleship now find universal acceptance is particularly illustrated. This is now the only type of battleship constructed, for all of the old-type battleships still under construction at the beginning of this year will have been completed before the end of the year and no more are contemplated.
The year has seen the completion of a new type of Dreadnought, namely, the Orion, of the British Navy, the first to be armed with 13.5-inch guns and also the first foreign battleship to be completed in which all the turrets are placed in the center line of the ship, the system already in use in the United States Navy.
As noted in the last annual report, a new type of armored cruiser, now called battle-cruiser, is being constructed, but only by Great Britain, Germany, and Japan. Russia is reported as about to do the same. The policies of these countries in this matter, however, are not alike, for, while England is laying down four battleships and one armored cruiser, Germany three battleships and one armored cruiser, Japan reverses the procedure, and her program calls for four armored cruisers and one battleship. The latest of these vessels for England and Japan will displace about 27,000 tons and will carry either 13.5-inch or 14-inch guns.
Not only has there been an increase in the size of capital ships, but also in the displacements of cruisers, destroyers, and submarines. The latest protected cruisers have a displacement of over 5000 tons, destroyers are being designed for 900 to 1000 tons and over, while England and France have ordered submarines which are reported to have over 900 tons submerged displacement and are designed to accompany the battleship fleet in the same manner as destroyers.
Italy and Austria are the only naval powers now building torpedo-boats. —Army and Navy Register.
Great Britain, Germany, and Japan have all laid down floating docks able to dock their largest vessels.
Ordnance and Gunnery.
Size of Guns.—The Asahi (Tokio) states that the Japanese naval authorities have no intention of mounting a heavier gun than the 12-inch in their new ships. The reasons given are that a greater rate of fire can be maintained with the smaller weapon, and that as the limits of vision make it impossible to fight at a greater range than 10,000 yards, the 12-inch gun, which can penetrate 28 cm. of armor at that range, is quite powerful enough.—Journal of the Royal Artillery.
Larger Anti-Torpedo Guns.—It is not quite likely that we shall soon see a larger gun than the present 4-inch quick-firer used in the capital ships of Great Britain as an anti-torpedo armament, since we are almost alone among first-class naval powers to use a weapon of so small a caliber for this purpose. Guns of 4.7-inch, 5-inch, 5.9-inch, and 6-inch, are the weapons chiefly used by foreign nations for beating off torpedo attack, and considering the excellent 6-inch guns that our manufacturers now turn out, and the amount of ammunition, stores, etc., we have in stock for the latest pattern of this gun, it is highly probable that we shall, if we move at all, step boldly from the 4-inch to the 6-inch gun for anti-torpedo defence. Behind armor, and carried well above the water-line, these weapons would be very effective, although no armor likely to be placed around them will protect them from the destructive fire of the present-day primary guns of battleships and large cruisers. Yet something will have to be done to meet the ever-increasing range of the Whitehead torpedo, of which the 21-inch —excellent weapon and great improvement that it is—is by no means the last word in mobile torpedo production. Already there are rumors of a torpedo of this description which will put the 21-inch very much in the shade, especially in regard to range. To meet such attack the 4-inch gun in British ships will have to give place to guns whose shots travel much further in aimed practice and which can be as easily and rapidly worked.— United Service Gazette.
French Gunnery Progress.—The interesting gunnery statistics which Depute Lebail has just applied the Chamber, while testifying to gradual progress, show that the French fleet is not yet quite up to British standards, both for rate of fire and accuracy, mainly owing to the deficiency of the material that was notoriously designed for a slow rate of fire. Thus in 1905 the 12-inch, 7.6-inch and 6.4-inch ordnance (as fitted on board the Brest battleships and cruisers) only obtained an abnormally low rate, viz., one round per 2.5 minutes, one round per 1.36 minutes, and hardly two rounds per minute respectively. Today the same weapons (model 1893) fire, on an average, one shot per 1.1 minute, 2.2 shots and 3 shots per minute, which is poor enough, but very commendable when the out-of-date design of the guns is considered. Even the artillery of the Patries (1902-5) is not adapted to quick firing, the Dantons being the first ships in which this important point has received attention. Six years since battle practice took place at ranges not exceeding 3500 meters, and yet the target was missed 85 times out of every too shots. Today the range has been increased to nearly 8000 meters and the percentage of hits exceeds 20—rising exceptionally to over 50.—Naval and Military Record.
The “Dantons’” Rate of Fire.—The 18,000-ton French ships having been designed, like the British Lord Nelsons, with a view to combine penetration and volume of fire at moderate battle ranges (from 5000 to 7000 meters), it follows that whatever value is claimed for them will reside primarily in the rate of fire they are capable of attaining. Hence the intense disappointment in naval circles when it was announced recently that the 305 and 240 mm. weapons of the Condorcet had failed to come up to the stipulated rate of fire (two and three rounds per minute respectively). Happily these early results—due to the inexperience of guns' crews with the new material—have been corrected by the splendid performances just accomplished at Toulon and Brest. On board the Voltaire, 305-mm. guns were fired every 27 seconds (a rate of 2.2 rounds per minute), whilst a 240-mm. twin-turret obtained 32 shots in five minutes (at rate of 3.1 per gun and per minute). Still better was achieved in the Diderot, in which a 240-mm. turret fired 35 rounds in 5 minutes and 20 seconds, which works out at 3.4 per gun and per minute.
Although these performances of picked Frenchmen are not yet quite up to the service standard of the British Navy, which has in this respect an advance of many years, they are nevertheless highly creditable in view of the fact that the new French shells (in contrast with what existed previously) are considerably heavier than British projectiles of similar calibers. This success of the turret design of the Dantons (and also of the Quinets) has been heartily welcomed among Gallic naval men, who have long deplored that the shortcomings of the artillery material on board the Patries and earlier cuirasses should so effectively delay progress in the way of rapid and accurate firing, and consequently minimize the advantage which the naval service might have otherwise derived from the highly efficient gunnery personnel, supplied in adequate numbers by the Toulon "Ecole de Canonnage," as well as from the rational methods of battle practice adopted in the Toulon and Brest "Escadres." In the new 18,000-ton ships, however, up-to-date material will combine with the qualities of the personnel to create battle efficiency.—Naval and Military Record.
The Question of the Calibers.—Notwithstanding the decision of the Admiralty to fit 340-mm. weapons in the 1912 ships, and the fact that experimental guns of that caliber are being experimented with at Ruelle, the retention of the 305 mm. continues all the same to be advocated by a minority of naval men, who have just discovered a "fait nouveau" in favor of their contention in the prowess just accomplished at Gavres by a 12-inch weapon similar to those in the Dantons. A Krupp plate 240 mm. (9.4-inch) thick was perforated, at a distance of 5000 meters, and under an angle of 40 degrees, by a 440-kilo "obus alourdi," which is indeed a very hard test, and points to remarkable penetration. It would be folly, they proclaim, to substitute for so perfect a piece of ordnance heavier calibers yet in the experimental stage, and certain, any way, not to combine to so great an extent destructive power with rate of fire. To this plea the Admiralty advisers retort by saying that the first duty of those responsible for naval construction is to look ahead and to provide for the ceaseless advance of maritime science. No more grievous mistake, they hold, could be made than to adhere to a type of weapon which already would prove hardly sufficient at long range, if pitted against the robust belt of a British Orion, and which, of course, will have no chance against the very thick armor of the super-Dreadnoughts of tomorrow. Only superior "instruments de combat" are truly economical, they add, and obsolete types of vessels can never be cheap. To reproduce next year the Courbet design would be a senseless waste of money, the 23,500-ton French ships being certain to be outclassed by the English, German, and American mastodons now building or ordered.—Naval and Military Record.
Navy Competitive Rifles.—Following the conference of navy officers last week in the office of the director of target practice and engineering competitions, the rules to govern battle practice in the spring have been completed and are now in the hands of the printer. A number of changes were made. Among them is the requirement that the minimum range of gun-fire shall b« 12,000 yards, instead of 0000, as in the last practice. Torpedo practice, by both destroyers and submarines, will be at battleships as targets. The submarines will submerge at a minimum range of 10,000 yards. All the practice of destroyers will be at night, and a submarine night run will also be held. It has been decided to place the reserve fleets of battleships and torpedo craft on both coasts on a competitive basis as to engineering, it being necessary to keep these vessels ready at all times, as far as the machinery is concerned, to go to sea. Three new competitions as to consumption of coal will be established, namely, for steam launches, evaporators and dynamos.—Army and Navy Register.
Shell Fire.—Reference was made in a recent letter to German progress in the direction of heavy projectiles. What has actually been done remains a secret, but reports have been heard of an approaching realization of the "six-caliber" shell ideal, free from the defects which militated against the general use of its prototype, the Japanese "portmanteau." Authorities all over the worM are agreed that the destructive potentiality of a shell is measured by the size and power of the bursting charge, and not merely by the diameter of the projectile itself. A 6-inch or 8-inch shell penetrating 'twixt wind and water would be almost as damaging as one of 12-inch, in that the first would make an aperture quite large enough to permit the water to enter. On the other hand, the havoc wrought by the explosion of the 12-inch shell after penetration would be incomparably greater than that of a 6-inch or 8-inch. Generally speaking, gunners are confident of their ability to place shells inside the enemy's ship, but they are not yet satisfied with the disruptive effect of the shells, once they have reached that position. It is not impossible that projectile makers, in their anxiety to produce a shell which will perforate intact the hardest armor existing, have given insufficient consideration to the bursting charge. This is, at any rate, the German view. The most formidable 12-inch shell known is the Austrian. It weighs 1010 pounds, but the proportion of this weight contributed by the filling is uncertain. Another powerful projectile of the same diameter is the new French model, whose weight is understood to be 990 pounds. Two types of shell are used with the German 12-inch gun, the respective weights being 980 pounds and 875 pounds. The American shell weighs 870 pounds and the British 850 pounds. The difference in weight between the Austrian and British 12-inch projectiles is therefore no less than 160 pounds.
Bursting Charges.—Unfortunately there is no authoritative table which gives the weight and composition of the bursting charges of the above shells. It is believed, however, that Germany and Austria follow the same procedure in making the walls of the shell abnormally thick and filling with a very high explosive, thus assuring the dispersion of massy fragments at the moment of disruption. In contrast to this, the French, in their earlier melinite shell at least, combined thin walls with an extremely heavy filling, the consequence being that the exploding projectiles literally pulverized themselves and blasted every light object in the vicinity. An effect not unlike this appears to have accompanied the famous Japanese "portmanteaux." Shells of this description cannot fail to be terribly deadly when directed against warships of the type much in vogue a few years before the coming of the Dreadnought, when very little armor was distributed anywhere save on the water-line. But their value has undergone a decline with the introduction of the standard all-big-gun ship, in which the main battle positions are so well protected as to be almost invulnerable to mere explosive assault. A big shell, as the French formerly conceived it, was the vehicle whereby a given quantity of explosive could be planted within an enemy's ship. To attain this object it was necessary that the projectile should be stout enough to withstand the impact at penetration, yet it was desirable not to exceed the minimum thickness required. The same ideal carried to an extreme strove to find expression in the dynamite gun, and it is evidently what the Japanese had in mind when they burst gun after gun in endeavoring to hurl highly sensitive explosives at battle range before the war with Russia.—Naval and Military Record.
Guns for German Navy.—The announcement is made that Messrs. Krupp have taken up the manufacture of three new types of heavy guns for the German Navy. The new types are stated to be 137-inch, 14.1inch, and 15.1-inch respectively.—Naval and Military Record.
“Life” of Naval Guns.—A good deal has been heard about the durability and longevity of Krupp naval guns. It has been frequently stated that the "life" of a Krupp heavy gun is half as long again as that of a wire-wound weapon, and impressive figures have been quoted to support this contention, which it is important to Messrs. Krupp to establish if they are to maintain their present world-wide patronage. As is well known, the "life" of a rifled gun depends upon its caliber, or in other words upon the volume of the powder charge, the gases of which are responsible for the damage done to the rifling and the consequent loss of accuracy. According to well-authenticated German statements, the durability of the 11inch B. L. (28 cm.) is 30 per cent greater than that of the 12-inch B. L. (30.5 cm.), a fact which may partly explain the original reluctance of the German authorities to abandon the smaller caliber weapon, and the persistent opposition of active naval officers to the proposed adoption of the 14-inch (35.6 cm.) B. L. Although no official data have been given out, the "life" of the Krupp 14-inch model is unofficially estimated at from 80 to 90 rounds. If this estimate is reliable, it would seem that the British I3.s-inch B. L., which in its improved state fires as heavy a shell as the German gun, viz., 1400 pounds, is quite equal in every way to the Essen product, as it is understood to be good for at least 80 or 90 full rounds without deterioration. In the important factor of weight, too, the British gun is said to have the advantage. The ballistics in both cases are a matter of surmise to the uninitiated, but judging from former models the muzzle velocity of the British gun should exceed that of the German.
Altogether it is fairly evident that the latest achievement of British ordnance makers need fear no comparison with the best German guns in regard to power, accuracy, or durability. It is admitted even in Germany that, except perhaps for the practically unknown Krupp 14-inch B. L., the British so-caliber 12-inch weapon mounted in the later Dreadnoughts, is the masterpiece of naval artillery. This appears to be the opinion of all who have had any practical experience of the weapon in question.—Naval and Military Record.
Improved Loading Apparatus.—If the present inspector of target practice closely follows the example set by his predecessor, we shall shortly be in possession not only of the results of the heavy and light gun-layers' test of last year, but likewise of that still more severe test of real gunnery efficiency, namely, battle practice. One of the most interesting points to attract the attention in this latter competition will be the rapidity of fire from the 12-inch guns. The service of ammunition from the magazines and shell-rooms to the primary guns of our battleships, is admittedly the best in the world. The old well that led from the turret to the shell-room at the bottom of the ship and supplied projectiles and charges by means of cages running the whole distance, has long since been abandoned by British designers, and only the large warships now relegated to the third and fourth divisions of the home fleet are fitted in this manner. In the later ships the service is cut in half, to the great advantage of rapid supply and safety, as an ample series of shot and shell and cordite charges is always on its way from the magazines and shell-rooms to the loading positions in the turrets, without there being any probability of a shell from an enemy's ship finding its way among them. In their later ships the Americans have likewise abandoned the old well system and introduced a service approximating closely to our own. What this service is capable of in expert hands with 12-inch guns, will be gathered from the rapidity of fire attained in last year's gunnery competitions in our own fleet, and a comparison can then be made with the rate of fire obtained on the Orion's gun trials with her 13.5-inch weapons. It is believed that there is little or no reduction in rapidity owing to the increased weight of the Orion's ammunition, which, it must be admitted, is a very satisfactory state of affairs, creditable alike to the designers and manipulators of the various machines used in loading operations.—United Service Gazette.
The Progress of War Material in 1911.—Trouble in Morocco, war in Tripoli, jealousy between Italy and Austria, and unrest in the Balkans, have combined to render the past year a busy one for manufacturers of war material. The greater powers, with the exception of Italy, had already completed their armament of quick-firing field guns, and have of late been turning their attention to field howitzers, mountain guns, and frontier defence guns. All the armies have been increasing their stocks of ammunition.
Field Guns.—No new field gun has appeared. The Deport "scissors trail" gun, already described in these columns, was tried in England in 1911, and did well. The Krupp semi-automatic field gun was described and illustrated in The Engineer of June 2, 1911. Italy requires some 600 field guns to replace the old semi-quick-firers, and is now holding competitive trials for their supply. Only two patterns of guns have been selected for trial, namely, the Schneider differential recoil field gun and the Deport gun mentioned above. A sum of two millions sterling has been sanctioned for re-armament. Incidentally it was stated officially that the price paid to Krupp's for a battery of six guns, 18 wagons, one tool wagon, and 7200 rounds was £22,000. Servia has ordered 160 quick-firing guns and 150,000 rounds of ammunition from Schneider's; these are presumably similar to the Schneider guns already supplied. The contract for the conversion of 100 of the old Servian 8o-mm. guns was given to Ehrhardt's. Chili has ordered 200 field guns from Krupp's; the gun is a 14.3-pounder of the standard Krupp pattern, similar to the Italian gun. It is to fire both shrapnel and universal shell. Bolivia has purchased three batteries from Schneider's of the same pattern as the Spanish gun. China has ordered 18 field guns and 6000 rounds of ammunition from Skoda, of which 12 were delivered last year. The gun is a 14.3-pounder with Skoda wedge breech; it has the independent line of sight and traverses on the axle-tree. Small side shields are fitted to close the gaps between the main shield and wheels. The buffer has piston valves and no check buffer. On 4 feet 3-inch wheels, with 3-mm. shield, the weight in action is 18.5 cwt., and the weight limbered up with 32 rounds is 30.5 cwt. Spring limber hooks are fitted; there is an automatic fuse setter without differential corrector, and a portable observatory, to be mounted on the wagon, is supplied.
Horse Artillery.—The French are holding trials to select a gun to replace their present H. A. gun, which is too heavy. The ammunition is to be the same as that of the field gun, namely, a 15.85-pound shell with charge giving a velocity of 1730 foot-seconds, and the weight behind the team with 24 rounds is not to exceed 30.5 cwt. These conditions seem difficult to realize except with differential recoil.
Mountain Guns.—Trials are actively proceeding, but no large order has been executed. The type required for central Europe is a 14.3-pounder with M. V. about 1100 foot-seconds, capable of 45 degrees elevation, and fully shielded. This necessitates either the employment of a gun in two parts, artificially weighted as in the Schneider-Danglis pattern adopted by Russia and Greece, or else the differential recoil system. The former system is considered simpler and more practical. Thirty 12-pounder guns of this type were ordered by Turkey from Schneider's as the result of the competition held in 1910, and were delivered in the course of 1911. Bolivia has ordered a lighter pattern of this gun from the same firm, namely, a 12-pounder with M. V. 985 foot-seconds, weighing 10 cwt. in action and forming four loads without shield. Nine batteries are being supplied Ecuador has purchased two mountain batteries from Ehrhardt's; this gun has controlled recoil, and is a 14-3-pounder, M. V. 900 foot-seconds, firing universal shell.
Howitzers.—The Germans have issued a new 4.2-inch quick-firing field howitzer, firing a 3i-pound shell with pointed 4-caliber head, M. V. 985 foot-seconds. The shape of the head is a cubical parabola, which form is now superseding the ogive for field artillery projectiles. Only universal shell are used. The howitzer is 14 calibers long, and the cradle has rear trunnions, with constant long recoil. It is sighted with the panorama telescope, and is fully shielded. The weight in action with 4-mm. shield is 22.5 cwt. The new Dutch howitzer is a similar weapon, but of only 375-inch caliber, firing a 22-pqund shell and weighing 20 cwt. in action. The new Austrian howitzer is still in the experimental stage; it is of 4-inch caliber, firing a 32-pound shell with M. V. 085 foot-seconds up to 20 degrees and 1050 foot-seconds above that elevation. It is capable of 70 degrees of elevation. It has the independent line of sight, with range-drum graduated in meters for all six charges; it traverses on the axletree. With rear trunnions and constant long recoil, on 4-foot wheels, it weighs 23 cwt., but it is desired to reduce the weight to 20 cwt., and differential recoil is now being tried with this object in view. The Austrians recently mounted a 94-inch howitzer and carriage for transportation on three 100 horse-power Daimler motor wagons, so as to render it available with the field army. Servia has ordered 30 batteries of field howitzers from Schneider of Creusot.
Field Artillery Ammunition.—Combined shrapnel and high-explosive shell, now styled "universal shell," are coming into vogue since the introduction of this projectile for the new German howitzer, and all the leading makers have patterns of their own. Krupps use an axial high explosive burster in the shrapnel, while Ehrhardt and Schneider put the burster in the head. Besides this, the shrapnel bullets are packed in trinitrotoluol, which detonates when the shell is burst with percussion fuse, but burns quietly when it is burst as a shrapnel in air. Modern field shell of this type contain about 45 per cent of bullets, three to four ounces of picric acid in the head or axial burster, and 4 ounces of T. N. T. among the bullets. Macarite, an explosive consisting of 28 parts T. N. T. and 72 parts nitrate of lead, has been introduced in Belgium for filling high-explosive shell.
Balloon Guns.—The Coventry Ordnance Works have produced a new balloon gun, and Krupp, Ehrhardt, Schneider, and Skoda have all supplied a few experimental guns. These are all high-velocity 12-pounders, mounted on motor wagons, and firing smoke-trail shell with sensitive fuses. They are of little use against aeroplanes, and the authorities are waiting to see whether military dirigibles will be introduced on any extensive scale before ordering guns for their destruction.
Small Arms.—The great powers are delaying the issue of automatic rifles, since if any army were to introduce a new rifle its neighbor would immediately produce another and possibly a better one. The only new automatic rifle issued in 1911 was the Genovesi-Revelli, of which 6000 were manufactured at Terni, Italy, for the Bersaglieri cyclists. The Austrians have a new ranging bullet for infantry, which is exploded on impact by a cap. It is stated that the strikes of a half-section volley are visible at 1200 yards. Experiments are being conducted with rifle grenades weighing about 2 pounds, fixed to a rod loaded into the muzzle of the rifle, but these have not at present been adopted as a service projectile. Machine guns are still being manufactured in large numbers to complete the armaments of the principal powers, the favorite patterns being the Maxim, Hotchkiss, and Schwarzlose. Automatic pistols are replacing revolvers in all armies except our own. There is a tendency to evade the difficulty of combining an efficient man-stopping bullet with slight recoil by the use of a large-caliber aluminium bullet; thus the Schonboe pistol is of .450 caliber and fires a 63-grain aluminium bullet with a velocity of 1470 foot-seconds. The high velocity gives great accuracy at short ranges, while the recoil is very slight.
Fortifications.—Italy and Austria are still busy fortifying their coasts and frontiers against each other. The Italians are constructing powerful defences on the Adriatic coast, to be armed with 12-inch guns and 12-inch howitzers. Six 4O-caliber 12-inch wire-wound guns have been ordered from Armstrong's at Pozzuoli for the defences of Venice, and the new 15inch gun is spoken of for the Brindisi forts. On the land frontier, both sides are mounting 6-inch and smaller guns; Skoda has an order for 50 steel cupolas for machine guns and small quick-firers. These are 8 inches thick, cast in one piece, and weighing 13 to 20 tons. The same firm is turning out revolving turrets for 4-inch howitzers firing up to 70 degrees elevation, and for muzzle-pivoted 6-inch guns. Chili is making Iquique into a first-class fortified harbor armed with Krupp guns, and is building defences at Arica and Tacna. The Turkish Government, in January, 1911, decided to spend a large sum on coast defences, including £75,000 for the armament of Tripoli, but nothing was done till too late.
Air Craft.—The numerous accidents to the great dirigibles have, to some extent, encouraged the construction of miniature dirigibles, which are cheaper and handier than the unwieldly Zeppelins and Parsevals. Thus the Villehad-Forsmann dirigible is of only 800 meters capacity, weighing under 9 cwt. It is non-rigid, with one ballonet, and has a 24 horse-power engine coupled direct to the propeller. It is stated to have attained a speed of 25 miles an hour, but even this would limit its employment to light breezes. On the other hand, the German military dirigible L. Z. 9, launched in October, 1911, is a large airship with three motors, capable of 48 miles an hour. Aeroplanes are now being built with more regard for stability and less for speed. Thus the Lohner-Daimler biplane, adopted by the Austrian Army, has the upper plane curved sharply backwards at the ends like the wings of a swallow, while the area of the lower plane is only one-third of that of the upper plane. This construction is said to give great stability in rough weather. With 70 horse-power engine and 9-foot propeller, this plane has a speed of 43 miles an hour. A new projectile for use from aeroplanes and dirigibles is a torpedo-shaped bullet weighing one ounce, intended to be simply dropped on troops below. Owing to its shape this bullet acquires sufficient velocity to kill a man when dropped from a height of 2400 feet. Since a military dirigible of the L. Z. 9 type can carry some 16,000 of these bullets as ballast, she would be capable of causing considerable annoyance to the enemy's troops.
Searchlights.—The Russian Army has taken the lead in providing means of illumination for troops engaged in night operations. Five hundred motor projectors are being issued to infantry regiments and staffs, and considerably more will be required before the whole army is equipped.
Telegraphy and Telephony.—The Bellini-Tosi system of directive wireless, described in The Engineer of January 7, 1911, has been improved by the addition of a second crossed aerial. There are now seven fixed coils and one directive coil, and it is stated that the loss of power which constituted the defect of the original apparatus has been almost entirely overcome. Major Squire, of the U. S. Signal Corps, has invented a multiple field telephone which enables ten stations to use the same cable. Field telephones have been issued on a large scale in the French, German and Italian Armies.
Mechanical Transport.—For ordinary war transport the authorities rely upon the motor vans and lorries in use in the country. But a demand for special fast transport vehicles has recently arisen. The Italians have converted their rifle regiments into cyclists, and are now holding trials to select a pattern of fast 2-ton lorry to form the transport of this corps. The French are organizing mobile frontier forces consisting of large bodies of cavalry and cyclists, and about 400 light motor wagons will be required, since these forces are to keep up their transport complete in peace time.—The Engineer.
The Self-Scoring Rifle Target.—Invented by Lieut.-Commander M. St. C. Ellis, U. S. N.—The mechanism is exceedingly simple, consisting of a number of designating plates made of special treatment Vanadium steel, cut to the size and shape of the target. These plates are guaranteed to stand the impact of the new Springfield bullet indefinitely. It was found that the unhardened steel plate, one inch thick, would not withstand the new Springfield bullet; whereas this special plate, of only half that thickness, will endure the impact indefinitely.
These designating plates are suspended from a central holding spindle by steel radial springs. Back of the designating plates and protected thereby is a steel shuttle board which holds the contact-making members. The action of the target when struck by the bullet is as fallows: The plate which is hit yields slightly against its springs, thus taking up the powerful blow, while the contact-making shuttle, which normally touches the rear of the plate, flies backward against the tension of a weak spiral spring and completes the electric circuit, making a prolonged contact. The electric circuit thus completed, passes through appropriate cables and actuates an annunciator made up as a replica of the target itself; this annunciator is set in close proximity to the firer. Each designating plate on the target has its corresponding section on the annunciator. When a particular plate is struck a white drop with a black number falls into a hole in the corresponding section at the firing line. The man who is firing can thus tell, even before the report of the impact of his bullet reaches him, where it has struck the target. An electric set-back returns the drop to its original position at the will of the operator and the target is thus ready for the next shot. A battery of 24 volts furnishes the electricity.
The target is portable and does away with pits, tunneling and expensive range construction. Even waste land can be used for range, making it possible for small organizations to own a target and rent the land for stated periods. In fact it can be transported from one town to another, and several companies can thus use the same target, or a man-of-war can carry the targets on board and set them up on shore in a short time for practice, thus obviating the necessity for visiting a regular target range.
As there are no men employed as markers, all danger is eliminated, and persons who like to shoot can go out alone or in small groups outside of working hours and enjoy small-arms practice. One can shoot alone as well as with a squad and all that is necessary to do is to throw in the switch and go ahead. There is nothing about the mechanism that can get put of order. All the working parts are completely incased in a sheet iron housing making it necessary to have only a covered firing point to use it in all kinds of weather. If desired, a screen may be placed in front of and out of the spatter zone of the target.
During the past nine months a target of this type has been in constant service at the Mare Island Navy Yard, San Francisco, where it has shown such good results that it has been ordered purchased by the Navy Department. A duplicate of the target has been hit over 200,000 times with the new Springfield rifle, the striking energy of whose bullet at 200 yards is 1678 foot-pounds. This is a pretty severe test, and it is interesting to note that the target shows today no signs of deterioration.
As regards the effect of quick reading of results in popularizing rifle practice, we note that a divisional officer from one of the ships on the Pacific coast has stated that the marksmen whom he took to the range for rifle practice were keen to fire at the target, when not otherwise employed, with the result that, during the three days this division was on the range, the target was in constant use.—Scientific American.
French Naval Ammunition.—M. Painleve, reporter on the French Estimates for 1912, expresses the view that there is no reason for changing the character of the powder supplied to the navy. He would prefer the now notorious B powder to the powerful progressive explosive of the Germans. He thinks that all that is required is to have the B powder homogeneous and carefully prepared. Foreign critics, he believes, are of this opinion. This powder is at least equal to nitroglycerine powders, but who has sufficient authority to lay down the rules of manufacture or give confidence to seamen? Who is to fix the period of stability for the powder? He says there must be no mixing of powders whose age differs more than three months. The condition of manufacture must be established, and the services must be secured of eminent chemists, who have been trained in the laboratory of the polytechnic school. M. Painleve thinks the navy should have a factory for guncotton and two for the existing powders. The history of the powders, not only from Pont-du-Buis, but from other factories, must be carefully scrutinized. The navy must exercise a permanent control over the manufacture, and the new arrangements on this head can only be regarded as a step in the right direction. M. Painleve also makes some comments on the system of storing ammunition.—Army and Navy Gazette.
This corresponds to the general view of American chemists and powder manufacturers. Nothing is wrong with the French powder, it is simply not made properly.
Ships’ Magazines. Precautions for their Safety. (By an expert).—With the disaster to the Liberte still fresh in our minds, it may not be amiss to discuss the important question of how magazines should be treated, with the view of eliminating all possibility of any similar occurrence. As the present writer understands the matter, the disaster which occurred on board the Liberte, and that which occurred on board the Jena some years ago, where both due to two causes, the nature of the powder which is employed in French men-of-war, and the failure to efficiently arrange the conditions in the magazines in which the powder was stored to provide against the peculiar action to which such powder is subject. The occurrence of the explosion on board the Liberte, following that of the Jena, naturally led many of those who have studied the subject, to think that the explosion on board the United States ship Maine, which it will be remembered led almost directly to the Spanish-American War, might also have been caused in the same way. The report of the experts who investigated the question nullifies this supposition. According to the report, although the principal damage which was done to the Maine was due to the explosion of her own magazines, the primary cause was the explosion of a bomb or a charge of some kind under her bottom. The heat caused by this explosion led to the later explosion of the own magazines, and the question may therefore arise whether the use of similar powder in the American Navy as in the French Navy did not amount to what lawyers call a contributory cause. At the present time, as the writer understands, only France, Russia, and the United States use the particular Powder which is believed to have caused the disaster on board the Liberte, in their navies. As he understands the matter, the powders used in the French and other navies mentioned differ in their properties from that used in the navies of the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and Italy to a very important extent. The powder used in the French and American Navies has the great advantage that it has not such a great erosive effect upon the gun barrels as the powder used by Great Britain and the other powers named. This is undoubtedly an important advantage, in view of the increasing size of the guns mounted by the modern battleship and of their increasing cost. It is not only that the life of the gun is shorter with the powder used in the British Navy, and therefore the gun must either be relined or replaced after a certain limited period, but in case of war the limit of its useful life might have an important bearing upon the fate of a war, and even upon the fate of a particular action. Hence the use of the less erosive powder by the United States Navy. In both powders an attempt has been made to place as high an explosive power as possible within as small a compass as possible, consistent with the whole of the explosive power being brought into operation within the time that is available for the burning of the charge.
Complete Combustion.—One of the problems with which artillerists have been faced since the advent of rifled guns, with their greater accuracy, higher muzzle energy, and the increased energy required to be expended upon the shot or shell before it leaves the mouth of the gun, has been the complete combustion of the charge. In the old smooth-bore gun, as in so many other machines of the old days, no effort at accuracy or economy of powder was made. The one thing aimed at was to force the spherical mass out through the gun at as high a speed as could be managed under all the conditions. With the modern gun all that has been altered. The space that can be allotted to the powder charge is strictly limited, the time during which the charge is exerting its power is also strictly limited, and the problem involved in utilizing the power to the fullest extent is by no means an easy one. The powder charge in a gun and the charge of gas and air in a gas engine are very much alike. The action is almost the same in the two cases. The piston of the gas engine corresponds to the shot or shell in the case of the gun. In both cases the force exerted upon the piston or upon the shot or shell is due to the heat liberated by the burning of the charge, and the consequent instantaneous expansion of the products of combustion. The more quickly the charge can be burnt, the more rapid is the development of heat, and the greater and more rapid is the expansion of the gaseous products formed by the combustion of the charge. But in both cases, if the combustion goes on at more than a certain speed, the whole of the charge cannot be burnt. In the gas engine and in the gun the object to be moved, the piston and the shot or shell, commences its motion almost immediately the charge is fired: and, therefore, unless the ignition can penetrate to every part of the charge before the shot or shell has moved a certain distance in the case of the gun, and before the exhaust valve opens in the case of the gas engine, a portion of the charge may be blown out unburnt.
Modern Powders.—On the other hand, it is of great importance that the pressure behind the shot or shell in each particular case shall be as uniform as possible. That is to say, good shooting, accurate shooting, and large percentages of hits require that the force with which the projectile is ejected from the gun, and the manner in which the force is applied to the projectile, shall be as uniform as possible under any given conditions. It has been proved that all smokeless powders, which include practically all powders now used in the navies of the world, increase the pressure which they developed when fired in the gun if they have been exposed to a temperature above a certain figure. For the powders used in the British Navy a temperature of 20 degrees Centigrade, corresponding to 68 degrees Fahrenheit, is the limit. All powders of the modern kind, into which nitroglycerine enters, have the property that is common to a great many chemical compounds and chemical mixtures—that almost from the moment of their being made up decomposition commences, with a certain generation of gas. It is a peculiarity of nearly all chemical compounds which behave in this way that the decomposition and the delivery of gas increase very rapidly with increase of temperature. The powders used in the British Navy have the great advantage that they do not require to be hermetically sealed, while the powders used in the French and American and Russian Navies do. Hence it follows that with powders in which nitro-cellulose is the principal ingredient, if they are exposed to temperatures above those mentioned, gas is liberated freely within the sealed packages containing the powder. The continued liberation of gas is very much like the continued generation of steam in a steam boiler. If it continues, and there is no safety valve, a time arrives when the pressure set up by the gas bursts the case in which the powder is enclosed. In addition to this, the compression of any gas, however produced, raises its temperature, and in the case of the gases liberated by the decomposition of the powder, the time at which the case is burst may coincide with the time at which the heat present is sufficient to ignite the gases themselves. In any case, if ignition takes place before the case is burst, a greatly increased generation of gas results, followed immediately by the bursting of the case and the liberation within the magazine of a considerable quantity of heated gases. Bearing in mind that there will usually be a quantity of other explosive in a state of strain, at least in the magazine, the result which followed in the case of the Liberte, the Jena, and in the Maine is practically a natural sequence.
Influences on Temperature.—Now, as to the conditions under which magazines have to do their work, to hold their charges of explosives harmless. Magazines are necessarily placed low down in the ship to be out of the way of shell. Necessarily also they are connected with the turrets or barbettes they are supplying by masses of iron. They are also enclosed by masses of iron. The whole ship is a mass of iron. The ship, when under way, is propelled by steam generated in boilers, and consequently a considerable amount of heat is liberated there, apart from that employed in raising steam, and the conducting mass of metal of which the ship is composed carries the heat in all directions, and amongst others to the wall of the magazine. Further, when firing takes place, a considerable quantity of heat is liberated within the turrets and barbettes, and this is conducted directly to the magazines below. The result is, naturally, that the temperature rises within the magazines, and if powder is carried which is obliged to be hermetically sealed, and no means are taken to neutralize the rise of temperature, the decomposition and generation of gas described above goes on continuously, and the disastrous results that have become only too familiar follow.
How Magazines should be Treated.—The magazines of most navies, the writer believes, are already treated by the circulation of air that has been cooled continuously passing through them. He would suggest that it would be possible to lessen the work which the air has to do, and to increase the safety of the magazine by insulating it thermally wherever it is possible. There are a number of thermal insulators employed by refrigeration engineers to line cold chambers on the inside. The problem involved in keeping a cold chamber cool is exactly the same as that involved in keeping a magazine cool. Heat may be prevented from entering the magazine, and any heat which does enter may be carried away. There will be difficulties in the way of thermally insulating a magazine in the same manner as a cold chamber designed to preserve produce is insulated, but a good deal may be done. As with electricity, there is always the difficulty of providing efficient insulation, because the thermal insulators are mechanically weak. Some of those that have recently been put upon the market, compressed cork for instance, are very much stronger and more easily applied than the earlier forms, with which wood casings had to be built and the insulators filled in loosely and rammed down. Compressed cork, the writer believes, could be applied to line the walls of magazines, so that there would be no direct transference of heat in that direction; the roof and floor could also be lined, and it would be possible, he believes, by careful design, to work in insulators, so as to reduce the amount of heat transmitted even from the turrets.
For cooling the magazines, after all that is possible has been done in the way of insulating them, the cold air system already in use could hardly be improved upon. The use of cold dry air is the latest development employed by refrigeration engineers. It has the important advantage that it clears all moisture put of the room it is employed to cool, and this will be of great value in the case of magazines, and particularly with the powder used in the British, German, and other navies. Moisture plays an important part in the decomposition of the powders referred to above. With the powder used in the British Navy, hermetically sealing is not necessary, and therefore the passage of a current of cold dry air over the surfaces of the packages containing the powder will carry off any moisture that is liberated and keep the powder dry. The old saying, "keep your powder dry," is as important today as it was in the Napoleonic wars.
Cooling air by passing it over a grid of pipes in which either cold brine or carbonic acid gas is present also dries it. The capacity of air for holding moisture increases with its temperature, and consequently if the temperature is lowered the ability to hold moisture is also lowered, and the moisture is deposited upon any cold surface that is present, and the air passes on dry. It appears to the writer that the cooling air might be carried with advantage below the figure that rules in the British Navy.— Naval and Military Record.
The Inflammability of Celluloid.—It is well known that celluloid is highly inflammable and on various occasions has caused loss of life and property. The chemical process of its combustion has recently been studied by Dr. Panzer, of Vienna, and the results of his experiments are of great value to science and industry; as they show a way of dealing with a celluloid blaze. This substance does not ignite spontaneously; but it was found that after extinguishing the flames of a piece of burning celluloid, decomposition would still go on, and would continue even in a vessel filled with carbonic acid or steam. This shows that atmospheric oxygen is not necessary for decomposition; that a fire caused by celluloid can only with difficulty be put out with water, and that ordinary chemical fire extinguishers are useless. The flameless combustion starts at a temperature of but little over 100 degrees Cent. (212 degrees Fahr.) so that the decomposition may be started by a flame situated quite some distance away. The white vapors resulting from the combustion form an explosive mixture with air. To extinguish a celluloid blaze in a building is a most difficult task, if not impossible. On account of the rapidly spreading flames and the excessive heat of the fumes (nearly 750 degrees Fahr.) the seat of the blaze is almost inaccessible to the fire fighters. Ignition and gasification of celluloid may be caused by an open flame or simply by heat. The temperature required for decomposition lies between 105 to 185 degrees Cent. (221 to 365 degrees Fahr.), therefore a hot stove can cause the decomposition. If a piece of celluloid is slowly heated, it may be observed that it softens at first, then blisters begin to appear all over and suddenly decomposition sets in, sometimes accompanied by flames. The products of dissociation consist of gases, liquids and carbonaceous matter. The colorless gases contain carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides and are therefore extremely poisonous.—Chemiker Zeitung.
Discussion of the “Liberte” in the French Chamber.—The official Liberie inquiry was conducted by a board of line and staff officers headed by Rear-Admiral Gaschard, a highly thought-of officer, whose name alone was a guarantee of wisdom and impartiality.
This board's report was awaited with great anxiety. It was remarkable for its moderate tone and clearness, showed the efforts made in search of the truth, and concluded that the cause was the spontaneous burning of a cartridge of B powder in one of the forward two starboard 19 cm. magazines.
In the Chamber, all the speakers, with the exception of M. Painleve, have accepted this. Although he considers this cause quite probable, yet lie still is in doubt, and refuses to attribute only to the powders alone the responsibility of the disaster. "You know," he states, "that this is the conclusion of the board of inquiry, and I must say that, without feeling certain, I consider this explanation as the most reasonable." M. Painleve is by no means certain that a fire had not started from some other cause in the 19 cm. magazines. "Everyone recalls," he states, "the value of the witnesses at the inquiry. I am not very sure that it is necessary to deviate from the unlikely theory according to which the beginning of the fire started in magazine of 47 mm. and 65 mm. which contained the oldest ammunition, put up in 1808."
We will consider, as well grounded, the doubt expressed by M. Painleve on the particular magazine which might have been the starting point of the accident.
The verdict of the board rests on a lone witness, that of a sailor who was on the upper deck, and who heard three successive explosions, separated by an appreciable interval: "There are three cartridges of the same pile which have successively exploded," concludes the board, but this finding is not certain.
But the question of knowing in what condition the decomposing powder grains would have to be to ignite was made the object, in 1907, at the laboratory central of Poudres et Salpetres, of experiments which led to conclusion that a proportion of decomposing grains in the charge would not imply the danger of ignition, and that it would be necessary to have decomposition in bulk, as in the experiments at Versailles, to place the powder in the condition for spontaneous ignition.
These experiments tended to prove that the presence of some decomposing grains in the magazines which burned the Liberte would not be a serious presumption in favor of the hypothesis of a spontaneous ignition.
M. Chautemps knows well that the powders have been made without any care; but he believes in other causes of the disaster.
We would not have had the disaster of the Liberte if the suspected magazines had not contained all the right elements for making a huge fire follow an explosion of 50 seconds of the powder B; it is a big fire, a fire of wood, and of paints, which in 19 minutes caused the explosion of the shells.
In the Chamber, M. Andre Lefevre, whose remarks are always well considered and in perfect good reason, has held the theory that our war powder well made is good, but that, like all powders in the world, it demands careful watching; the powder B, of which he accepts the spontaneous ignition, has been, in the explosion of Liberte; only the match setting the lire to the woodwork and the faints; the flames of the powder would have been powerless, because of their short duration and of the mass of shells, to bring them to the temperature of the explosion of melinite, but they lighted a big fire, a fire of wood and of paint, in which the shells have grown hot, following the words of M. Lefevre, during 20 minutes, and thus the shells exploded.
The shells are the only real dangerous element to the safety of the vessel. A magazine ought not to contain wood, paint or shells.
…The experiments at Gavres showed the need for the separation of the shells, of the exclusion of all combustible matter, of the installation of instantaneous flooding apparatus, maintained constantly under pressure, and an automatic starting device! We know that the disposal of the primers or of ignition charges installed in the cartridges and the tanks render more and more probable the extending of the fire from one cartridge to the next! And we keep, nevertheless, in the powder magazines, wood, paint and shells! The flooding under pressure, the flooding automatic were not even studied! We are now studying them!
The true responsibility lies in the conditions, and it is not only against the spontaneous combustion that precautions ought to be taken; the most stable powder would be exploded by awkward handling of the cases, fall, or friction, or by secondary causes of which we have seen so many examples, as the neighborhood of a warm bunker. It is unfortunately not illogical to think longer of malevolence.
When the necessary precautions have been taken against the consequences of a sudden ignition and against the existence of faulty ammunition, our sailors will be able to have an absolute trust in the worth and the security of the fighting implements placed at their disposal.—Translated and abbreviated by the Editor from Le Moniteur de la Flotte.
The necessity for removal of wood and paint from our magazines is here again emphasized.
Result of “Liberte” Court-Martial.—The court-martial, presided ever by Admiral Jaureguiberry, has exonerated from all blame the officers of the battleship Liberte, in connection with the recent disaster.
Captain Jaures was relieved of responsibility because of his absence from the ship on leave at the time, and the court-martial not only acquitted Lieutenants Gamier and Bignon, but warmly congratulated them on their behavior at the time of the accident.
Lieutenant Gamier was temporarily in command of the Liberte at the time of the explosion, which resulted in the death of 235 men and serious injury to nearly 100.—The Navy.
Armored Ships or Not?—A correspondent suggests that even as the use of gunpowder in warfare led to the abandonment of suits of armor as a protection to the caparisoned warriors of old, the all-big-gun idea in battleships may soon lead to the abandonment of the custom to protect the vital parts of ships of the line with armor plating. The analogy is by no means as irrelevant as it may appear at first glance and deserves more than passing notice, being based upon the superiority of the gun over the armor plate. From the time of the epoch-making armored French batteries engaged at Kinburn down to the present day a bitter duel has been fought between the gun and the armor plate. Sometimes the armor plate has won, but always the gun has regained the mastery; and this mastery over the armor plate obtains today, with the additional factor that for its given weight something like finality has been reached in armor plate resistance and the big guns of today shoot through this finality with ease. The I3.s-inch gun mounted on the King George V class of British battleships throws a projectile of 1250 pounds in weight which will pierce 144-inch of Krupp cemented armor plate at 7700 yards. At 5400 yards, the same shell will pierce 16.3-inch of Krupp plate. The 1582pound missile of a 14-inch gun will pierce 15.6-inch of Krupp plate at 7700 yards and 17-3-inch at 5400 yards. The 1950-pound shell of a 15-inch gun would go through 17.2-inch of plate at 7700 yards and through 18.9inch at 5400 yards, while a 16-inch weapon firing a 2367-pound shell would penetrate 2O.5-inch of armor plate at 5400 yards and 18.8-inch at 7700 yards. Of course, armor will keep out the shells of the secondary battery, but at the ranges contemplated for future warfare, outside of anti-torpedo protection the secondary armament need not be taken into consideration. At the rate of one hit per minute, which may be confidently expected of well-trained gunners, it is inconceivable that any amount of armor on a battleship could resist the terrific impact of a succession of shells fired by a ship mounting, say, ten 14-inch guns. Outside of the economical advantage in discarding the costly armor protection, how could an unarmored ship of the line be built with offensive power superior to that of the armor-plated ships? Simply by utilizing the 5000 tons of weight and the two and a half million dollars thus saved to increase the speed and double the number of the guns. Imagine a battleship with a speed of 40 knots and armed with twenty i6-inch guns firing projectiles weighing about a ton apiece. Such a ship could destroy a squadron of present-day battleships by reason of the terrible smashing power of its guns and its ability to choose its own range and outsteam and outmaneuver its opponents.—Shipping, Illustrated.
Marine Engineering.
Marine Internal Combustion Engines.—The events of the past year all go to show what a keen interest has now been aroused, among technical men at all events, in the question of the application of the internal combustion engine to ship propulsion. Nearly every scientific institution which could by any means consider the subject as within the scope of its proceedings has had a paper dealing with some phase of the question. This may be taken as only a straw which shows the way the wind is blowing but another quite unmistakable indication lies in the great number of important marine engine building firms which it now appears have taken, or are contemplating taking out licenses to build marine engines of the Diesel type. There is, on the other hand, very little in volume—though much in interest—that can be said as to what has actually been accomplished in this direction in this country at all events; though, as we suggest, there is plenty upon which we can build hopes for the future, and many of these proposals should come to fruition in the early part of this year, when we shall deal with them as they deserve.
Long Voyages.—The most practical event of the year in this connection was, to our mind, the putting into service of Diesel-engined tank ship Vulcanus, built by the Nederlandsche Fabriek of Amsterdam for the Nederlandsche Indische Tankstoombopt Maatschaapij. This boat, which we described fully in January, is, it will be remembered, of 1900 tons displacement, with a carrying capacity of 1000 tons, and is fitted with a 500 horse-power six-cylinder four-cycle Diesel engine, built by the Nederlandsche Fabriek. After some six months' work in short coasting trips to gain experience and confidence, she made a 19-day run to Constanza, a distance of just over 3300 miles, on a consumption of 2.15 tons of oil per 24 hours at a speed of about 7 ¼ knots. So successful has she proved that a pair of ships of double the horse-power are now under construction for the same owners by the same builders. A bigger but less powerfully engined boat is the Toiler, built by Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Limited, with a carrying capacity of 2500 tons, and fitted with twin-screw engines of 350 combined horse-power of the two-cycle type, built by the Swedish Diesel Motor Company, of Stockholm. This boat again was kept to short trips for some months, but in the autumn took to herself an historic interest by crossing the Atlantic, and is, we understand, now giving satisfaction in regular service on inland waterways. A third full-powered Diesel-engined ship is the Italian Romagna, which was put on to the Trieste, Ravenna and Fiutne service late in the summer, but was unfortunately lost in one of the November gales. This combined passenger and cargo ship was fitted with two sets of 400 horsepower Sulzer-Diesel engines, which gave her a speed of 12 ¼ knots, and she was described in our issue of December 22. The result of the inquiry which is now being held as to the cause of her loss will be awaited with much interest, though from what we hear we do not gather that it was in any way due to failure in the engine-room department, and we should not be surprised to hear that it was entirely a question of ship and cargo. Whatever the cause, her loss is greatly to be regretted, as it is sure to give occasion for the opponents of the internal combustion engine to decry this form of motive power; but what is of infinitely more importance, the opportunity of gaining valuable experience, which is so particularly necessary just now, has been lost.
Auxiliary Engines.—Another important application of Diesel engines was to the four-masted ship Quevilly, constructed for French owners, and fitted with two sets of 300 horse-power M. A. N. engines as auxiliaries. This ship is of about 6000 tons displacement, and will undoubtedly be the forerunner of many others of the type; the Diesel engine is so peculiarly suitable as an auxiliary even today, saving towage charges, defeating calms, and having no stand-by losses, while its want of proved reliability is, for this purpose, no disability, as even if deranged for any reason, the safety of the ship is not necessarily imperiled thereby.
Suction Gas Engines.—The use of suction gas appears to have made less progress than was at one time expected, the leading example built during the year being the Holzapfel I, a ship of 290 tons gross register, built by Eltringliam, of South Shields, for the Holzapfel Syndicate. She is fitted with a set of six-cylinder 180 horse-power gas engines, by E. S. Hindley & Co., of Bourton, which transmit their power at 450 revolutions per minute through a Fottinger hydraulic power transformer to the propeller, which runs at a more reasonable number of revolutions. The gas-producing plant was supplied by the Power Gas Corporation, of Stocktonon-Tees. The ship has made a number of coasting voyages, carrying coal, iron, etc., the consumption varying from 25 cwt. to 33 cwt. of coal for the 24 hours. As we have not had an opportunity of making a trip in this boat, we are unable to say how far the difficulties in connection with the variations in the demand on the producer have been met. The only other practical example of the use of suction gas which we have come across during the year was the Progress, an old service boat, fitted with a three-cylinder double-acting two-cycle gas engine, designed by Mr. C. H. T. Alston, which we described last May. We expressed admiration for this engine, particularly for the closeness with which it followed ordinary steam-engine practice, for the compressed air governing arrangement, and the simplicity of the reversing arrangement, which was by a single lever. As we said then, it was only experimental, and the results of the experience gained with it have not yet been embodied in the new engine; but this we shall hope to deal with later. Two or three small installations of suction gas have, however, been carried out in the United States. For instance, the Mary A. Sharp, of 66 feet in length, has been in regular service in Chesapeake Bay; she is fitted with a three-cylinder 75 brake horse-power two-cycle engine; with a compression pressure which is claimed to be 135 pounds per square inch; a mean effective pressure of 56.2 pounds has been obtained at 300 revolutions per minute, the consumption of coal being about 1.3 pound per indicated horse-power per hour; the total weight of the plant is said to be 205 pounds per brake horse-power.
Work in Hand.—With regard to continental marine work generally, apart from the Quevilly, the Romagna, and innumerable submarine engines which have been built for the French, German, Italian and other governments, there is not a great deal to report as to actual results, though, as will have been gathered from our series of articles in December, an enormous amount of work is in progress, such as the Woermann liner, which is to have twin-screw, double-acting engines of 2400 combined horse-power, one set built by the M. A. N., and the other by Messrs. Blohm & Voss; the Hamburg-South American liner, which is having her twin-screw machinery built by Sulzer; La Prance, a huge sailing ship, which is having auxiliary engines built by Schneider's; the oil-tank 1100 horse-power ships being engined by the Nederlandsche Fahriek; the Selandia and her sisters, to have twin-screw Burmeister & Wain engines of 1250 horse-power each, for the East Asiatic Oil Company; and the twin-screw 4Ooo-ton oil tankers for the German Petroleum Company, which are to have engines of 750 horse-power each, built by French & Co. under license from Professor Junker, and two 9400-ton ships under construction by the same builders with 3300 combined horse-power Junker engines. Truly a good list, though admittedly very incomplete, but it should make a busy year. In this country interest will be centered on the 800 horse-power four-cylinder two-cycle Carels-Westgarth engine under construction by Richardsons, Westgarth & Co. for a 3OOO-ton capacity ship, and the eight-cylinder sets of four-cycle 2500 combined horse-power engines being built by Barclay, Curie & Co. Something definite should also shortly be known as to the Diesel-turbine combination which is on order for destroyer purposes at Thornycroft's. Nothing will probably be known for some time as to what Vickers are doing on a large scale for cruiser work, nor are we likely to have details as to the submarine Diesel engines which they are turning out, but much has been and is being done in this direction, details of which we are content not to endeavor to make capital out of.
The Line of Progress.—So much for history and anticipations; let us fee what tendencies are indicated by, and what conclusions can be drawn from, such knowledge as has been made public. Experience has, to our mind, clearly proved that, as was only to be expected, the internal combustion engine has not yet reached the point of equivalent reliability with f team: little derangements have occurred and are to be expected to occur for some time yet, which only emphasize the demand for the utmost accessibility of all parts, and the wisdom of the policy of fitting twin-screws in all open-sea craft. This latter point, also for the present, assists in meeting the difficulty as to the smallness of the power units which have reached a commercial basis. As regards the economy or otherwise of the internal combustion engine as compared with that of the steam engine, we must admit that up to the present we have seen no figures which can be considered in any way conclusive one way or the other, though many Lave been published, all, or nearly all, based not upon experience, but upon estimates, in which the personal element is bound to have an undue influence, as is indicated by the fact that both forms of power have been proved to the satisfaction of their supporters to be the most economical. Reliable figures in this connection should, however, be obtained when the Furness boat which Richardsons, Westgarth & Co. are engining has been at work for some time, as she is similar to a number of other ships fitted with steam machinery belonging to the same firm, and will run on exactly the same service, so that the comparison will be an exactly fair one as far as running costs are concerned, and a figure will be obtained for cost of carriage per ton per mile, which is the conclusive figure. Even thus, however, the capital charges will not be entirely satisfactory, as the first cost of the Diesel engine is bound for the present to be very much higher than will be the case when more experience has been gained in its construction. Maintenance and fuel charges, too, are likely to decrease considerably for the Diesel engine as time goes on, and further improvements are introduced, while steam is getting nearer the end of its tether in this direction.
As to the use of the two-cycle or the four-cycle engine, we do not think it is fair to say that the advantage has been proved to lie definitely with one or the other, though the majority of builders apparently prefer the two-cycle—largely, no doubt, on account of the lower cost per horsepower and the larger powers which can be built with present-day knowledge of the heat difficulties. As to general features of design, the consensus of opinion among builders is almost unanimous in favor of the crosshead type of engine rather than the trunk piston, except for naval purposes, where weight and lack of head room call for the latter. How far this is due to the recognition of the prejudice which undoubtedly exists among sea-going engineers in favor of what they are accustomed to, it is hard to say, but it is hardly likely that mere sentiment would be allowed to exert a great influence in a direction which leads to a considerably more expensive, heavier and higher type of engine, and we are of opinion that the arguments used by Mr. J. T. Milton in his paper before the Institution of Naval Architects last spring are sound, and are the real determining factors; at the same time, as we have said on other occasions, we think that these prejudices are worthy of the closest consideration.
Reversing and Transmitting.—With regard to reversing, we think that where it is decided that the best method of going astern is that the engine itself shall be capable of being started and run in either direction, compressed air has proved itself not to be open to serious defects to the extent at one time feared; in fact, from our own observations of numerous cases, although made only under trial trip conditions, it would certainly appear very fairly to meet the requirements of the case. Again, however, it can hardly be said as yet that it has been definitely proved that a reversing engine is the best method of going astern if the intermediate stages—that is, the slow and very slow speeds—are also considered as a part of the problem. Certain it is, that this is a factor which calls for very early and very careful attention at the present moment; it has by no means been satisfactorily solved. Various transmission systems, such as the Fottinger, Hele-Shaw, and Manly Hydraulic, the Mavor and Coulson, and Durtnall electric, and others, have been suggested and submitted in some degree to practical tests. They are designed, of course, to give not only the reverse, but any intermediate speed from maximum to zero, while the engine continues to run at an efficient speed. Such tests as have been made, however, have not been so arranged as to give full scope to the possibilities presented, which allow of the motive power being divided into a number of separate units, all delivering into the transmitter or transformer, and each of these units being run at all times at approximately its maximum efficiency, one or more of the units being, as a rule, entirely stopped, depending on the amount of power required at a given time. Until some such experiments have been carried out, allowing for loss of efficiency in the transmission and giving credit for increased efficiency in propeller and motors, any argument must be purely hypothetical.
Deck Auxiliaries, Governing, etc.—The difficulty of driving the deck auxiliaries has not yet been satisfactorily solved, though experiments in the use of exhaust gases for producing steam in a donkey boiler are about to be made in more than one case, such as the boats under construction by the Nederlandsche Fabriek and the Hamburg-South American boats the boiler is heated by an oil burner when in port, and this may prove t be the solution. Certainly, if for nothing else, it looks as if the heating c the ships would force steam to the front for the winches and whistle. With regard to the steering gear, we have already mentioned the possibilities of the Hele-Shaw hydraulic electric arrangement, described in taper before the Naval Architects; further experience which is now being gained with this gear on the S. S. Arama should give more definite indication as to its value. Electric lighting would, of course, be obtained by a small internal combustion engine. Whatever the ultimate solution of the whole question of driving the auxiliaries, a solution is of great and growing importance in view of the increase in the sizes of ships to which internal combustion engines are being fitted. With regard to governing we see no reason to depart from the opinions expressed in our leader c February 24 last year, though the matter must to a large extent remain one of opinion till such time as actual ocean tests have been made wit internal combustion engines of sufficiently large size to enable a definite conclusion to be reached. The double-acting engine has not yet receive a great deal of attention; indeed, it may be said that, with the exception of one firm on the Continent, the difficulties involved are being simply "funked," and yet it is perfectly obvious that it must come. Will the superintending engineer, for instance, be content to stand idly by which there exists a chance of nearly halving the cost, weight and space pc horse-power, of his motive power, even at the risk of some initial mechanical difficulties.
Finally, as to the possible maximum horse-power which can be obtained on a single shaft with present-day knowledge; though a single engine of 1250 horse-power has actually run and given its power, while one of 200 horse-power is under construction, and though rumor says that a three-cylinder engine of 6000 horse-power has run and run well, it is, in our opinion, hardly probable that an order for a reversible marine engine of more than 500 horse-power per cylinder could be placed today as a commercial proposition, and under any sort of guarantee that the superintending engineer might reasonably ask for.—The Engineer.
Developments in Marine Propulsion.—In reviewing the progress o marine engineering in the course of his presidential address at the Cleveland Institute of Engineers, Mr. H. Stonewall Jackson had naturally something to say regarding the internal combustion engine, particularly as his firm, Messrs. Richardsons, Westgarth & Co.. Limited, are manufacturing engines of the Diesel type of 1000 horse-power for a 3200 ton vessel. He stated that although the weight of fuel used will b 60 per cent less, the cost will be about the same; but the saving of weight of fuel carried on a 30-day voyage will be about 270 tons, an to this extent the vessel, on the same draft and displacement, will have increased cargo capacity. In addition, there will be the saving in weigh of the machinery, bunkers, etc., equal to about 70 tons, and a reduction in the engine-room staff equivalent to about £150 per annum. These estimates naturally justify a wider consideration, if not a more liberal attitude, on the part of builders and owners as to the potentialities of the system. At the present time there are two sea-going vessels ii service with crude-oil engines. One is the Vulcanus, with a cargo capacity of 1000 tons on a 10-foot 2-inch draft, built at Amsterdam, am fitted with a six-cylinder, four-cycle, single-acting engine of 500 brake horse-power when running at 180 revolutions per minute. On a voyage from Rotterdam to Stockholm, a distance of 735 nautical miles, the time occupied, when fully laden with 1000 tons of cargo, was 100 hours, the maximum speed being 8 ½ knots, and the consumption 1 ton of crude oil per 100 miles. The estimated saving over coal and steam engines is given as 50 per cent, without taking into consideration the reduction in personnel charges and the increase in cargo capacity. The other vessel is the Toiler, but by Messrs. Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Limited, of 2650 tons cargo capacity on a 14-foot draft. She has two Diesel engines, each of 180 brake horse-power, built by a Swedish firm. The results given by Mr. Jackson in this case apply to the first voyage from the Tyne to Calais, when the speed was 6 ¾ knots, and the consumption 1 ¾ tons of Texas oil per 24 hours, equal to a consumption of about 6d. per mile run with a full cargo of 2700 tons. There arc also a large number of small vessels in use, all establishing the practicability of the system, while twelve sea-going vessels are now being built to be propelled with oil engines. Some data were also given relating to the application of coal-gas engines—notably in the Holzapfel I, a vessel 120 feet long, carrying 300 tons on a draft of 10 feet. This vessel, which has two producers, each of too horse-power capacity, and an engine with Fottinger reversing gear, attained a speed of 7 ½ knots. The actual consumption of fuel in the first seven voyages varied from 25 cwt. to 33 cwt. of coal per twenty-four hours when the vessel was carrying cargo varying from 242 to 340 tons. The initial cost of the engines and plant is slightly in excess of that for steam engines and boilers, but the saving in fuel—given as from 40 per cent to 60 per cent—compensates for the additional prime cost. The vessel uses anthracite coal in her producer, but many engineers are working at the problem of designing a producer which will use ordinary bituminous coal without the necessity of a gas-scrubbing plant. It is understood that Mr. Holzapfel proposes to construct a new vessel of large size utilizing the experience already gained in practice. Mr. Jackson had much to say also in favor of the use of liquid fuel in marine boilers, and gave the increase in calorific value as 75 per cent in weight over coal. Generally, the address contained much information regarding recent developments, notably in connection with the condenser problem.—The Engineer.
Marine Oil Engines or Turbines: A Comparison.—A recent announcement in the various papers, to the effect that a torpedo-boat destroyer, presumably of some 20,000 shaft horse-power, is now building, 2nd is to be fitted with a combination of steam turbines and reciprocating oil engines of the Diesel type, marks what is decidedly a new stage in the Development of the marine engine for high-speed work.
The steam turbine and the heavy oil engine are progressing together, and each has been developing on its own lines for a not very different length of time. Undoubtedly the turbine has supplanted the reciprocating steam engine for high-speed work, and it is quite possible that in the near future its sphere of utility will be extended to even the slow-going tramp steamers.
The two predominant questions which are now arising are:
(1) Can the development of the Diesel marine engine proceed to such an extent as to supplant the turbine in its present premier position for large and high-powered installations—e. g., liners and warships?
(2) Can it (starting, as it does, on practically equal terms) outstrip the turbine in the race for popularity in the future problem of the propulsion of merchant vessels?
Then years ago the marine reciprocating steam engine had passed through such stages of evolution as to be regarded, to all appearances, as nearly as perfect a piece of mechanism as was possible to produce. With the exception of details, the chief strides seem to have been made in its infancy. The rise of pressure from slightly above the atmosphere to 200 pounds per square inch, and sometimes even higher, and consequent on this the recognition of the higher efficiency to be gained by utilizing to a higher degree the expansive property of the steam in the compound and triple expansion engines, all took place within a comparatively short space of time. Concurrently with this development was the natural and necessary evolution of the boiler, from the old, flat-sided iron boxes of the "atmospheric" period to the modern cylindrical boiler, and, last of all, to that marvel of lightness and strength, the water-tube boiler.
During the last ten or fifteen years the development of the water-tube boiler has been accompanied by the surprising and extraordinary evolution of the turbine, and as far back as 1904 it was easily seen that, as far as high speeds were concerned, the reciprocating engine was doomed.
A few of the reasons of the success of the turbine may be noted for purposes of comparison: (I) Its extreme simplicity and the absence of working parts. (II) It deals with steam at a far lower pressure than is possible in a "steam engine." (III) There is a considerable economy at high speeds. (IV) Its lightness and the comparatively small space occupied. (V) The initial pressure is comparatively low (170 pounds per square inch). (VI) Smaller staff required than for an equally powerful set of reciprocating engines. (VII) Absence of vibration, and the presence of water is not likely to have such an injurious effect as is the case in an ordinary steam cylinder.
There are, of course, against this, certain disadvantages, the chief of which are: (a) Loss of economy at low powers and the consequent introduction of cruising turbines, (b) Inability to go "astern" and the consequent introduction of separate astern turbines, (c) The necessity for a considerable increase in the capacities of various auxiliary engines to obtain the necessary high vacua, (d) With direct-coupled turbines and propellers the propeller speed is too high, and the turbine speed too low, for each to be working in the most efficient way.
An observation of an Entropy diagram of a set of reciprocating engines reveals the fact that the high-pressure cylinder is very efficient, whilst, owing to the limited expansion, the efficiency of the low-pressure cylinder shows a lamentable falling off.
On the other hand, owing to short blade heights and comparatively large leakage past the blade tips, a turbine somewhat lacks in efficiency at the high-pressure end, but on account of the very complete expansion of the steam, the low-pressure turbine is extremely economical.
Some distinct advantage may therefore be obtained in the matter of economy by using a high-pressure reciprocating engine in conjunction with a low-pressure turbine. This method has been employed with success in several cases.
Realizing the importance of improving the performance of the horsepower end of the reaction turbine, Parsons has now introduced an impulse stage, instead of the first reaction stage, with the advantage that a considerable drop of pressure takes place in the nozzles, followed by constant pressure through the stage of impulse blading, with little, or no tip leakage. This also enables the Parsons' turbine to cope with the coming demand for a moderate superheat.
In addition to this, an inspection of patent specifications will show that the "impulse" turbine, of which the "Curtis" is perhaps the best example, is undergoing considerable modification. In this turbine the last, or low-pressure nozzle stages have been done away with and a "drum" stage substituted. It is claimed that this "drum" stage is still a series of impulse stages, the fixed blades acting as nozzles. This is, however, doubtful, and it is quite possible that under the somewhat problematical condition of the low-pressure steam, the action is similar to that in a reaction turbine.
Thus with the Parsons' turbine modifying its horse-power end of the "Curtis" form, and the Curtis turbine modifying its low-pressure end to the "Parsons" form, it seems to point that in the near future the two types will merge and produce a "standard" marine turbine, the horsepower being of the "impulse" and the low pressure being of the reaction type.
Looking ahead, we will assume such a ''standard" turbine fitted in a 'arge ship such as a liner or battleship. Can such an installation be beaten by an "oil engine?" As regards economy "Yes." but as a practical fitting "No," and for the same reason that such vessels still burn coal. There is not enough oil fuel available.
Now turn to small, fast-running craft, which can burn oil fuel alone. It is more difficult to give a direct answer, owing to the greater thermal efficiency of the Diesel engine. Still, no simpler or more easily managed installment can at present be imagined than one consisting of a set of "standard" turbines supplied with steam from oil-fired boilers. The question of auxiliaries is also of paramount importance.
However, in both the above cases—i.e., the large ship burning coal and oil. and the small ship burning oil alone—the introduction of an oil engine to the propelling machinery appears to have considerable advantages, especially in the matter of ''astern" working, and the development of steam generation for low-pressure turbines, by means of the exhaust gases, would be watched with interest.
Coming now to the merchant class of steamer, having few auxiliaries, here the oil engine should have an exceptionally profitable field to work, as all the elements for success are present with the exception of cost of fuel. These elements are:
- High thermal efficiency.
- The question of weight is not of great importance.
- Greater radius of action or increased cargo capacity.
- We have an engine running at a low speed of revolution, thus securing both an engine and a propeller, each running at a speed conducive to high efficiency, without the obvious disadvantages of intermediate gearing, whether spur gearing, hydraulic or electrical. In such a ship the steam necessary for the production of fresh water, etc., could quite easily be generated by the waste heat in the exhaust.
In conclusion, it is perhaps unnecessary to add that the mechanism to which all engineers are looking forward, but which seems still in the far distance, is the gas or oil turbine.—Marine Engineering and Naval Architect.
Growth in Size of the Turbine.—The application of the turbine to marine propellers commenced in 1807, at a period when the efficiency of the new prime mover had been well established. The famous little Turbinia of 1897, too feet in length, which was driven at 3275 knots by turbines of 2300 horse-power, showed a steam consumption per shaft horsepower per hour, for all purposes, of 15 pounds. In 1005 the cruiser Amethyst was driven by turbines of 14,000 horse-power at a speed of 2.1.63 knots, with a steam consumption of 16.6 pounds per shaft horsepower per hour for all purposes, and in 1907 the Mauretania and Lusitania, with turbines of 74,000 horse-power, made 26 knots, with a steam consumption, for all purposes, of 14.4 pounds per shaft horse-power.—Scientific American.
The Carels Diesel Marine Engine.—This oil engine has been brought to its present sound and reliable design by Messrs. Carels Freres, of Ghent, after several years of scientific investigation and practical experiment. It is of the two-stroke single-acting type, and is capable of burning the heaviest oils on an economical consumption.
The engine resembles closely in general appearance the standard form of mercantile marine steam engine; indeed, the lower parts may be said to be identical with the same, and therefore need no description. The cylinders also resemble those of a steam engine in the manner in which they are carried on the columns, and in having the inner barrel or liner a separate casting inserted into the outer barrel or jacket. Near the bottom of the liner there is a series of circumferential ports, matching corresponding ports of the jacket casting, which open into a belt surrounding the cylinder. On this belt a branch or facing is formed, to which is bolted the exhaust main, the whole being designed to provide the freest possible exit for the products of combustion. As a precaution against any possible leakage of exhaust gas past the piston into the engine-room, a stuffing-box, packed with metallic rings, is fitted at the bottom end of the liner. A lantern-ring in the middle of this stuffing-box communicates with a circular chamber connected to the suction of the scavenging pump, by which means any escape of exhaust gas into the engine-room is rendered practically impossible.
The piston itself is packed with spring rings of the Ramsbottom type, and is water cooled, the water being circulated through the hollow piston rod by means of walking pipes, or by a pump worked from the crosshead. Ample water-cooling spaces are provided between the liner and jacket of the cylinder, the water being introduced at the bottom and discharged at the top into the cylinder cover. This cover is a strong jacketed casting, jointed and bolted to the cylinder in the usual manner, and carrying all the valves necessary for the operation of the cycle. In each cover there are four scavenging valves, which open simultaneously and admit a column of air, which effectually clears out the residue products of combustion. The fuel-oil injection valve is placed in the center of the coyer, and in front of this is the air starting valve, while at the back there is a spring-loaded relief valve. The various valves are operated through levers actuated by cams carried on a shaft, which is supported by bearings bracketed to the cylinder jacket. The drive to this cam shaft is transmitted from the crank shaft by means of a vertical shaft and spiral gear wheels at the center of the engine.
The high-pressure air for injection of the fuel oil is obtained from a multiple-stage air-compressor coupled to the forward end of the main crank shaft. The scavenging and injection air discharges are distributed to the cylinders by suitable mains. The fuel-oil measuring pumps are driven by the cam shaft, and one pump is provided for each cylinder. The quantity of oil discharged can be regulated by hand from the starting platform, while an independent governor control is also provided. The circulating water pump is conveniently driven by the levers operating the scavenging pumps, which in addition, are utilized for working the bilge and sanitary pumps, as in accepted steam practice. Lubrication is by gravity or ring, except to the pistons, for which a forced system is provided, the pressure being maintained by a pump.
Coming now to the method of operating and controlling the engine, the following description will enable this to be understood: The cams for operating the scavenging valves are of symmetrical form, and can be set to the correct position for ahead or astern running by altering the angular relationship of the cam and crank shafts. The partial rotation of the cam shaft required to bring this about is effected by raising or lowering the vertical driving shaft, which, by engagement of the spiral gear wheels, causes the cam shaft to revolve through the desired angle, the crank shaft, of course, remaining stationary. The movement of the vertical shaft is produced by a servo-motor operating through a rack and pinion and connecting rod coupled to a lever embracing a sleeve on the vertical shaft, the whole arrangement being such that in either extreme position the gear is practically self locking. The piston of the servo-motor is operated by compressed air, and smoothness of action is ensured by the addition of an oil-brake cylinder.
The cams for the fuel injection and air starting valves of each cylinder are in duplicate, there being one set for ahead and one set for astern running. By means of a special auxiliary or maneuvering shaft, parallel with and adjacent to the cam shaft, the rollers of the valve levers are brought into contact with the appropriate cams in the following manner (assuming the engine is about to be started in the astern direction after having been running ahead). In the "stop" position of the maneuvering gear the rollers are all clear of the cams. Thus the maneuvering shaft is free to slide axially in order to bring the rollers opposite the astern cams. This longitudinal movement is effected by the servo-motor at the same time as the cam shaft is rotated. The maneuvering shaft is then rotated by means of a geared hand wheel, thereby causing the rollers to be brought into contact with the cams.
The details of the mechanism cannot conveniently be described without fuller drawings, but it may be said that by the interposition of specially shaped auxiliary cams on the maneuvering shaft the air starting valves on all cylinders are first brought into action and then gradually cut put and the fuel-injection valves switched in, all this being effected by turning a hand wheel at the starting platform. This same maneuvering shaft brings the measuring pumps into action at the appropriate times, and, finally, when the engine is set to "full speed" position, cuts off the air supply to the starting valves through a regulating valve on the main, thus preventing any possible leakage.
The control mechanism on the starting platform is arranged as follows: The larger and lower of the two vertical hand wheels is the hand reversing gear, which takes the place of the servo-motor should this be out of action. Below this wheel the air cylinder of the servo-motor can be distinguished, while above it is the maneuvering hand wheel. The vertical hand lever carried on the maneuvering wheel bracket operates a cock admitting air to the servo-motor. By the manipulation of this lever and hand wheel the engine can be started, stopped, and reversed at pleasure. The small hand wheel, in an inclined position above the maneuvering wheel, sets the governor for the desired speed of engine, while the quadrant and lever immediately underneath provide an independent hand adjustment of the measuring pumps. All the essential controls are interlocked, so that it is impossible to operate them in any but the correct sequence when stopping and reversing.—Engineering.
Electric Propulsion of Ships.—At a joint meeting of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers and the Boston sections of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers held on December 20, Mr. W. L. R. Emmet, of the General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y., delivered an illustrated lecture upon the electric propulsion of ships. The speaker reiterated his well-known views upon the subject and emphasized the importance of securing trial installations in large ships, which offer the most attractive savings under operation by electric motors. The general advantages of the motor drive for high-powered propellers were reviewed, including a substantial reduction in the strains upon shafts, certainty of decreased fuel consumption through increase in prime-mover efficiency, extension of cruising radius and diminution in the weight of boilers, machinery and fuel to be carried.
Mr. Emmet contended that the engineering problem of ship propulsion by electric motors supplied with energy from turbo-generators is beset by no serious difficulties. The conservatism of large ship builder's and governmental officers appears to be the chief obstacle to the early application of a representative electrical installation on the large scale necessary for a striking demonstration of economy. It appears certain that when such an installation is made it will be done at a great decrease in initial cost as well as accompanied by radical reductions in operating expense. After several years of sustained effort permission has been secured from the United States Government to equip the 20,000-ton collier Jupiter with electrical propulsion machinery, and, although delays are being experienced on account of the scarcity of suitable labor, the construction of the ship is now under way at the Mare Island Navy Yard. The Jupiter will be equipped with 7000 horse-power in induction-motor propeller drives, the speed of the vessel being 14 knots. The equipment will weigh only 145 tons and will be located practically on the ship's bottom. It is expected that power will be delivered at the shaft with a steam consumption of 12 pounds per horse-power hour. It will be impossible for the turbo-generator to deliver much more current upon short-circuit than the full load current of the propeller motors. The apparatus is simple in the extreme. The turbine speed will be about 2000 revolutions per minute, which is high enough to enable the full economy of the turbine to be realized.
Taking up the problem of direct propeller driving of turbines, Mr. Emmet said that this involves speeds below the most efficient range of the prime movers, resulting in a great increase in size and cost, as well as a larger fuel consumption. The mechanical difficulties of driving propellers of large ships through gearing are very serious. In very small vessels gear drives may be reasonably successful, but in meeting the power demands of battleships and trans-Atlantic liners the gearing problem is one of almost insuperable difficulty. High turbine speed is the secret of economical operation, and this can only be positively secured under present conditions by the electric motor drive. The weight of the 6800 horsepower triple-expansion engines of the similar collier Cyclops is 335 tons, or more than twice the weight of the propulsive equipment of the Jupiter, and the steam consumption of the former is probably about 14 ½ pounds per shaft horse-power hour, or nearly 21 per cent more than is expected in the case of the electrically driven ship. For the same power the Jupiter turbine will weigh but one-tenth that of the direct-connected propeller turbines used on the Lusitania. The latter deliver 30,000 horse-power and are obliged to run at the low speed of 180 revolutions per minute, which prohibits securing the legitimate economy of this type of prime mover.
The speaker showed that the electrical equipment of a 17,000 horsepower liner built to run at 17.5 knots would save the owner $20,000 a year in fuel alone, without allowing for any reduction in boiler weight. In the trans-Atlantic service this would enable the vessel to carry 900 tons additional cargo. The estimated steam consumptions were 14 ½ pounds with quadruple-expansion engines and n pounds with the turbo-electric drive. The cost of installing the latter would be at least $50,000 less than the bare expense of the engines. The labor cost of operating large marine engines is also far greater than the expense of handling the turbo-electric equipment. So great is the fuel saying possible with the electric drive that it is estimated that the battleship Wyoming, if electrically propelled could travel at cruising speed two-thirds of the distance around the world with a single coaling. The details of auxiliary apparatus in connection with electric propulsion are being carefully developed, special attention having been given to the successful production of a form of salt-water-cooled resistance capable of absorbing large amounts of energy in connection with the reversal of the driving machinery. Over 350 kilowatts have been absorbed by such an apparatus incased in a cylinder about 12 inches high and 6 inches in diameter. The speaker stated that as soon as the electrical equipment is completed at the factory it will be subjected to economy tests in which the conditions of propeller service will he to a large extent duplicated. Preliminary engineering analyses and many former turbine tests indicate that a great field for electrical service is close at hand.—Electrical World.
Crude-Oil Fuel in the French Navy.—The French Navy Department is taking measures towards using petroleum residues more extensively in the future for heating marine boilers, owing to the advantages which are now so well recognized as coming from the oil fuel. This is one of the indications which show that the question of substituting oil for coal is occupying the attention of different countries. Oil is likely to be largely used in the future either for burning under boilers, or for operating the new Diesel and other crude-oil engines which are now being made in units of increasing size. As regards the use of oil residues in the French Navy, the late Minister of the Marine, Admiral Boue de Lapeyrere, is quite in favor of it, and a number of plans are now being promoted which will lead to a more extensive use of this fuel. It is now recognized that it will be of great use in the navy owing to the greater speed and ease in taking fuel on board the vessels, and the greater radius of action which a boat will have owing to the greater amount of fuel represented as heat giving power, which can be taken in the available given space.
All the new torpedo destroyers of the navy are installed for firing the boilers with "mazout" or petroleum residues of European origin. Up to the present the French seaports were not well equipped for handling and storing the oil, so that the cost per ton was very high and much more than in other leading countries. Measures are now being taken to organize more modern methods for handling the oil in the leading French ports, so that this country will be one of the foremost in this field. At the military ports such as Toulon, Brest and Cherbourg are now being installed great oil reservoirs in which the petroleum residue will henceforth be stored up, and besides this a very complete system is being organized, as the navy has purchased a steamer to be used specially for oil transport. It will ship the oil at the Roumanian port of Constanza in the Mediterranean region, which is one of the leading shipping centers for this product, and will then bring the mazout to the French ports and fill up the reservoirs directly, without the extra handling which heretofore brought up the cost to £6 9s. per (long) ton, while it will be now reduced to £2 145. per ton. The new steamer has been named the Rhone, and it gauges 7000 tons. It is also of interest to note that the 26,000-ton battleships Courbet and Jean Bart of the French fleet, as well as the new units which are to be constructed, will be fitted with the necessary appliances so that they can burn crude oil or residues at the same time as coal, making thus a combination system.—Scientific American.
Miscellaneous.
Changes in Admiralty Charts.—Notice is given that on and after January 1, 1912, true bearings will be introduced as soon as practicable in all British Admiralty publications. Details of the new system are as follows:
(a) On Charts.—A new pattern compass is already being gradually introduced which enables true bearings to be laid off on the chart, in addition to magnetic bearings as at present. The compass consists of two graduated circles, clearly separated from each other. The outer circle is a true compass, graduated from o degree (true north) to 360 degrees, measured clockwise. The inner circle is a magnetic compass, graduated in points and degrees from o degree to 90 degrees as heretofore. The bearings of leading and clearing marks, etc., will be given both time and magnetic, and a note to this effect will be placed on the title of the charts. As examples the following are interesting. The bearing S. 40 degrees W. true, with a variation of 12 degrees E. will be shown thus: 220 degrees (S. 28 degrees W. mag.).
(b) In Sailing Directions.—Bearings will be given as true only, in degrees from 0 degree (N.) to 360 degrees, measured clockwise; and a note to this effect will be given in the title page, in the advertisement, and in the page immediately preceding page I of all volumes of sailing directions. The variations will continue to be given on each map as at present, so the magnetic bearings may be obtained when required. This alteration will be introduced gradually.
(c) In Notices to Mariners.—All bearings will be given both true and magnetic in a similar manner to that adopted on charts, the necessary alteration being made in the heading of the notices.
(d) Lists of Lights.—Bearings will be given as true only, in degrees from o degree (N.) to 360 degrees, measured clockwise. On each page of the Lists of Lights in which this alteration has been carried out a footnote will be placed stating that all bearings are true from seaward.—The Marine Engineer and Naval Architect.
Determination of Position in Fog.—The U. S. N. Hydrographic Office has just made known the results of important experiments from the cruiser Washington, off Nantucket lightship, last September, made for the purpose of determining in a fog the distance between a ship and a lightship or shore station. Knowing that wireless telegraph waves travel almost instantaneously within short distances, while the sound from a submerged bell or an aerial whistle takes an appreciable and definite time to travel a certain distance, the experimenters were able by the aid of chronometers to fairly approximate the actual distance of the cruiser from Nantucket lightship, when the wireless signal, the whistle and the submerged bell all signaled at precisely the same moment. Thus, if the bell signal reached the cruiser nine seconds later than the wire signal, given at the same time, it was easy to calculate the distance from the lightship, allowing 4794 feet per second as the velocity of sound in water.—The Marine Engineer and Naval Architect.
Ships’ Boats During Action.—Discussion in respect to the disposal of the boats of a fleet before going into action, has been exercising the minds of certain writers in the press, and divers means have been suggested as to the best time and the best methods for ships out to meet the enemy, to divest themselves of these inconvenient appendages while engaging the enemy. So far as we can see, there is only one practical method of ensuring that boats are not in the way, or are not a standing danger to the crew of a warship as firewood or material to shower splinters around, when search is being made for the enemy. This method is to leave all but one or two on board each fighting ship, at the base from which the ships start, and set those one or two adrift the moment an enemy is sighted; as to do this with a couple of light boats would take but little time. If the weather was smooth enough the auxiliaries, repair and mother ships accompanying a battle fleet might take the boats in tow during an action, and restore them to their respective vessels when the large ships again met their auxiliaries, or came back from the fighting line for boats to carry out humane duties among the beaten ships of their cruisers. If the weather was too rough for this, then the only boats for use of the fleet would be those carried by the auxiliaries, which had not been in the fighting line to get their boats injured, and for this purpose as many boats as convenient should be carried by fleet auxiliaries during a naval campaign. That at least is a practical plan.—United Service Gazette.
Evolution of Naval Victualing.—The navy appears to be gradually approaching the period when, as fore-shadowed in the report of the Login Committee, there will be general messes in all ships and establishments, and such canteens as are required will be run by the Admiralty. This is known as the "all navy" system, and is asked for by the men in their annual "Magna Charta," the profits from the canteen to be used as a naval benevolent fund, administered by Admiralty representatives, and representatives chosen from the lower deck by the men themselves. Naturally there has been a good deal of opposition to. and criticism of, such a scheme; since there are vested interests, to which we have more than once hinted, which would be seriously upset. Meantime the Admiralty have had reason to draw the attention of the commanding officers of the navy to the fact that canteen contractors introduce and sell inferior brands of articles at standard prices, fixed for the best class of goods: and to instruct those responsible to see that such cases are reported to the Admiralty, so that the contractors concerned may be dealt with from Whitehall if necessary. The system set up by the Login Committee provides a Scrutiny Committee in each ship, composed of officers and men whose duty it is to see that no fraud of this sort is perpetrated; but like the old Canteen Committees, which they replaced, these committees are evidently not doing their work as they ought to do, and the men are consequently exposed to unfair tricks by the contractors.—United Service Gazette.
To Make Ships Unsinkable.—Some far-reaching results are looked forward to by the inventors of the new compressed air device for keeping ships afloat after damage by grounding or collision which is being tried in certain battleships of the American Navy. The invention is based on the same principle that has enabled the Arbuckle Wrecking Co. to keep many damaged ships afloat, and in brief it provides that when a vessel has been holed, the water can be driven put by compressed air, "thus permitting the holes to be repaired from within." But it is not stated in the reports at present to hand how this is done; presumably the men sent to do the repairs would be provided with suitable helmets to enable them to work satisfactorily at the greater air pressure, which must, of course, be maintained until the breach in the ship's hull has been closed. A test of the system was made recently in the North Carolina by permission of the Navy Department. The sea-cocks were opened and one of the watertight compartments flooded, and then compressed air at a pressure of 12 pounds to the square inch was forced into the compartment through a small opening. In ten minutes all the water had been forced back into the river. It was necessary, during the time the pressure was being applied to the flooded compartment, to force compressed air at a pressure of 7 pounds to the square inch into all the adjoining compartments, and at a pressure of 3 pounds into those next to the latter, in order to prevent buckling. The captain of the North Carolina is reported to have declared that a method had now been found for the first time of making ships practically unsinkable, and for affixing repairs to the hull below the waterline from the inside, either after collision or during a naval battle. To equip a vessel with the system the necessary pipes and gauges have only to be attached to the compressed air plant which every ship at present carries for blowing off poisonous gases and the like. Further experiments are being made in the new battleship Utah, the outcome of which will be awaited with interest.—Army and Navy Gazette.
The Hyposcope.—A general on the field of battle wants to see without getting shot. So also does an artillery commander. The enemy naturally take the opposite view, and in these days of long-range weapons and telescopes any staff which shows on a hilltop at once finds itself a target for infantry, artillery, and machine guns. Foreign armies -are therefore beginning to issue portable observing ladders to artillery and to general officers. However, even the observing ladder is not altogether satisfactory; the general cannot be expected to go up it himself, and if set up so as to give a wide field of vision it is difficult to conceal from all points of view. It is now suggested, in some quarters, that the hyposcope is better than the ladder. This instrument is a long telescope with a binocular eyepiece in the center and an object glass at each end. It can be used straight, when it gives great stereoscopic effect, or can be doubled up so that the two arms project upwards. These arms can be drawn out to a length of 6 feet, or in large instruments to 12 feet, so as to give a view over the top of a hill, while the tripod mounting supports the eyepiece at the height of the eye. A large instrument has to be heavy in order to prevent vibration in the wind, but it is pointed out that the observing ladder requires a cart, or, at least, a pack animal to transport it, whereas the hyposcope is lighter than the ladder. At any rate, it will be easier for an elderly general to look through the hyposcope than to climb a ladder or to go up in a balloon.—Army and Nary Gazette.
Wreck of the “Maine.”—The President sent to Congress on December 14 the report of the Vreeland board on the wreck of the Maine. The President's message was as follows:
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
A hoard of naval officers, of which Admiral Vreeland was the senior member and of which Colonel William M. Black, of the corps of engineer of the army, was also a member, by order of the Secretary of the Navy was convened at Habana on November 20, 1911, to inspect the wreck of the Maine and make a report thereon.
The board finds that the injuries to the bottom of the Maine, as d scribed in the report, were caused by the explosion of a charge of a k form of explosion exterior to the ship between frames 28 and 31, strake B. port side. This resulted in igniting and exploding the contents of t 6-inch reserve magazine, A-14-M, said contents including a large quantity of black powder. The more or less complete explosion of the contents of the remaining forward magazines followed. The magazine explosion resulted in the destruction of the vessel.
I have the honor to transmit herewith the full text of the report.
The White House, Dec. 14, 1911. Wm. H. Taft.
The findings of this board were as follows:
38. The port garboard strake between 27 ½ and 31 was dished upward along its outboard edge as much as 24 inches from a straight line between 27 ½ and 31, the dish disappearing about 31. At a buttstrap in this garboard strake midway between frames 30 and 31 the after plate and strap were found pulled away from the forward plate and upward fully 6 inch farther than the after end of the forward plate, having been torn loose from the flat keel plate by parting the rivets on the seam between 30 ½ and 31.
39. B strake was reinforced for its entire length by a continuous longitudinal. This B plate parted the rivets along its inboard seam from 30 ½ forward to 27 ½, across the buttstrap at 27 ½ and aft along its outboat seam to 28.
40. The next plate outboard, C strake, was torn irregularly from 28 inboard to 29 outboard and parted the rivets along the outboard seam as far aft as frame 33, remaining attached to B strake along its inboard sea: from frame 28 aft. This plating, formed of B and C plates, as just described, an area of approximately 100 square feet, was displaced upward, inward, and to starboard through approximately 180 degrees, having swung about an axis from about 31 ½ inboard and forward to about 315 outboard and aft.
41. The transverse floor plates between the outer skin plating, above described, and the inner bottom plating were crumpled. The part of the inner bottom plating directly over this section of outside plating was displaced inward and aft and crumbled in numerous folds.
42. The longitudinal directly over the center of B plate parted it fastenings, broke about frame 28, was twisted, the forward end was displaced upward, and left approximately 6 feet above its original position.
43. The board finds that the injuries to the bottom of the Maine, above described, were caused by the explosion of a charge of a low form o explosive exterior to the ship between frames 28 and 31, strake B. port side. This resulted in igniting and exploding the contents of the 6-inch reserve magazine, A-14-M, said contents including a large quantity of black powder. The more or less complete explosion of the contents of the remaining forward magazines followed. The magazine explosions resulted in the destruction of the vessel.
C. E. Vreeland, Rear-Admiral, U. S. N., Senior Member. R. M. Watt, Chief Constructor, U. S. N., Member. W. M. Black, Colonel, Corps Engrs., U. S. A., Member. Joseph Strauss, Commander, U. S. N., Member. C. F. Hughes, Commander, U. S. N., Member and Recorder. —Army and Navy Register.
The “Maine” Once More Afloat.—The second week in February the wooden bulkhead which has been built across the forward end of the unwrecked portion of the Maine being completed, sufficient water was admitted within the coffer-dam to free the hull from the mud into which it had deeply settled. The Maine rode on a fairly even keel, but on account of the removal of heavy weights and particularly of the after-turret with its two lo-inch guns, the hull floated considerably above its normal water-line.—Scientific American.
The Present Status of Wireless Telegraphy.—In a lecture recently delivered at Berlin, Count G. von Arco, after outlining the general working of the main parts of radio-telegraphic installation, began their detailed discussion with the consideration of the antenna problem. Vertical antennas which until quite recently were those most generally in use. are carried by huge masts which must assume enormous dimensions whenever long distances are to be spanned. In fact, the problem of long-range radio-telegraphy has long been dependent almost exclusively on the design of antennas. Whether electric waves are transmitted through the air, the earth or both media simultaneously was until recently an open question, though there was strong evidence in favor of the earth transmission theory. However, the systematic work done by Dr. Kiebitz at the instigation of the German Postal Department has now shown the earth as such lo be capable of transmitting electric energy to considerable distances, while sufficient receiving energy, even at the greatest distances, may be derived from the earth alone. The Telefunken Company, on the strength of these experiments, has designed many types of earth antennas exerting well-directed effects and apparently preferable in other respects to aerial antennas. The system becomes much more independent of disturbance due to atmospheric discharges and to the interference of other stations. For the rest the electrical behavior of earth antennas is very similar to that of aerial antennas. As regards, next, the modern system of musical "damped" sparks, this has been further improved upon, and the new apparatus, though of simple design, allows the pitch of the sound to be readily altered. The Nauen Experimental Station (near Berlin), which equaled in power and range the two largest Marconi stations (viz., those connecting England with Canada) has recently been raised to an output four times the initial figure. The height of the tower (originally 330 feet) has been doubled, and two new engines and apparatus halls have been fitted up.—Scientific American.
Wireless Waves.—In recent tests carried out in Washington, D. C, for the purpose of determining the law of the variation of strength of signal with distance, it was found that over salt water the electrical waves decrease in intensity in proportion to the distance as found by Duddell and Taylor. In addition they are subject to an absorption which varies with the wave length. This is true in general for day transmission. The absorption at night is entirely irregular, varying from zero to the day value, but is on an average much less during winter than in summer. The received antenna currents between two stations with salt water between are proportional to the product of the heights of the sending and receiving antennas and inversely proportional to the wave length, provided the antenna resistances remain constant. These experiments were made with flat-top antenna heights of from thirty to eighty feet and wave lengths of from approximately 1500 to 4000 meters.—The Navy.
Training of Midshipmen.—Fewer Ship Changes.—The Admiralty have had under review the system of the appointment of midshipmen laid down in Admiralty letter issued May, 1910. Experience has shown that the transfer of midshipmen from one ship to another at the end of their first and second years' training, together with the normal changes of ship due to recommissioning, refit, etc., have resulted in the young officers serving for so short a period in any one ship that their value as an integral part of the ship's complement and their training afloat are apt to be seriously prejudiced. Accordingly, the Admiralty will endeavor to arrange for midshipmen to remain in the ships to which they are appointed until the end of the commission or until they are due for examination for the rank of lieutenant. Midshipmen will be appointed to such ships as are allowed midshipmen by complement so far as the numbers permit, and all appointments will be made by the Admiralty. The procedure whereby appointments to "B" ships arc made by commanders-in-chief will be discontinued.
The Admiralty consider it desirable that midshipmen should continue to be lent to the smaller cruisers or destroyers in small numbers and for short periods, and commanders-in-chief are authorized to make arrangements for this whenever a suitable opportunity arises. The midshipmen should be lent only, and should return to their parent ships, and the total period in their three years' service during which they are so lent should not exceed three to four months.—Army and Navy Gazette.
The Education of Naval Officers.—Mr. Sanders, on behalf of Lord C. Beresford, asked the First Lord of the Admiralty on the 16th inst, whether the system of education for officers inaugurated in 1902 was satisfactory in every particular; whether he was aware that the Admiralty memorandum of 1902 stated that officers having attained the rank of sub-lieutenant, specialization should begin and should be definite and final, that the committee appointed to consider the subject under Admiral Sir Archibald Douglas in 1905 stated that there would be no need for a final division into three branches, that specialization for a period only was necessary; whether the entry of marine officers from outside on the same principle as before the Admiralty memorandum of 1902 had now been determined upon, and, if so, whether he would state how many marine officers had joined under the old system and how many under the new; whether upwards of 1500 cadets and midshipmen had already entered under the new system, of whom each, according to his merits, would have an opportunity of becoming an Admiral of the Fleet or filling the office of First Sea Lord of the Admiralty; and if he would state to the House whether the Admiralty had abolished specialization or whether they had not abolished it, and so make the question clear to those hundreds of families who gave their sons to the service of the country.
Mr. Churchill: The answer to the first part of the question is in the affirmative so far as the main lines of the scheme are concerned, but experience has shown that some modification in details is required. The answer to the second part of the question is in the affirmative. As regards the third part, the direct entry of marine officers has been determined upon as supplementary to the system of common entry, but the scheme of training after entry will be more comprehensive than formerly and will include instruction in naval as well as in military subjects. No marine officers have at present joined under either the old or the new scheme. The answer to the fourth part of the question is in the affirmative. As regards the last part, the policy of the Admiralty has been fully explained in circular letter No. 25 of August 14 last, which states precisely the conditions under which officers will be allowed to specialize. Engineer officers in future will belong to the military branch, and officers who specialize in engineering may or may not remain specialists within that branch throughout their career. As a general rule, officers who join the Royal Marines will remain attached to the corps throughout their whole career.—United Service Gazette.
Exhibition of the American Red Cross Society.—The American Red Cross desires again to invite attention to the exhibition in connection with the Ninth International Red Cross Conference, which will be held in Washington, D. C., from May 7 to 17, 1912.
The exhibition will be divided into two sections, which will be styled Marie Feodorovna and General. The former is a prize competition, with prizes aggregating 18,000 rubles, or approximately $9000, divided into nine prizes, one of 6000 rubles, approximately $3000; two of 3000 rubles each, and six of 1000 rubles each.
The subjects of this competition are as follows:
- A scheme for the removal of wounded from the battlefield with the minimum number of stretcher bearers.
- Portable (surgeons') washstands, for use in the field.
- The best method of packing dressings for use at first aid and dressing stations.
- Wheeled stretchers.
- Transport of stretchers on mule back.
- Easily folding portable stretchers.
- Transport of the wounded between warships and hospital ships, and the coast.
- The best method of heating railway cars by a system independent of steam from the locomotive.
- The best model of portable Roentgen apparatus, permitting utilization of X-rays on the battlefield and at first aid stations.
The maximum prize will be awarded to the best exhibit, irrespective of the subject, and so on.
The General Exhibit is again divided into two parts; the first will be an exhibition by the various Red Cross Associations of the world. The second will be devoted to exhibits by individuals or business houses of any articles haying to do with the amelioration of the sufferings of sick and wounded in war, which are not covered by the Marie Feodorovna Prize Competition for the year. While the American Red Cross will be glad to have any articles pertaining to medical and surgical practice in the field, it is especially anxious to secure a full exhibit relating to preventive measures in campaign. Such articles will be classified as follows:
- Apparatus for furnishing good water in the field.
- Field apparatus for the disposal of wastes.
- Shelter such as portable huts, tents and the like, for hospital purposes.
- Transport apparatus (to prevent the suffering of sick and wounded) exclusive of such apparatus as specified for the Marie Feodorovna Prize Competition.
As with the Marie Feodorovna Prize Competition, for this country only articles having the approval of the Central Committee of the American Red Cross will be accepted.
Diplomas will be awarded for exhibits in this section of the exhibition as approved and recommended by the jury.
Further information may be obtained from the Chairman, Exhibition Committee, American Red Cross, Washington, D. C.
It is perhaps to apparatus having to do with prevention of disease in armies that the energies of Americans have been specially directed since the Spanish-American War. Therefore, the last-mentioned section of the exhibition should make an appeal to them.
Aviation Night Signal.—A night signal of the kind that aviators will need in the future is now being used at the Treptow Observatory, near Berlin, In connection with atmospheric experiments. It consists of a crimson balloon, a little more than three yards in diameter, carrying an electric light in its center and a hygrometer, or instrument for measuring atmospheric changes, attached to a bell. The wires of the electric light are used as the guide rope of the balloon. When the balloon is sent up to a level free of fog, the registering instrument communicates with the bell, and thus the balloon's arrival in clear air is announced to those who are working it from the ground. These balloons are easily visible at night, and can be readily distinguished from other sources of illumination.—United Service Gazette.
War Office Competition.—A tremendous impetus should be given to aeroplane construction by the War Office competition. The conditions appear to have been drawn up with exceptional skill and taken together they form an exacting proposition which, if the prize money is to be worthily won will call for a considerable improvement upon anything which has been hitherto attained. An important condition is that the machine must carry a live load of 350 pounds in addition to its equipment of instruments, etc., with fuel and oil for 4 ½ hours. Under these conditions it must fly for 3 hours and maintain an altitude of 4500 feet for 1 hour, the first 1000 feet being attained at the rate of 200 feet a minute, although a rate of rise of 300 feet per minute is specified as desirable. Loaded as described, it must attain a speed of not less than 55 miles per hour in a cairn. Among other attributes of great importance from a military point of view is the fitting of an effective silencer and the manipulation of the engine by the pilot alone. Flexibility of speed is very properly to receive attention, and among other conditions of great importance one notes stability and suitability for use in bad weather.—Page's Weekly.
Specification for a Military Aeroplane.—The following conditions are those required to be fulfilled by a military aeroplane:
- Be delivered in a packing case suitable for transport by rail, and not exceeding 32 feet by 9 feet by 9 feet. The case must be fitted with eyebolts to facilitate handling.
- Carry a live load of 350 pounds in addition to its equipment of instruments, etc., with fuel and oil for 4 ½ hours.
- Fly for 3 hours loaded as in Clause 2, and maintain an altitude of 4500 feet for 1 hour, the first 1000 feet being attained at the rate of zoo feet a minute, although a rate of rise of 300 feet per minute is desirable.
- Attain a speed of not less than 55 miles per hour in a calm (loaded as in Clause 2).
- Plane down to the ground in a calm from not more than 1000 feet with engine stopped, during which time a horizontal distance of not less than 6000 feet must be traversed before touching.
- Rise without damage from long grass, clover, or harrowed land in 100 yards in a calm, loaded as in Clause 2.
- Land without damage on any cultivated ground, including rough plough, in a calm, loaded as in Clause 2, and pull up within 75 yards of the point at which it first touches the ground when landing on smooth turf in a calm. It must be capable of being steered when running slowly on the ground.
- Be capable of change from flying trim to road transport trim, and travel either on its own wheels or on a trolley on the road; width not to exceed 10 feet.
- Provide accommodation for a pilot and observer, and the controls must be capable of use either by pilot or observer.
- The pilot and observer's view of the country below them to front and flanks must be as open as possible, and they should be shielded from the wind, and able to communicate with one another.
- All parts of aeroplane must be strictly interchangeable. like parts with one another and with spares from stock.
- The maker shall accurately supply the following particulars, which will be verified by official test:
- The horse-power and the speed given on the bench by the engine in a six hours' run.
- The engine weight, complete (general arrangement drawing), and whether air or water-cooled.
- The intended flying speed.
- The gliding angle.
- Weight of entire machine.
- Fuel consumption per hour at declared horse-power.
- Oil consumption per hour at declared horse-power.
- Capacity of tanks.
- The engine must be capable of being started up by the pilot alone.
- Other desirable attributes are:
- Stand still with engine running without being held. Engine preferably capable of being started from on board.
- Effective silencer fitted to engine.
- Strain on pilot as small as possible.
- Flexibility of speed; to allow of landings and observations being made at slow speeds if required, while reserving a high acceleration for work in strong winds.
- Good glider, with a wide range of safe angles of descent, to allow of choice of landing places in case of engine failure.
- It is desirable that the time and number of men required for the change from flying trim to road trim, or packed for transport by rail, and vice versa, should be small, and these will be considered in judging the machine. The time for changing from road trim and packed condition to flying trim to include up to the moment of leaving the ground in flight, allowance being made for difficulty in starting engine.
- Stability and suitability for use in bad weather and in a wind averaging 25 miles per hour 30 feet from the ground without undue risk to the pilot. Stability in flight is of great importance.
- The packing case for rail transport to be easily dismantled and assembled for use, and when dismantled should occupy a small space for storage.—Engineering.
The Aeroplane in War.—One of the most interesting features of last summer's military maneuvers in France, and also of the conflict in Tripoli, is the lesson they have given of the influence of the aeroplane in war. Briefly, it has been found that it is impossible to conceal any movements from an enemy possessing a force of aeroplanes. The effect of this will be most far reaching, and it is interesting to speculate on the results.
If we assume that two armies are of fairly equal numbers and equally well supplied with information by their aeroplanes, it seems that it is possible for a sort of stalemate to ensue. Normally, one army would attack the other, massing a sufficient number of troops at the decisive point to give it a large numerical superiority there. It is now generally admitted that it is useless to attack, at a given point, an army supplied with modern long-range weapons unless there is a very great numerical superiority at that point. Such massing of troops, however, absolutely depends on keeping the enemy in ignorance of the intended movements, for if they are aware of the number and position of the troops moved, they can equally well mass troops for the defence. It seems quite possible, therefore, that neither side could dare to take decisive action. It is, however, not the least likely that any two armies would be equally well supplied with information by their aeroplane corps. Just as one army is usually able to penetrate or force back the cavalry screen of the other, and to obtain valuable information, so one army, by dint of superior forces of airmen, or by greater daring, will generally be better supplied with information than the other, and will have a proportionate advantage.
It is, however, quite possible, in fact probable, that the matter may go much further than this. It appears to be assumed by many writers that each side will allow the other to use aeroplanes for reconnoitering purposes without any opposition, save that which can be offered by shooting at them from the earth. This, however, is to ignore all the teaching of history. The art of war lie's greatly in anticipating the enemy's movements, either by intuition or by obtaining information, and also in leading him to form incorrect opinions as to the locus of the attack to be made on him. Wellington said that he had spent his military life in guessing what was happening on the other side of the hill. The principles of strategy are constant, and it is certain that no commander can ever hope for success who tamely views his opponent inspecting his lines and makes no effort to frustrate him. Just as every battle has hitherto been preceded with skirmishes of outposts, followed by an artillery duel, so in the future there will be fights in the air before the men on the ground come into contact. The side with the greatest force of aeroplanes will never let an enemy's machine fly over their own position without sending a superior force of aeroplanes to capture or destroy it. As defeat in the air means certain death, it may be presumed that in many cases surrender would be preferred, and in this case a very short time would see one side in possession of complete command of the air, and therefore able to get all the information it required without allowing the enemy to get any.
This might in itself render even a very large army perfectly helpless, as every endeavor to advance would only lead it into carefully prepared positions. On the other hand, the smaller army could always find out the weak points to attack. If the numerical superiority of the enemy were too great for attack to be made at all, stalemate might result; but it must be remembered that huge armies cannot be kept in the field indefinitely, owing to the enormous expense, and to the fact that calling put all the reserves means the withdrawal of the workmen from the various productive industries of the country. Unless such an army can attack, it must be eventually disbanded, and peace made on the best terms obtainable.
While this is all we may, perhaps, expect at the present time, the rapid progress of the aeroplane makes it interesting to speculate on the results of an equally rapid increase in its efficiency in the future. The money hitherto expended in constructing aeroplanes has been measured in thousands, but if this were increased to a very few millions, it is quite possible that in the near future aerial fleets capable of carrying several thousand men with light guns and a supply of explosives could be produced. In the face of such a force any army without aeroplanes would be useless, for it would be unable to keep up its communications. In fact, it would be unable even to protect its base. The aerial fleet could roam about the country at will destroying the railways, telegraphs, and other means of communication. The recent railway strike has shown us what the interruption of railway communication means even for a few days, and it is quite certain that a very short spell of it would reduce any country to making peace.
It is of the utmost importance that we should thoroughly appreciate the importance of these points. Owing to the smallness of our population, and the fact that we do not have conscription, it is quite impossible for us to keep up a huge army as do the Continental powers. We have hitherto kept command of the sea, and it is now becoming equally important to have complete command of the air. It is therefore high time that we determined that we will do so, and that, however many aeroplanes any other power builds, we will build more, just as we do with the ships. Further, that however many men any other power trains to flying; we will train more. We have plenty of men who would make as good, or better, flying men than any if it were made worth their while; but we must have a really good government school and flying ground, and reasonably good pay must be given. It is also necessary that constructors should be encouraged to put up factories in England at which aeroplanes can be turned out in numbers, to provide for the wastage of war.
We therefore welcome, as a preliminary to more important developments, the fact that the War Office have published the conditions of a competition for aeroplanes, to be held about the middle of next year. As we have already said, it is undoubtedly high time that something was done to encourage military aviation in this country, and we are therefore very glad that this competition has been decided upon.
A list of the prizes offered, and a statement of the conditions of the competition, are printed on page 840 of the present issue, and it is unnecessary, therefore, to repeat them here. Taking them all round, these conditions appear very fair. It is, however, to be regretted that more money is not being spent on prizes for British-made machines, and that there appears to be no encouragement to the use of British engines. It is just as important that we should build our military aeroplanes in this country as our fighting ships, and therefore the sooner a substantial amount of money is spent on fostering the industry the better.
With regard to the technical conditions there appears to be little fault to find. There are, however, several points which may entail a good deal of modification in existing machines. Thus it is not at all certain that the landing chassis of the ordinary aeroplane will comply with the conditions laid down as to alighting and starting on rough ground. There is no doubt that in this matter many machines are capable of a great deal of improvement. We have before commented on this and on the very small wheels generally fitted. If the standard wheels will not comply with the conditions, however, it seems likely that the principal alteration required will be an increase in the size of the wheels, or some modification of the skids.
The requirement that the aeroplane shall carry two persons, and that it shall be capable of being controlled by either, may necessitate some modification of existing machines, but this will not be great. The condition that the view of the country should be as open as possible both to the pilot and to the observer may not be easy to fulfill in some types, especially when taken in conjunction with the stipulation that the men are to be shielded from the wind. The usual position occupied by the pilot in a monoplane complies with the latter condition very well, but not altogether with the former. On the other hand, the position of the pilot at the front edge of the front plane in a biplane affords an excellent view, but exposes him to the wind. It appears possible that the best view of any would be obtained from a monoplane with the wings set out about a foot from the body. The .increased stress due to this would be very small, and the view in every direction very good. There may, of course, be some practical objection to this plan, but it seems worth a trial.
If the condition that the engine must be capable of being started by the pilot alone means that he must be able to set it in rotation without assistance in holding the aeroplane, it implies either some form of anchorage or else brakes sufficient to prevent the machine from moving. Possibly the latter will be necessary to ensure stopping in the space specified. There does not seem to be any theoretical difficulty in fitting brakes to hold the machine with the engine running. If it be preferred not to have these, it would be quite easy to arrange for an anchorage with a trip-gear to release the aeroplane when required.
While there appears to be little to criticize in the conditions, it is perhaps a pity that a definite date for the competition was not announced, so that competitors should know exactly when their machines are to be ready. There is also no indication of what relative importance will be attached to the various points. Probably this is wise, as it leaves the committee a freer hand in their awards, and it is only by experience that the relative importance of different features can be ascertained.—Engineering.